Chemistry:Thyroid's secretory capacity

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Thyroid's secretory capacity
Medical diagnostics
Reference ranges for TSH, FT4, JTI and SPINA-GT
Reference ranges for SPINA-GT and other thyroid function tests
SynonymsSPINA-GT, GT, T4 output, thyroid hormone output, thyroid's incretory capacity, functional thyroid capacity[1]
Reference range1.41–8.67 pmol/s
Test ofMaximum amount of T4 produced by the thyroid in one second
MeSHD013960
LOINC82368-2

Thyroid's secretory capacity (GT, also referred to as thyroid's incretory capacity, maximum thyroid hormone output, T4 output or, if calculated from serum levels of thyrotropin and thyroxine, as SPINA-GT[lower-alpha 1]) is the maximum stimulated amount of thyroxine that the thyroid can produce in a given time-unit (e.g. one second).[2][3]

How to determine GT

Experimentally, GT can be determined by stimulating the thyroid with a high thyrotropin concentration (e.g. by means of rhTSH, i.e. recombinant human thyrotropin) and measuring its output in terms of T4 production, or by measuring the serum concentration of protein-bound iodine-131 after administration of radioiodine.[4] These approaches are, however, costly and accompanied by significant exposure to radiation.[5]

In vivo, GT can also be estimated from equilibrium levels of TSH and T4 or free T4. In this case it is calculated with

[math]\displaystyle{ \hat G_T = {{\beta _T (D_T + [TSH])(1 + K_{41} [TBG] + K_{42} [TBPA])[FT_4 ]} \over {\alpha _T [TSH]}} }[/math]

or

[math]\displaystyle{ \hat G_T = {{\beta _T (D_T + [TSH])[TT_4 ]} \over {\alpha _T [TSH]}} }[/math]

[TSH]: Serum thyrotropin concentration (in mIU/L or μIU/mL)
[FT4]: Serum free T4 concentration (in pmol/L)
[TT4]: Serum total T4 concentration (in nmol/L)
[math]\displaystyle{ \hat G_T }[/math]: Theoretical (apparent) secretory capacity (SPINA-GT)
[math]\displaystyle{ \alpha _T }[/math]: Dilution factor for T4 (reciprocal of apparent volume of distribution, 0.1 L−1)
[math]\displaystyle{ \beta _T }[/math]: Clearance exponent for T4 (1.1e-6 sec−1), i. e., reaction rate constant for degradation
K41: Binding constant T4-TBG (2e10 L/mol)
K42: Binding constant T4-TBPA (2e8 L/mol)
DT: EC50 for TSH (2.75 mU/L)[2][6]

The method is based on mathematical models of thyroid homeostasis.[2][3] Calculating the secretory capacity with one of these equations is an inverse problem. Therefore, certain conditions (e.g. stationarity) have to be fulfilled to deliver a reliable result.

Specific secretory capacity

The ratio of SPINA-GT and thyroid volume VT (as determined e.g. by ultrasonography)

[math]\displaystyle{ \hat{G}_{TS}=\frac{\hat{G}_{T}}{{V}_{T}} }[/math],

i.e.

[math]\displaystyle{ \hat{G}_{TS}=\frac{\beta_{T}(D_{T}+[TSH])(1+K_{41}[TBG]+K_{ 42 }[TBPA])[FT_{4}]}{{\alpha_{T}[TSH]{V}_{T}}} }[/math]

or

[math]\displaystyle{ \hat{G}_{TS}=\frac{{{\beta_{T}(D_{T}+[TSH])[TT_{4}]}}}{{\alpha_{T}[TSH]{V}_{T}}} }[/math]

is referred to as specific thyroid capacity (SPINA-GTs).[7] It is a measure for how much one millilitre of thyroid tissue can produce under conditions of maximum stimulation. Thereby, SPINA-GTs is an estimate for the endocrine quality of thyroid tissue.[citation needed]

Reference Range

SPINA-GT percentiles
Percentiles for thyroid's secretory capacity (SPINA-GT) along with reference ranges for Jostel's TSH index (TSHI or JTI) and univariable reference ranges for thyrotropin (TSH) and free thyroxine (FT4), shown in the two-dimensional phase plane defined by serum concentrations of TSH and FT4.
Lower limit Upper limit Unit
1.41[2] 8.67[2] pmol/s

The equations and their parameters are calibrated for adult humans with a body mass of 70 kg and a plasma volume of ca. 2.5 L.[2]

Clinical significance

Validity

SPINA-GT is elevated in primary hyperthyroidism[8][9] and reduced in both primary hypothyroidism[10][11][12][9] and untreated autoimmune thyroiditis.[13] It has been observed to correlate (with positive direction) to resting energy expenditure,[14] resting heart rate,[15] the colour Doppler ultrasound pattern[16] and thyroid volume,[2][7] and (with negative direction) to thyroid autoantibody titres, which reflect organ destruction due to autoimmunity.[17] Elevated SPINA-GT in Graves' disease is reversible with antithyroid treatment.[14] While SPINA-GT is significantly altered in primary thyroid disorders, it is insensitive to disorders of secondary nature (e.g. pure pituitary diseases).[3]

Reliability

In silico experiments with Monte Carlo simulations demonstrated that both SPINA-GT and SPINA-GD can be estimated with sufficient reliability, even if laboratory assays have limited accuracy.[3] This was confirmed by longitudinal in vivo studies that showed that GT has lower intraindividual variation (i.e. higher reliability) than TSH, FT4 or FT3.[18]

Clinical utility

In clinical trials SPINA-GT was significantly elevated in patients with Graves' disease and toxic adenoma compared to normal subjects.[2][8][19] It is also elevated in diffuse and nodular goiters, and reduced in untreated autoimmune thyroiditis.[2][13] In patients with toxic adenoma it has higher specificity and positive likelihood ratio for diagnosis of thyrotoxicosis than serum concentrations of thyrotropin, free T4 or free T3.[2] GT's specificity is also high in thyroid disorders of secondary or tertiary origin.[3]

Calculating SPINA-GT has proved to be useful in challenging clinical situations, e.g. for differential diagnosis of subclinical hypothyroidism and elevated TSH concentration due to type 2 allostatic load (as it is typical for obesity and certain psychiatric diseases). For this purpose, its usage has been recommended in sociomedical assessment.[20]

Pathophysiological and therapeutic implications

In patients suffering from toxic adenoma, toxic multinodular goitre and Graves’ disease SPINA-GT significantly decreases due to radioiodine therapy.[19]

Correlation of SPINA-GT with creatinine clearance suggests a negative influence of uremic toxins on thyroid biology.[21][22] In the initial phase of major non-thyroidal illness syndrome (NTIS) SPINA-GT may be temporarily elevated.[23][24] In chronic NTIS[25] as well as in certain non-critical chronic diseases, e.g. chronic fatigue syndrome[26][27] or asthma[28] SPINA-GT is slightly reduced.

According to the results of a community-based study in China it was associated to sleep duration and exercise habits.[29] With respect to iodine supply, it showed a complex U-shaped pattern, being reduced in subjects consuming iodine-rich food, but elevated in situations of iodine excess.[29] In two other studies from China, SPINA-GT correlated with negative direction to markers of obesity including body mass index, waist circumference and waist to hip ratio.[30][31] This doesn't seem to be the case, however, in Western populations.[32]

In women, therapy with Metformin results in increased SPINA-GT, in parallel to improved insulin sensitivity.[33][34] This observation was reproducible in men with hypogonadism, but not in men with normal testosterone concentrations,.[35] In postmenopausal women this effect was only observed in subjects on oestradiol replacement therapy.[36] Therefore, the described phenomenon seems to depend on an interaction of metformin with sex hormones.[35][37] In hyperthyroid[8] men both SPINA-GT and SPINA-GD negatively correlate to erectile function, intercourse satisfaction, orgasmic function and sexual desire. Likewise, in women with thyrotoxicosis elevated thyroid's secretory capacity predicts depression and sexual dysfunction.[38] Conversely, in androgen-deficient men with concomitant autoimmune thyroiditis, substitution therapy with testosterone leads to a decrease in thyroid autoantibody titres and an increase in SPINA-GT.[39]

SPINA-GT is reduced in persons suffering from hidradenitis suppurativa compared to healthy controls with the same sex and age distribution.[40] This phenomenon has been ascribed to B-cell-mediated hypothyroidism, i.e. hypothyroid Graves' disease due to inhibiting TSH receptor autoantibodies (iTRAb).[40]

In patients with autoimmune thyroiditis a gluten-free diet results in increased SPINA-GT (in parallel to sinking autoantibody titres).[41] Statin therapy has the same effect, but only if supply with vitamin D is sufficient.[42] Accordingly, substitution therapy with 25-hydroxyvitamin D leads to rising secretory capacity.[43][44][45][46] This effect is potentiated by substitution therapy with myo-inositol[47] and selenomethionine[43][44][48] or, in women, with dehydroepiandrosterone,[49] but impaired in males with early-onset androgenic alopecia.[50] The effects of vitamin D and selenomethionine are attenuated in hyperprolactinaemia, suggesting an inhibitory effect of prolactin.[51] Although both vitamin D supplementation and gluten-free diet result in increased SPINA-GT, there seems to be a complex interaction between both therapeutic measures, since vitamin D treatment is only able to elevate the thyroid's secretory capacity in subjects not following any dietary recommendation.[52]

On the other hand, men treated with spironolactone are faced with decreasing SPINA-GT (in addition to rising thyroid antibody titres).[53] It has, therefore, been concluded that spironolactone may aggravate thyroid autoimmunity in men.[53]

In subjects with type 2 diabetes, treatment with beta blockers resulted in decreased SPINA-GT, suggesting sympathetic innervation to contribute to the control of thyroid function.[54] In diabetic women, but not in men, SPINA-GT shows a positive correlation to the β-C-terminal cross-linked telopeptides of type I collagen (β-CTX), a marker of bone resorption.[55] In both diabetic and non-diabetic persons it correlates (negatively) with age and (positively) with the concentrations of troponin T and HbA1c.[56]

A study in euthyroid subjects with structural heart disease found that increased SPINA-GT predicts the risk of malignant arrhythmia including ventricular fibrillation and ventricular tachycardia.[57] This applies to both incidence and event-free survival.[57] Likewise, SPINA-GT is elevated in a significant subgroup of patients with takotsubo syndrome.[58] A stress-mediated effect on SPINA-GT is also suggested by the observation that it is increased in persons with a history of psychological trauma.[59] On the other hand, two studies found negative correlation between SPINA-GT and markers of dispersion in cardiac repolarisation, including Tp-e interval, JT interval, Tp-e/ QT ratio and Tp-e/QTc ratio. These results suggest that reduced thyroid function may trigger cardiovascular mortality as well.[60][9]

Among subjects with Parkinson's disease, SPINA-GT is significantly elevated in tremor-dominant and mixed subtypes compared to the akinetic-rigid type.[61]

Specific secretory capacity (SPINA-GTs) is reduced in obesity[2] and autoimmune thyroiditis.[7][62]

Endocrine disruptors may affect stimulated thyroid output, as demonstrated by a positive correlation of SPINA-GT with exposure to 2-hydroxynaphthalene (2-NAP),[63] urinary mercury concentration[64] and the excretion of certain phthalate metabolites,[65] and negative correlation with combined exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)[63] and nickel.[66] Additionally, SPINA-GT was altered in young people exposed to butylparaben.[67]

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ SPINA is an acronym for "structure parameter inference approach".

References

  1. ↑ Hoermann, R; Midgley, JEM; Larisch, R; Dietrich, JW (4 August 2021). "Treatment options for subclinical hypothyroidism.". European Journal of Endocrinology 185 (3): L5–L6. doi:10.1530/EJE-20-1405. PMID 34243143. 
  2. ↑ 2.00 2.01 2.02 2.03 2.04 2.05 2.06 2.07 2.08 2.09 2.10 Dietrich, J. W. (2002). Der Hypophysen-Schilddrüsen-Regelkreis. Berlin, Germany: Logos-Verlag Berlin. ISBN 978-3-89722-850-4. OCLC 50451543. 
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 Dietrich, Johannes W.; Landgrafe-Mende, Gabi; Wiora, Evelin; Chatzitomaris, Apostolos; Klein, Harald H.; Midgley, John E. M.; Hoermann, Rudolf (9 June 2016). "Calculated Parameters of Thyroid Homeostasis: Emerging Tools for Differential Diagnosis and Clinical Research". Frontiers in Endocrinology 7: 57. doi:10.3389/fendo.2016.00057. PMID 27375554. 
  4. ↑ Bierich, J. R. (1964). "Endokrinologie". in H. Wiesener. Einführung in die Entwicklungsphysiologie des Kindes. Springer. pp. 310. ISBN 978-3-642-86507-7. 
  5. ↑ Thompson, MA (June 2001). "Radiation safety precautions in the management of the hospitalized (131)I therapy patient.". Journal of Nuclear Medicine Technology 29 (2): 61–6; test 74–5. PMID 11376097. 
  6. ↑ "The AQUA-FONTIS study: protocol of a multidisciplinary, cross-sectional and prospective longitudinal study for developing standardized diagnostics and classification of non-thyroidal illness syndrome". BMC Endocrine Disorders 8 (1): 13. Oct 2008. doi:10.1186/1472-6823-8-13. PMID 18851740. 
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 Hoermann, Rudolf; Midgley, John E.M.; Larisch, Rolf; Dietrich, Johannes W. (18 August 2016). "Relational Stability of Thyroid Hormones in Euthyroid Subjects and Patients with Autoimmune Thyroid Disease". European Thyroid Journal 5 (3): 171–179. doi:10.1159/000447967. PMID 27843807. 
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 Krysiak, R; Marek, B; Okopień, B (2019). "Sexual function and depressive symptoms in men with overt hyperthyroidism.". Endokrynologia Polska 70 (1): 64–71. doi:10.5603/EP.a2018.0069. PMID 30307028. 
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 Aweimer, Assem; Schiedat, Fabian; Schöne, Dominik; Landgrafe-Mende, Gabi; Bogossian, Harilaos; Mügge, Andreas; Patsalis, Polykarpos C.; Gotzmann, Michael et al. (23 November 2021). "Abnormal Cardiac Repolarization in Thyroid Diseases: Results of an Observational Study". Frontiers in Cardiovascular Medicine 8: 738517. doi:10.3389/fcvm.2021.738517. PMID 34888359. 
  10. ↑ Dietrich, J.; Fischer, M.; Jauch, J.; Pantke, E.; Gärtner, R.; Pickardt, C. R.. "SPINA-THYR: A Novel Systems Theoretic Approach to Determine the Secretion Capacity of the Thyroid Gland". European Journal of Internal Medicine 10 (Suppl. 1): S34. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233529705. 
  11. ↑ Dietrich JW (Sep 2012). "Thyroid storm". Medizinische Klinik, Intensivmedizin und Notfallmedizin 107 (6): 448–53. doi:10.1007/s00063-012-0113-2. PMID 22878518. 
  12. ↑ Wang, X; Liu, H; Chen, J; Huang, Y; Li, L; Rampersad, S; Qu, S (21 April 2016). "Metabolic Characteristics in Obese Patients Complicated by Mild Thyroid Hormone Deficiency". Hormone and Metabolic Research 48 (5): 331–7. doi:10.1055/s-0042-105150. PMID 27101096. 
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 Hoermann, R; Midgley, JEM; Larisch, R; Dietrich, JW (19 July 2018). "The Role of Functional Thyroid Capacity in Pituitary Thyroid Feedback Regulation". European Journal of Clinical Investigation 48 (10): e13003. doi:10.1111/eci.13003. PMID 30022470. 
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 Kim, Min Joo; Cho, Sun Wook; Choi, Sumin; Ju, Dal Lae; Park, Do Joon; Park, Young Joo (2018). "Changes in Body Compositions and Basal Metabolic Rates during Treatment of Graves' Disease". International Journal of Endocrinology 2018: 9863050. doi:10.1155/2018/9863050. PMID 29853888. 
  15. ↑ Steinberger, Eva; Pilz, Stefan; Trummer, Christian; Theiler-Schwetz, Verena; Reichhartinge, Markus; Benninger, Thomas; Pandis, Marlene; Malle, Oliver et al. (4 September 2020). "Associations of Thyroid Hormones and Resting Heart Rate in Patients Referred to Coronary Angiography". Hormone and Metabolic Research 52 (12): a–1232–7292. doi:10.1055/a-1232-7292. PMID 32886945. 
  16. ↑ Zhang, Lingyun; Li, Jie; Zhang, Suzhen; Su, Chen; Su, Zengcun; Zhang, Yuezhong; Gai, Yonghao; Shao, Shanshan et al. (30 July 2022). "Study of the Associations between Color Doppler Ultrasound Grading of Hyperthyroidism and Biochemical Data on Thyroid Function". International Journal of Endocrinology 2022: 1–6. doi:10.1155/2022/9743654. PMID 35942151. 
  17. ↑ Krysiak, R; Kowalcze, K; Okopień, B (20 May 2019). "The Effect of Selenomethionine on Thyroid Autoimmunity in Euthyroid Men With Hashimoto Thyroiditis and Testosterone Deficiency.". Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 59 (11): 1477–1484. doi:10.1002/jcph.1447. PMID 31106856. 
  18. ↑ "TSH and Thyrotropic Agonists: Key Actors in Thyroid Homeostasis". Journal of Thyroid Research 2012: 351864. 2012. doi:10.1155/2012/351864. PMID 23365787. 
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 Larisch, R; Midgley, JEM; Dietrich, JW; Hoermann, R (23 January 2024). "Effect of Radioiodine Treatment on Quality of Life in Patients with Subclinical Hyperthyroidism: A Prospective Controlled Study.". Nuklearmedizin. Nuclear Medicine. doi:10.1055/a-2240-8087. PMID 38262472. 
  20. ↑ Dietrich, Johannes W.; Schifferdecker, Ekkehard; Schatz, Helmut; Klein, Harald (2022). "Endokrine und Stoffwechseldiagnostik". Die Ärztliche Begutachtung. Springer Reference Medizin. pp. 1–13. doi:10.1007/978-3-662-61937-7_83-1. ISBN 978-3-662-61937-7. 
  21. ↑ "Influence of low protein diet on nonthyroidal illness syndrome in chronic renal failure". Endocrine 27 (3): 283–8. Aug 2005. doi:10.1385/endo:27:3:283. PMID 16230785. 
  22. ↑ Yang, S; Lai, S; Wang, Z; Liu, A; Wang, W; Guan, H (December 2021). "Thyroid Feedback Quantile-based Index correlates strongly to renal function in euthyroid individuals.". Annals of Medicine 53 (1): 1945–1955. doi:10.1080/07853890.2021.1993324. PMID 34726096. 
  23. ↑ "Nonthyroidal Illness Syndrome: is it Far Away From Crohn's Disease?". Journal of Clinical Gastroenterology 47 (2): 153–9. 2013. doi:10.1097/MCG.0b013e318254ea8a. PMID 22874844. 
  24. ↑ Wan, S; Yang, J; Gao, X; Zhang, L; Wang, X (22 July 2020). "Nonthyroidal Illness Syndrome in Patients With Short-Bowel Syndrome.". Journal of Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition 45 (5): 973–981. doi:10.1002/jpen.1967. PMID 32697347. 
  25. ↑ Dietrich, J. W.; Ackermann, A.; Kasippillai, A.; Kanthasamy, Y.; Tharmalingam, T.; Urban, A.; Vasileva, S.; Schildhauer, T. A. et al. (19 September 2019). "Adaptive Veränderungen des Schilddrüsenstoffwechsels als Risikoindikatoren bei Traumata". Trauma und Berufskrankheit 21 (4): 260–267. doi:10.1007/s10039-019-00438-z. 
  26. ↑ Ruiz-Núñez, Begoña; Tarasse, Rabab; Vogelaar, Emar F.; Janneke Dijck-Brouwer, D. A.; Muskiet, Frits A. J. (20 March 2018). "Higher Prevalence of "Low T3 Syndrome" in Patients With Chronic Fatigue Syndrome: A Case–Control Study". Frontiers in Endocrinology 9: 97. doi:10.3389/fendo.2018.00097. PMID 29615976. 
  27. ↑ Sun, Q; Oltra, E; Dijck-Brouwer, DAJ; Chillon, TS; Seemann, P; Asaad, S; Demircan, K; Espejo-Oltra, JA et al. (3 July 2023). "Autoantibodies to selenoprotein P in chronic fatigue syndrome suggest selenium transport impairment and acquired resistance to thyroid hormone.". Redox Biology 65: 102796. doi:10.1016/j.redox.2023.102796. PMID 37423160. 
  28. ↑ Bingyan, Zhan; Dong, Wei (7 July 2019). "Impact of thyroid hormones on asthma in older adults". Journal of International Medical Research 47 (9): 4114–4125. doi:10.1177/0300060519856465. PMID 31280621. 
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 Wu, Kejun; Zhou, Yu; Ke, Sujie; Huang, Jingze; Gao, Xuelin; Li, Beibei; Lin, Xiaoying; Liu, Xiaohong et al. (December 2021). "Lifestyle is associated with thyroid function in subclinical hypothyroidism: a cross-sectional study". BMC Endocrine Disorders 21 (1): 112. doi:10.1186/s12902-021-00772-z. PMID 34049544. 
  30. ↑ Zhou, Yu; Ke, Sujie; Wu, Kejun; Huang, Jingze; Gao, Xuelin; Li, Beibei; Lin, Xiaoying; Liu, Xiaohong et al. (2021-05-29). "Correlation between Thyroid Homeostasis and Obesity in Subclinical Hypothyroidism: Community-Based Cross-Sectional Research". International Journal of Endocrinology 2021: 1–7. doi:10.1155/2021/6663553. PMID 34135958. 
  31. ↑ Yang, L; Sun, X; Tao, H; Zhao, Y (February 2023). "The association between thyroid homeostasis parameters and obesity in subjects with euthyroidism.". Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology 74 (1). doi:10.26402/jpp.2023.1.07. PMID 37245234. 
  32. ↑ Ittermann, T; Markus, MRP; Bahls, M; Felix, SB; Steveling, A; Nauck, M; Völzke, H; Dörr, M (2021-05-18). "Low serum TSH levels are associated with low values of fat-free mass and body cell mass in the elderly.". Scientific Reports 11 (1): 10547. doi:10.1038/s41598-021-90178-7. PMID 34006958. Bibcode: 2021NatSR..1110547I. 
  33. ↑ Krysiak, R; Szkróbka, W; Okopień, B (June 2018). "Sex-Dependent Effect of Metformin on Serum Prolactin Levels In Hyperprolactinemic Patients With Type 2 Diabetes: A Pilot Study.". Experimental and Clinical Endocrinology & Diabetes 126 (6): 342–348. doi:10.1055/s-0043-122224. PMID 29169197. 
  34. ↑ Krysiak, R; Kowalcze, K; Okopień, B (5 December 2023). "Impact of metformin on hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid axis activity in women with autoimmune and non-autoimmune subclinical hypothyroidism: a pilot study.". Pharmacological Reports. doi:10.1007/s43440-023-00556-3. PMID 38051473. 
  35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 Krysiak, R; Szkróbka, W; Okopień, B (6 August 2019). "The Impact of Testosterone on Metformin Action on Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Thyroid Axis Activity in Men: A Pilot Study.". Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 60 (2): 164–171. doi:10.1002/jcph.1507. PMID 31389032. 
  36. ↑ Krysiak, R; Kowalcze, K; Okopień, B (November 2021). "The impact of metformin on hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid axis activity in postmenopausal women with untreated non-autoimmune subclinical hypothyroidism.". Clinical and Experimental Pharmacology & Physiology 48 (11): 1469–1476. doi:10.1111/1440-1681.13542. PMID 34145615. 
  37. ↑ Krysiak, Robert; Kowalcze, Karolina; Wolnowska, Monika; Okopień, Bogusław (5 January 2020). "The impact of oral hormonal contraception on metformin action on hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid axis activity in women with diabetes and prediabetes: A pilot study". Journal of Clinical Pharmacy and Therapeutics 45 (5): 937–945. doi:10.1111/jcpt.13105. PMID 31903641. 
  38. ↑ Krysiak, R; Kowalcze, K; Okopień, B (9 January 2019). "Sexual function and depressive symptoms in young women with overt hyperthyroidism.". European Journal of Obstetrics, Gynecology, and Reproductive Biology 234: 43–48. doi:10.1016/j.ejogrb.2018.12.035. PMID 30654201. 
  39. ↑ Krysiak, Robert; Kowalcze, Karolina; Okopień, Bogusław (10 June 2019). "The effect of testosterone on thyroid autoimmunity in euthyroid men with Hashimoto's thyroiditis and low testosterone levels". Journal of Clinical Pharmacy and Therapeutics 44 (5): 742–749. doi:10.1111/jcpt.12987. PMID 31183891. 
  40. ↑ 40.0 40.1 Abu Rached, Nessr; Dietrich, Johannes W.; Ocker, Lennart; Quast, Daniel R.; Scheel, Christina; Gambichler, Thilo; Bechara, Falk G. (4 December 2023). "Primary Thyroid Dysfunction Is Prevalent in Hidradenitis Suppurativa and Marked by a Signature of Hypothyroid Graves' Disease: A Case–Control Study". Journal of Clinical Medicine 12 (23): 7490. doi:10.3390/jcm12237490. PMID 38068542. 
  41. ↑ Krysiak, R; Szkróbka, W; Okopień, B (30 July 2018). "The Effect of Gluten-Free Diet on Thyroid Autoimmunity in Drug-Naïve Women with Hashimoto's Thyroiditis: A Pilot Study". Experimental and Clinical Endocrinology & Diabetes 127 (7): 417–422. doi:10.1055/a-0653-7108. PMID 30060266. 
  42. ↑ Krysiak, R; Szkróbka, W; Okopień, B (27 August 2018). "The Relationship Between Statin Action On Thyroid Autoimmunity And Vitamin D Status: A Pilot Study.". Experimental and Clinical Endocrinology & Diabetes 127 (1): 23–28. doi:10.1055/a-0669-9309. PMID 30149415. 
  43. ↑ 43.0 43.1 Krysiak, Robert; Szkróbka, Witold; Okopień, Bogusław (October 2018). "The effect of vitamin D and selenomethionine on thyroid antibody titers, hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid axis activity and thyroid function tests in men with Hashimoto's thyroiditis: a pilot study". Pharmacological Reports 71 (2): 243–7. doi:10.1016/j.pharep.2018.10.012. PMID 30818086. 
  44. ↑ 44.0 44.1 Krysiak, Robert; Kowalcze, Karolina; Okopień, Bogusław (December 2018). "Selenomethionine potentiates the impact of vitamin D on thyroid autoimmunity in euthyroid women with Hashimoto's thyroiditis and low vitamin D status". Pharmacological Reports 71 (2): 367–73. doi:10.1016/j.pharep.2018.12.006. PMID 30844687. 
  45. ↑ Krysiak, Robert; Kowalcze, Karolina; Okopień, Bogusław (April 2019). "The effect of vitamin D on thyroid autoimmunity in euthyroid men with autoimmune thyroiditis and testosterone deficiency". Pharmacological Reports 71 (5): 798–803. doi:10.1016/j.pharep.2019.04.010. PMID 31377561. 
  46. ↑ Krysiak, Robert; Kowalcze, Karolina; Szkróbka, Witold; Okopień, Bogusław (20 June 2023). "Sexual Function and Depressive Symptoms in Young Women with Euthyroid Hashimoto's Thyroiditis Receiving Vitamin D, Selenomethionine and Myo-Inositol: A Pilot Study". Nutrients 15 (12): 2815. doi:10.3390/nu15122815. PMID 37375719. 
  47. ↑ Krysiak, R; Kowalcze, K; Okopień, B (30 June 2022). "The impact of vitamin D on thyroid autoimmunity and hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid axis activity in myo-inositol-treated and myo-inositol-naïve women with autoimmune thyroiditis: A pilot study.". Journal of Clinical Pharmacy and Therapeutics 47 (11): 1759–1767. doi:10.1111/jcpt.13730. PMID 35775148. 
  48. ↑ Saini, Chandanvir (6 April 2021). "Autoimmune thyroiditis and multiple nutritional factors". International Journal of Endocrinology (Ukraine) 16 (8): 648–653. doi:10.22141/2224-0721.16.8.2020.222885. 
  49. ↑ Krysiak, R; Szkróbka, W; Okopień, B (February 2021). "Dehydroepiandrosterone potentiates the effect of vitamin D on thyroid autoimmunity in euthyroid women with autoimmune thyroiditis: A pilot study.". Clinical and Experimental Pharmacology & Physiology 48 (2): 195–202. doi:10.1111/1440-1681.13410. PMID 33007106. 
  50. ↑ Krysiak, R; Kowalcze, K; Okopień, B (2021-06-09). "The impact of exogenous vitamin D on thyroid autoimmunity in euthyroid men with autoimmune thyroiditis and early-onset androgenic alopecia.". Pharmacological Reports 73 (5): 1439–1447. doi:10.1007/s43440-021-00295-3. PMID 34106452. 
  51. ↑ Krysiak, R; Kowalcze, K; Okopień, B (10 July 2020). "Hyperprolactinaemia attenuates the inhibitory effect of vitamin D/selenomethionine combination therapy on thyroid autoimmunity in euthyroid women with Hashimoto's thyroiditis: A pilot study.". Journal of Clinical Pharmacy and Therapeutics 45 (6): 1334–1341. doi:10.1111/jcpt.13214. PMID 32649802. 
  52. ↑ Krysiak, R; Kowalcze, K; Okopień, B (6 October 2022). "Gluten-free diet attenuates the impact of exogenous vitamin D on thyroid autoimmunity in young women with autoimmune thyroiditis: a pilot study.". Scandinavian Journal of Clinical and Laboratory Investigation 82 (7–8): 518–524. doi:10.1080/00365513.2022.2129434. PMID 36200764. 
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  57. ↑ 57.0 57.1 Müller, Patrick; Dietrich, Johannes W.; Lin, Tina; Bejinariu, Alexandru; Binnebößel, Stephan; Bergen, Friederike; Schmidt, Jan; Müller, Sarah-Kristin et al. (January 2020). "Usefulness of Serum Free Thyroxine Concentration to Predict Ventricular Arrhythmia Risk in Euthyroid Patients with Structural Heart Disease". The American Journal of Cardiology 125 (8): 1162–1169. doi:10.1016/j.amjcard.2020.01.019. PMID 32087999. 
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Thyroid's secretory capacity



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