Comparison of multi-paradigm programming languages

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Programming paradigms

Programming languages can be grouped by the number and types of paradigms supported.

Paradigm summaries

A concise reference for the programming paradigms listed in this article.

  • Concurrent programming – have language constructs for concurrency, these may involve multi-threading, support for distributed computing, message passing, shared resources (including shared memory), or futures
    • Actor programming – concurrent computation with actors that make local decisions in response to the environment (capable of selfish or competitive behaviour)
  • Constraint programming – relations between variables are expressed as constraints (or constraint networks), directing allowable solutions (uses constraint satisfaction or simplex algorithm)
  • Dataflow programming – forced recalculation of formulas when data values change (e.g. spreadsheets)
  • Declarative programming – describes what computation should perform, without specifying detailed state changes c.f. imperative programming (functional and logic programming are major subgroups of declarative programming)
  • Distributed programming – have support for multiple autonomous computers that communicate via computer networks
  • Functional programming – uses evaluation of mathematical functions and avoids state and mutable data
  • Generic programming – uses algorithms written in terms of to-be-specified-later types that are then instantiated as needed for specific types provided as parameters
  • Imperative programming – explicit statements that change a program state
  • Logic programming – uses explicit mathematical logic for programming
  • Metaprogramming – writing programs that write or manipulate other programs (or themselves) as their data, or that do part of the work at compile time that would otherwise be done at runtime
    • Template metaprogramming – metaprogramming methods in which a compiler uses templates to generate temporary source code, which is merged by the compiler with the rest of the source code and then compiled
    • Reflective programming – metaprogramming methods in which a program modifies or extends itself
  • Object-oriented programming – uses data structures consisting of data fields and methods together with their interactions (objects) to design programs
    • Class-based – object-oriented programming in which inheritance is achieved by defining classes of objects, versus the objects themselves
    • Prototype-based – object-oriented programming that avoids classes and implements inheritance via cloning of instances
  • Pipeline programming – a simple syntax change to add syntax to nest function calls to language originally designed with none
  • Rule-based programming – a network of rules of thumb that comprise a knowledge base and can be used for expert systems and problem deduction & resolution
  • Visual programming – manipulating program elements graphically rather than by specifying them textually (e.g. Simulink); also termed diagrammatic programming[1]

Language overview

List of multi-paradigm programming languages
Language Number of paradigms Concurrent Constraints Data­flow Declarative Distributed Functional Meta­programming Generic Imperative Logic Reflection Object­oriented Pipe­lines Visual Rule-­based Other paradigms
Ada[2][3][4][5][6] 5 Yes[a 1] No No No Yes No No Yes Yes No No Yes[a 2] No No No No
ALF 2 No No No No No Yes No No No Yes No No No No No No
AmigaE style="background:#F99;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;" class="table-no"|No No No No No No No No Yes No No Yes[a 2] No No No No
APL 3 No No No No No Yes No No Yes No No No No No No Array (multi-dimensional)
BETA[citation needed] 3 No No No No No Yes No No Yes No No Yes[a 2] No No No No
C++ 7 (15) Yes[7][8][9] Library[10] Library[11][12] Library[13][14] Library[15][16] Yes Yes[17] Yes[a 3] Yes Library[18][19] Library[20] Yes[a 2] Yes[21] No Library[22] Array (multi-dimensional; using STL)
C# 6 (7) Yes No Library[a 4] No No Yes[a 5] No Yes Yes No Yes Yes[a 2] No No No reactive[a 6]
ChucK style="background:#9F9;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;" class="table-yes"|Yes No No No No No No No Yes No No Yes[a 2] No No No No
Claire 2 No No No No No Yes No No No No No Yes[a 2] No No No No
Clojure 5 Yes[23][24] No No Yes No Yes[25] Yes[26] No No Library[27] No No Yes[28] Editor[29] No Multiple dispatch,[30] Agents[31]
Common Lisp 7 (14) Library[32] Library[33] Library[34] Yes[35] Library[36] Yes Yes Yes[37] Yes Library[38] Yes Yes (multiple dispatch, method combinations)[39][a 2] Library[40] Library[41] Library[42] Multiple dispatch, meta-OOP system,[43] Language is extensible via metaprogramming.
Curl 5 No No No No No Yes No Yes[a 3] Yes No Yes Yes[a 2] No No No No
Curry 4 Yes Yes No No No Yes No No No Yes No No No No No No
D (version 2.0)[44][45] 7 Yes[a 7] No No No No Yes Yes[46][a 3] Yes[a 3] Yes No Yes Yes[a 2] No No No No
Delphi 3 No No No No No No No Yes[a 3] Yes No No Yes[a 2] No No No No
Dylan[citation needed] 3 No No No No No Yes No No No No Yes Yes[a 2] No No No No
E 3 Yes No No No Yes No No No No No No Yes[a 2] No No No No
ECMAScript[47][48] (ActionScript, E4X, JavaScript, JScript) 4 (5) partial (promises, native extensions)[a 8] No No Library[49][50] No Yes No No Yes No Yes Yes[a 9] Library[51][52] Editor[53] No reactive,[a 10][54] event driven[a 11][a 12]
Erlang 3 Yes No No Yes Yes Yes No No No No No No Yes No No No
Elixir 4 Yes No No No Yes Yes Yes No No No No No Yes No No No
Elm 6 Yes No Yes Yes No Yes (pure)[a 13] No Yes No No No No Yes No No reactive
F# 7 (8) Yes[a 7] No Library[a 4] Yes No Yes No Yes Yes No Yes Yes[a 2] No No No reactive[a 6]
Fortran 4 (5) Yes No No No No Yes[a 13] No Yes[a 14] No No No Yes[a 2] No No No Array (multi-dimensional)
Go 4 Yes No No No No No No No Yes No Yes No Yes No No No
Haskell 8 (15) Yes Library[55] Library[56] Yes Library[57] Yes (lazy) (pure)[a 13] Yes[58] Yes Yes Library[59] No Immutable Yes Yes Library[60] literate, reactive, dependent types (partial)
Io 4 Yes[a 7] No No No No Yes No No Yes No No Yes[a 9] No No No No
J[citation needed] 3 No No No No No Yes No No Yes No No Yes[a 2] No No No No
Java 6 Yes Library[61] Library[62] No No Yes No Yes Yes No Yes Yes[a 2] No No No No
Julia 9 (17) Yes Library[63] Library[64][65] Library[66] Yes Yes (eager) Yes Yes Yes Library[67] Yes Yes (multiple dispatch, not traditional single) Yes No Library[68][69] Multiple dispatch,
Array (multi-dimensional); optionally lazy[70] and reactive (with libraries)
Kotlin 8 Yes No No No No Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes Yes Yes No No No
LabVIEW 4 Yes No Yes No No No No No No No No Yes No Yes No No
Lava 2 No No No No No No No No No No No Yes[a 2] No Yes No No
LispWorks (version 6.0 with support for symmetric multi-processing, rules, logic (Prolog), CORBA) 9 Yes No No No Yes Yes Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes[a 2] No No Yes No
Lua[citation needed] 3 No No No No No Yes No No Yes No No Yes[a 9] No No No No
MATLAB 6 (10) Toolbox[71] Toolbox[72] Yes[73] No Toolbox[74] No Yes[75] Yes[76] No No Yes[77] Yes[78] No Yes[79] No Array (multi-dimensional)
Nemerle 7 Yes No No No No Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes Yes[a 2] No No No No
Object Pascal 4 Yes No No No No Yes No No Yes No No Yes[a 2] No No No No
OCaml 4 No No No No No Yes No Yes Yes No No Yes[a 2] No No No No
Oz 11 Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No No Yes Yes No Yes[a 2] Yes No Yes No
Perl style="background:#9F9;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;" class="table-yes"|Yes[80] Library[81] Yes[82] No No Yes Yes No Yes No Yes[a 2] Yes[a 2] Yes No No No
PHP[83][84][85] 4 No No No No No Yes No No Yes No Yes Yes[a 2] No No No No
Poplog 3 No No No No No Yes No No Yes Yes No No No No No No
Prograph 3 No No Yes No No No No No No No No Yes[a 2] No Yes No No
Python 5 (10) Library[86][87] Library[88] No No Library[89] Yes Yes[90][91] Yes[92][93] Yes Library[94] Yes Yes[a 2] No Editor[95] No structured
R 4 (6) Library[96] No No No Library[97] Yes No No Yes No Yes Yes Yes[98] No No Array (multi-dimensional)
Racket 10 Yes[99] Yes[100] Yes[101] No Yes[102] Yes Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes No No No Lazy[103]
Raku 10 Yes[104] Yes[105] Yes[106] No Library[107] Yes Yes[108] Yes[109] Yes No Yes[110] Yes[111] Yes No No Multiple dispatch, lazy lists, reactive.
ROOP 3 No No No No No No No No Yes Yes No No No No Yes No
Ruby 5 No No No No No Yes Yes No Yes No Yes Yes[a 2] No No No No
Rust (version 1.0.0-alpha) 6 Yes[a 7] No No No No Yes Yes[112][113] Yes[114] Yes No No Yes No No No linear, affline, and ownership types
Sather style="background:#F99;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;" class="table-no"|No No No No No Yes No No No No No Yes[a 2] No No No No
Scala[115][116] 9 Yes[a 7] No Yes[a 15] Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes Yes[a 2] No No No No
Simula style="background:#F99;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;" class="table-no"|No No No No No No No No Yes No No Yes[a 2] No No No No
SISAL 3 Yes No Yes No No Yes No No No No No No No No No No
Spreadsheets 2 No No No No No Yes No No No No No No No Yes No No
Swift 7 Yes No No No No Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes Yes[a 2] No No No block-structured
Tcl with Snit extension[citation needed] 3 No No No No No Yes[117] No No Yes No No Yes[a 9][118] No No No No
Visual Basic .NET 6 (7) Yes No Library[a 4] No No Yes No Yes Yes No Yes Yes[a 2] No No No reactive[a 6]
Windows PowerShell 6 No No No No No Yes No Yes Yes No Yes Yes[a 2] Yes No No No
Wolfram Language & Mathematica 13[119] (14) Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes[120] No Yes Knowledge Based

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ rendezvous and monitor-like based
  2. ↑ 2.00 2.01 2.02 2.03 2.04 2.05 2.06 2.07 2.08 2.09 2.10 2.11 2.12 2.13 2.14 2.15 2.16 2.17 2.18 2.19 2.20 2.21 2.22 2.23 2.24 2.25 2.26 2.27 2.28 2.29 2.30 2.31 2.32 2.33 2.34 Class-based
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 Template metaprogramming
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 using TPL Dataflow
  5. ↑ only lambda support (lazy functional programming)
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 using Reactive Extensions (Rx)
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 actor programming
  8. ↑ using Node.js' cluster module or child_process.fork method, web workers in the browser, etc.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3 Prototype-based
  10. ↑ using Reactive Extensions (RxJS)
  11. ↑ in Node.js via their events module
  12. ↑ in browsers via their native EventTarget API
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 purely functional
  14. ↑ parameterized classes
  15. ↑ Akka

Citations

  1. ↑ Bragg, S.D.; Driskill, C.G. (20–22 September 1994). "Diagrammatic-graphical programming languages and DoD-STD-2167A". Proceedings of AUTOTESTCON '94 (IEEEXplore). Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE). pp. 211–220. doi:10.1109/AUTEST.1994.381508. ISBN 978-0-7803-1910-3. 
  2. ↑ Ada Reference Manual, ISO/IEC 8652:2005(E) Ed. 3, Section 9: Tasks and Synchronization
  3. ↑ Ada Reference Manual, ISO/IEC 8652:2005(E) Ed. 3 Annex E: Distributed Systems
  4. ↑ Ada Reference Manual, ISO/IEC 8652:2005(E) Ed. 3, Section 12: Generic Units
  5. ↑ Ada Reference Manual, ISO/IEC 8652:2005(E) Ed. 3, Section 6: Subprograms
  6. ↑ Ada Reference Manual, ISO/IEC 8652:2005(E) Ed. 3, 3.9 Tagged Types and Type Extensions
  7. ↑ Thread support
  8. ↑ Atomics support
  9. ↑ Memory model
  10. ↑ Gecode
  11. ↑ SystemC
  12. ↑ Boost.Iostreams
  13. ↑ Boolinq
  14. ↑ "AraRat". https://www.cs.technion.ac.il/~lkeren/scp.pdf. 
  15. ↑ OpenMPI
  16. ↑ Boost.MPI
  17. ↑ Boost.MPL
  18. ↑ LC++
  19. ↑ Castor
  20. ↑ Reflect Library
  21. ↑ N3534
  22. ↑ Boost.Spirit
  23. ↑ Clojure - Concurrent Programming
  24. ↑ Clojure - core.async
  25. ↑ Clojure - Functional Programming
  26. ↑ Clojure - Macros
  27. ↑ Clojure - core.logic
  28. ↑ Clojure - Threading Macros Guide
  29. ↑ "Light Table". 2019-04-08. http://lighttable.com/. 
  30. ↑ Multimethods and Hierarchies
  31. ↑ Agents and Asynchronous Actions
  32. ↑ [1] many concurrency paradigms implemented as language extensions
  33. ↑ [2] constraint programming inside CL through extensions
  34. ↑ [3] dataflow extension
  35. ↑ [4] by creating DSLs using the built-in metaprogramming; also see note on functional, constraint and logic paradigms, which are part of declarative
  36. ↑ [5] MPI, etc via language extensions
  37. ↑ template metaprogramming using macros (see C++)
  38. ↑ [6] [7] [8] Prolog implemented as a language extension
  39. ↑ Common Lisp Object System see Wikipedia article on CLOS, the Common Lisp Object System.
  40. ↑ implemented by the user via a short macro, example of implementation
  41. ↑ - Visual programming tool based on Common Lisp
  42. ↑ [9] rule-based programming extension
  43. ↑ [10] through the Meta Object Protocol
  44. ↑ D Language Feature Table
  45. ↑ Phobos std.algorithm
  46. ↑ D language String Mixins
  47. ↑ The Little JavaScripter demonstrates fundamental commonality with Scheme, a functional language.
  48. ↑ Object-Oriented Programming in JavaScript gives an overview of object-oriented programming techniques in JavaScript.
  49. ↑ "React – A JavaScript library for building user interfaces". 2019-04-08. https://reactjs.org/. 
  50. ↑ "TNG-Hooks". 2019-04-08. https://github.com/getify/tng-hooks. 
  51. ↑ "Lodash documentation". 2019-04-08. https://lodash.com/docs/4.17.11#flow. 
  52. ↑ "mori". 2019-04-08. https://swannodette.github.io/mori/#pipeline. 
  53. ↑ "Light Table". 2019-04-08. http://lighttable.com/. 
  54. ↑ "TNG-Hooks". 2019-04-08. https://github.com/getify/tng-hooks. 
  55. ↑ "Prolog embedding". https://hackage.haskell.org/package/hswip. 
  56. ↑ "Functional Reactive Programming". https://wiki.haskell.org/Functional_Reactive_Programming. 
  57. ↑ Cloud Haskell
  58. ↑ "Template Haskell". https://wiki.haskell.org/Template_Haskell. 
  59. ↑ "Logict: A backtracking logic-programming monad". https://hackage.haskell.org/package/logict. 
  60. ↑ Kollmansberger, Steve; Erwig, Martin (30 May 2006). "Haskell Rules: Embedding Rule Systems in Haskell". https://web.engr.oregonstate.edu/~erwig/HaskellRules/HaskellRules_June06.pdf. 
  61. ↑ https://jcp.org/en/jsr/detail?id=331 JSR 331: Constraint Programming API
  62. ↑ https://github.com/GoogleCloudPlatform/DataflowJavaSDK Google Cloud Platform Dataflow SDK
  63. ↑ "JuliaOpt/JuMP.jl". JuliaOpt. 11 February 2020. https://github.com/JuliaOpt/JuMP.jl. 
  64. ↑ "GitHub - MikeInnes/DataFlow.jl". 2019-01-15. https://github.com/MikeInnes/DataFlow.jl. 
  65. ↑ "GitHub - JuliaGizmos/Reactive.jl: Reactive programming primitives for Julia". 2018-12-28. https://github.com/JuliaGizmos/Reactive.jl. 
  66. ↑ https://github.com/davidanthoff/Query.jl Query almost anything in julia
  67. ↑ https://github.com/lilinjn/LilKanren.jl A collection of Kanren implementations in Julia
  68. ↑ "GitHub - abeschneider/PEGParser.jl: PEG Parser for Julia". 2018-12-03. https://github.com/abeschneider/PEGParser.jl. 
  69. ↑ "GitHub - gitfoxi/Parsimonious.jl: A PEG parser generator for Julia". 2017-08-03. https://github.com/gitfoxi/Parsimonious.jl. 
  70. ↑ Lazy https://github.com/MikeInnes/Lazy.jl
  71. ↑ "Execute loop iterations in parallel". http://mathworks.com/help/distcomp/parfor.html. 
  72. ↑ "Write Constraints". https://mathworks.com/help/optim/write-constraints.html. 
  73. ↑ "Getting Started with SimEvents". https://mathworks.com/help/simevents/getting-started-with-simevents.html. 
  74. ↑ "Execute loop iterations in parallel". http://mathworks.com/help/distcomp/parfor.html. 
  75. ↑ "Execute MATLAB expression in text - MATLAB eval". https://mathworks.com/help/matlab/ref/eval.html. 
  76. ↑ "Determine class of object". https://mathworks.com/help/matlab/ref/class.html. 
  77. ↑ "Class Metadata". https://mathworks.com/help/matlab/get-information-about-classes-and-objects.html. 
  78. ↑ "Object-Oriented Programming". https://mathworks.com/help/matlab/object-oriented-programming.html. 
  79. ↑ "Simulink". https://mathworks.com/help/simulink/. 
  80. ↑ interpreter based threads
  81. ↑ Moose
  82. ↑ Higher Order Perl
  83. ↑ PHP Manual, Chapter 17. Functions
  84. ↑ PHP Manual, Chapter 19. Classes and Objects (PHP 5)
  85. ↑ PHP Manual, Anonymous functions
  86. ↑ "Parallel Processing and Multiprocessing in Python". https://wiki.python.org/moin/ParallelProcessing. 
  87. ↑ "threading — Higher-level threading interface". https://docs.python.org/2/library/threading.html. 
  88. ↑ "python-constraint". https://pypi.python.org/pypi/python-constraint. 
  89. ↑ "DistributedProgramming". https://wiki.python.org/moin/DistributedProgramming. 
  90. ↑ "Chapter 9. Metaprogramming". http://chimera.labs.oreilly.com/books/1230000000393/ch09.html. 
  91. ↑ "Metaprogramming". https://python-3-patterns-idioms-test.readthedocs.io/en/latest/Metaprogramming.html. 
  92. ↑ "PEP 443 – Single-dispatch generic functions". https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0443/. 
  93. ↑ "PEP 484 – Type Hints". https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0484/#generics. 
  94. ↑ "PyDatalog". https://sites.google.com/site/pydatalog/. 
  95. ↑ "Light Table". 2019-04-08. http://lighttable.com/. 
  96. ↑ "Futureverse". https://www.futureverse.org/. 
  97. ↑ "future batchtools". https://future.batchtools.futureverse.org/. 
  98. ↑ "Magrittr: A Forward Pipe Operator for R". 17 November 2020. https://cran.r-project.org/package=magrittr. 
  99. ↑ Racket Guide: Concurrency and Synchronization
  100. ↑ The Rosette Guide
  101. ↑ FrTime: A Language for Reactive Programs
  102. ↑ Racket Guide: Distributed Places
  103. ↑ Lazy Racket
  104. ↑ Channels and other mechanisms
  105. ↑ "Class Signature". https://docs.perl6.org/type/Signature#Type_Constraints. 
  106. ↑ Feed operator
  107. ↑ https://github.com/perl6/doc/issues/1744#issuecomment-360565196 Cro module
  108. ↑ "Meta-programming: What, why and how". 2011-12-14. https://perl6advent.wordpress.com/2011/12/14/meta-programming-what-why-and-how/. 
  109. ↑ https://perl6advent.wordpress.com/2009/12/18/day-18-roles/ Parametrized Roles
  110. ↑ "Meta-object protocol (MOP)". https://docs.perl6.org/language/mop. 
  111. ↑ https://docs.perl6.org/language/classtut Classes and Roles
  112. ↑ "The Rust macros guide". http://doc.rust-lang.org/1.0.0-alpha/book/macros.html. 
  113. ↑ "The Rust compiler plugins guide". http://doc.rust-lang.org/1.0.0-alpha/book/plugins.html. 
  114. ↑ The Rust Reference §6.1.3.1
  115. ↑ An Overview of the Scala Programming Language
  116. ↑ Scala Language Specification
  117. ↑ "Tcl Programming/Introduction". https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Tcl_Programming/Introduction#One_language.2C_many_styles. 
  118. ↑ "TCLLIB - Tcl Standard Library: snitfaq". http://tmml.sourceforge.net/doc/tcllib/snitfaq.html. 
  119. ↑ Notes for Programming Language Experts, Wolfram Language Documentation.
  120. ↑ External Programs, Wolfram Language Documentation.

References

  • Jim Coplien, Multiparadigm Design for C++, Addison-Wesley Professional, 1998.



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