Comparison of multi-paradigm programming languages

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Programming languages can be grouped by the number and types of paradigms supported.

Paradigm summaries

A concise reference for the programming paradigms listed in this article.

  • Concurrent programming – have language constructs for concurrency, these may involve multi-threading, support for distributed computing, message passing, shared resources (including shared memory), or futures
    • Actor programming – concurrent computation with actors that make local decisions in response to the environment (capable of selfish or competitive behaviour)
  • Constraint programming – relations between variables are expressed as constraints (or constraint networks), directing allowable solutions (uses constraint satisfaction or simplex algorithm)
  • Dataflow programming – forced recalculation of formulas when data values change (e.g. spreadsheets)
  • Declarative programming – describes what computation should perform, without specifying detailed state changes cf. imperative programming (functional and logic programming are major subgroups of declarative programming)
  • Distributed programming – have support for multiple autonomous computers that communicate via computer networks
  • Functional programming – uses evaluation of mathematical functions and avoids state and mutable data
  • Generic programming – uses algorithms written in terms of to-be-specified-later types that are then instantiated as needed for specific types provided as parameters
  • Imperative programming – explicit statements that change a program state
  • Logic programming – uses explicit mathematical logic for programming
  • Metaprogramming – writing programs that write or manipulate other programs (or themselves) as their data, or that do part of the work at compile time that would otherwise be done at runtime
    • Template metaprogramming – metaprogramming methods in which a compiler uses templates to generate temporary source code, which is merged by the compiler with the rest of the source code and then compiled
    • Reflective programming – metaprogramming methods in which a program modifies or extends itself
  • Object-oriented programming – uses data structures consisting of data fields and methods together with their interactions (objects) to design programs
    • Class-based – object-oriented programming in which inheritance is achieved by defining classes of objects, versus the objects themselves
    • Prototype-based – object-oriented programming that avoids classes and implements inheritance via cloning of instances
  • Pipeline programming – a simple syntax change to add syntax to nest function calls to language originally designed with none
  • Rule-based programming – a network of rules of thumb that comprise a knowledge base and can be used for expert systems and problem deduction & resolution
  • Visual programming – manipulating program elements graphically rather than by specifying them textually (e.g. Simulink); also termed diagrammatic programming[1]

Language overview

List of multi-paradigm programming languages
Language Script error: No such module "Vertical header". Script error: No such module "Vertical header". Script error: No such module "Vertical header". Script error: No such module "Vertical header". Script error: No such module "Vertical header". Script error: No such module "Vertical header". Script error: No such module "Vertical header". Script error: No such module "Vertical header". Script error: No such module "Vertical header". Script error: No such module "Vertical header". Script error: No such module "Vertical header". Script error: No such module "Vertical header". Script error: No such module "Vertical header". Script error: No such module "Vertical header". Script error: No such module "Vertical header". Script error: No such module "Vertical header". Other
Ada​[2]​[3]​[4]​[5]​[6] 5 Yes​[a 1] N/A N/A N/A Yes N/A N/A Yes Yes N/A N/A Yes​[a 2] N/A N/A N/A N/A
ALF 2 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A Yes N/A N/A N/A Yes N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
AmigaE
 data-sort-value="" style="background: #ececec; color: #2C2C2C; vertical-align: middle; font-size: smaller; text-align: center; " class="table-na" | N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A Yes N/A N/A Yes​[a 2] N/A N/A N/A N/A
APL 3 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A Yes N/A N/A Yes N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A Array (multi-dimensional)
BETA
 data-sort-value="" style="background: #ececec; color: #2C2C2C; vertical-align: middle; font-size: smaller; text-align: center; " class="table-na" | N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A Yes N/A N/A Yes N/A N/A Yes​[a 2] N/A N/A N/A N/A
C++ 7 (15) Yes​[7]​[8]​[9] Library​[10] Library​[11]​[12] Library​[13]​[14] Library​[15]​[16] Yes Yes​[17] Yes​[a 3] Yes Library​[18]​[19] Library​[20] Yes​[a 2] Library​[21] N/A Library​[22] Array (multi-dimensional; using STL)
C# 6 (7) Yes N/A Library​[a 4] N/A N/A Yes​[a 5] N/A Yes Yes N/A Yes Yes​[a 2] N/A N/A N/A Reactive​[a 6]
ChucK
 style="background:#9F9;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;" class="table-yes"|Yes N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A Yes N/A N/A Yes​[a 2] N/A N/A N/A N/A
Claire 2 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A Yes N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A Yes​[a 2] N/A N/A N/A N/A
Clojure 5 Yes​[23]​[24] N/A N/A Yes N/A Yes​[25] Yes​[26] N/A N/A Library​[27] N/A N/A Yes​[28] N/A N/A Multiple dispatch,​[29] Agents​[30]
Common Lisp 7 (14) Library​[31] Library​[32] Library​[33] Yes​[34] Library​[35] Yes Yes Yes​[36] Yes Library​[37] Yes Yes​[a 7]​[a 2]​[38] Library​[39] Library​[40] Library​[41] Multiple dispatch, meta-OOP system,​[42] Language is extensible via metaprogramming.
Curl 5 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A Yes N/A Yes​[a 3] Yes N/A Yes Yes​[a 2] N/A N/A N/A N/A
Curry 4 Yes Yes N/A N/A N/A Yes N/A N/A N/A Yes N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
D (version 2.0)​[43]​[44] 7 Yes​[a 8] N/A N/A N/A N/A Yes Yes​[45]​[a 3] Yes​[a 3] Yes N/A Yes Yes​[a 2] N/A N/A N/A N/A
Delphi 3 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A Yes​[a 3] Yes N/A N/A Yes​[a 2] N/A N/A N/A N/A
Dylan
 data-sort-value="" style="background: #ececec; color: #2C2C2C; vertical-align: middle; font-size: smaller; text-align: center; " class="table-na" | N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A Yes N/A N/A N/A N/A Yes Yes​[a 2] N/A N/A N/A N/A
E 3 Yes N/A N/A N/A Yes N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A Yes​[a 2] N/A N/A N/A N/A
ECMAScript​[46]​[47] (ActionScript, E4X, JavaScript, JScript) 4 (5) Partial​[a 9]​[a 10] N/A N/A Library​[48]​[49] N/A Yes N/A N/A Yes N/A Yes Yes​[a 11] Library​[50]​[51] N/A N/A Reactive,​[a 12]​[52] event driven​[a 13]​[a 14]
Erlang 3 Yes N/A N/A Yes Yes Yes N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A Yes N/A N/A N/A
Elixir 4 Yes N/A N/A N/A Yes Yes Yes N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A Yes N/A N/A N/A
Elm 6 Yes N/A Yes Yes N/A Yes (pure)​[a 15] N/A Yes N/A N/A N/A N/A Yes N/A N/A Reactive
F# 7 (8) Yes​[a 8] N/A Library​[a 4] Yes N/A Yes N/A Yes Yes N/A Yes Yes​[a 2] N/A N/A N/A Reactive​[a 6]
Fortran 4 (5) Yes N/A N/A N/A N/A Yes​[a 15] N/A Yes​[a 16] N/A N/A N/A Yes​[a 2] N/A N/A N/A Array (multi-dimensional)
Go 4 Yes N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A Yes N/A Yes N/A Yes N/A N/A N/A
Haskell 8 (15) Yes Library​[53] Library​[54] Yes Library​[55] Yes (lazy) (pure)​[a 15] Yes​[56] Yes Yes Library​[57] N/A Partial​[a 17] Yes Yes Library​[58] Literate, reactive, dependent types (partial)
Io 4 Yes​[a 8] N/A N/A N/A N/A Yes N/A N/A Yes N/A N/A Yes​[a 11] N/A N/A N/A N/A
J
 data-sort-value="" style="background: #ececec; color: #2C2C2C; vertical-align: middle; font-size: smaller; text-align: center; " class="table-na" | N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A Yes N/A N/A Yes N/A N/A Yes​[a 2] N/A N/A N/A N/A
Java 6 Yes Library​[59] Library​[60] N/A N/A Yes N/A Yes Yes N/A Yes Yes​[a 2] N/A N/A N/A N/A
Julia 9 (17) Yes Library​[61] Library​[62]​[63] Library​[64] Yes Yes (eager) Yes Yes Yes Library​[65] Yes Partial​[a 18] Yes N/A Library​[66]​[67] Multiple dispatch,
Array (multi-dimensional); optionally lazy​[68] and reactive (with libraries)
Kotlin 8 Yes N/A N/A N/A N/A Yes Yes Yes Yes N/A Yes Yes Yes N/A N/A N/A
LabVIEW 4 Yes N/A Yes N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A Yes N/A Yes N/A N/A
Lava 2 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A Yes​[a 2] N/A Yes N/A N/A
LispWorks (version 6.0 with support for symmetric multi-processing, rules, logic (Prolog), CORBA) 9 Yes N/A N/A N/A Yes Yes Yes N/A Yes Yes Yes Yes​[a 2] N/A N/A Yes N/A
Lua
 3 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A Yes N/A N/A Yes N/A N/A Yes​[a 11] N/A N/A N/A N/A
MATLAB 6 (10) Toolbox​[69] Toolbox​[70] Yes​[71] N/A Toolbox​[72] N/A Yes​[73] Yes​[74] N/A N/A Yes​[75] Yes​[76] N/A Yes​[77] N/A Array (multi-dimensional)
Nemerle 7 Yes N/A N/A N/A N/A Yes Yes Yes Yes N/A Yes Yes​[a 2] N/A N/A N/A N/A
Object Pascal 4 Yes N/A N/A N/A N/A Yes N/A N/A Yes N/A N/A Yes​[a 2] N/A N/A N/A N/A
OCaml 4 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A Yes N/A Yes Yes N/A N/A Yes​[a 2] N/A N/A N/A N/A
Oz 11 Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes N/A N/A Yes Yes N/A Yes​[a 2] Yes N/A Yes N/A
Perl
 style="background:#9F9;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;" class="table-yes"|Yes​[78] N/A Yes​[79] N/A N/A Yes Yes N/A Yes N/A Yes​[a 2] Yes​[a 2] Yes N/A N/A N/A
PHP​[80]​[81]​[82] 4 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A Yes N/A N/A Yes N/A Yes Yes​[a 2] N/A N/A N/A N/A
Poplog 3 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A Yes N/A N/A Yes Yes N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
Prograph 3 N/A N/A Yes N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A Yes​[a 2] N/A Yes N/A N/A
Python 5 (10) Library​[83]​[84] Library​[85] N/A N/A Library​[86] Yes Yes​[87]​[88] Yes​[89]​[90] Yes Library​[91] Yes Yes​[a 2] N/A N/A N/A Structured
R 4 (6) Library​[92] N/A N/A N/A Library​[93] Yes N/A N/A Yes N/A Yes Yes Yes​[94] N/A N/A Array (multi-dimensional)
Racket 10 Yes​[95] Yes​[96] Yes​[97] N/A Yes​[98] Yes Yes N/A Yes Yes Yes Yes N/A N/A N/A Lazy​[99]
Raku 10 Yes​[100] Library​[101] Yes​[102] N/A Library​[103] Yes Yes​[104] Yes​[105] Yes N/A Yes​[106] Yes​[107] Yes N/A N/A Multiple dispatch, lazy lists, reactive.
ROOP 3 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A Yes Yes N/A N/A N/A N/A Yes N/A
Ruby 5 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A Yes Yes N/A Yes N/A Yes Yes​[a 2] N/A N/A N/A N/A
Rust (version 1.0.0-alpha) 6 Yes​[a 8] N/A N/A N/A N/A Yes Yes​[108]​[109] Yes​[110] Yes N/A N/A Yes N/A N/A N/A Linear, affline, and ownership types
Sather
 data-sort-value="" style="background: #ececec; color: #2C2C2C; vertical-align: middle; font-size: smaller; text-align: center; " class="table-na" | N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A Yes N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A Yes​[a 2] N/A N/A N/A N/A
Scala​[111]​[112] 9 Yes​[a 8] N/A Yes​[a 19] Yes N/A Yes Yes Yes Yes N/A Yes Yes​[a 2] N/A N/A N/A N/A
Simula
 data-sort-value="" style="background: #ececec; color: #2C2C2C; vertical-align: middle; font-size: smaller; text-align: center; " class="table-na" | N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A Yes N/A N/A Yes​[a 2] N/A N/A N/A N/A
SISAL 3 Yes N/A Yes N/A N/A Yes N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
Spreadsheets 2 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A Yes N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A Yes N/A N/A
Swift 7 Yes N/A N/A N/A N/A Yes Yes Yes Yes N/A Yes Yes​[a 2] N/A N/A N/A Block-structured
Tcl with Snit extension
 data-sort-value="" style="background: #ececec; color: #2C2C2C; vertical-align: middle; font-size: smaller; text-align: center; " class="table-na" | N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A Yes​[113] N/A N/A Yes N/A N/A Yes​[a 11]​[114] N/A N/A N/A N/A
Visual Basic .NET 6 (7) Yes N/A Library​[a 4] N/A N/A Yes N/A Yes Yes N/A Yes Yes​[a 2] N/A N/A N/A Reactive​[a 6]
Windows PowerShell 6 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A Yes N/A Yes Yes N/A Yes Yes​[a 2] Yes N/A N/A N/A
Wolfram Language & Mathematica 13​[115] (14) Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes​[116] N/A Yes Knowledge Based

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ rendezvous and monitor-like based
  2. ↑ 2.00 2.01 2.02 2.03 2.04 2.05 2.06 2.07 2.08 2.09 2.10 2.11 2.12 2.13 2.14 2.15 2.16 2.17 2.18 2.19 2.20 2.21 2.22 2.23 2.24 2.25 2.26 2.27 2.28 2.29 2.30 2.31 2.32 2.33 2.34 class-based
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 template metaprogramming
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 using TPL Dataflow
  5. ↑ only lambda support (lazy functional programming)
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 using Reactive Extensions (Rx)
  7. ↑ multiple dispatch, method combinations
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 actor programming
  9. ↑ promises, native extensions
  10. ↑ using Node.js' cluster module or child_process.fork method, web workers in the browser, etc.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 11.3 Prototype-based
  12. ↑ using Reactive Extensions (RxJS)
  13. ↑ in Node.js via their events module
  14. ↑ in browsers via their native EventTarget API
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 purely functional
  16. ↑ parameterized classes
  17. ↑ immutable
  18. ↑ Uses structs with function polymorphism and multiple dispatch
  19. ↑ Akka

Citations

  1. ↑ Bragg, S.D.; Driskill, C.G. (20–22 September 1994). "Diagrammatic-graphical programming languages and DoD-STD-2167A". Proceedings of AUTOTESTCON '94 (Facebook. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE). pp. 211–220. doi:10.1109/AUTEST.1994.381508. ISBN 978-0-7803-1910-3. 
  2. ↑ Ada Reference Manual, ISO/IEC 8652:2005(E) Ed. 3, Section 9: Tasks and Synchronization
  3. ↑ Ada Reference Manual, ISO/IEC 8652:2005(E) Ed. 3 Annex E: Distributed Systems
  4. ↑ Ada Reference Manual, ISO/IEC 8652:2005(E) Ed. 3, Section 12: Generic Units
  5. ↑ Ada Reference Manual, ISO/IEC 8652:2005(E) Ed. 3, Section 6: Subprograms
  6. ↑ Ada Reference Manual, ISO/IEC 8652:2005(E) Ed. 3, 3.9 Tagged Types and Type Extensions
  7. ↑ Thread support
  8. ↑ Atomics support
  9. ↑ Memory model
  10. ↑ Gecode
  11. ↑ SystemC
  12. ↑ Boost.Iostreams
  13. ↑ Boolinq
  14. ↑ "AraRat". https://www.cs.technion.ac.il/~lkeren/scp.pdf. 
  15. ↑ OpenMPI
  16. ↑ Boost.MPI
  17. ↑ Boost.MPL
  18. ↑ LC++
  19. ↑ Castor
  20. ↑ Reflect Library
  21. ↑ N3534
  22. ↑ Boost.Spirit
  23. ↑ Clojure - Concurrent Programming
  24. ↑ Clojure - core.async
  25. ↑ Clojure - Functional Programming
  26. ↑ Clojure - Macros
  27. ↑ Clojure - core.logic
  28. ↑ Clojure - Threading Macros Guide
  29. ↑ Multimethods and Hierarchies
  30. ↑ Agents and Asynchronous Actions
  31. ↑ "concurrency". https://www.cliki.net/Concurrency. 
  32. ↑ [1] constraint programming inside CL through extensions
  33. ↑ [2] dataflow extension
  34. ↑ [3] by creating DSLs using the built-in metaprogramming; also see note on functional, constraint and logic paradigms, which are part of declarative
  35. ↑ [4] MPI, etc via language extensions
  36. ↑ template metaprogramming using macros (see C++)
  37. ↑ [5] [6] [7] Prolog implemented as a language extension
  38. ↑ Common Lisp Object System see Wikipedia article on CLOS, the Common Lisp Object System.
  39. ↑ implemented by the user via a short macro, example of implementation
  40. ↑ - Visual programming tool based on Common Lisp
  41. ↑ [8] rule-based programming extension
  42. ↑ [9] through the Meta Object Protocol
  43. ↑ D Language Feature Table
  44. ↑ Phobos std.algorithm
  45. ↑ D language String Mixins
  46. ↑ The Little JavaScripter demonstrates fundamental commonality with Scheme, a functional language.
  47. ↑ Object-Oriented Programming in JavaScript gives an overview of object-oriented programming techniques in JavaScript.
  48. ↑ "React – A JavaScript library for building user interfaces". 2019-04-08. https://reactjs.org/. 
  49. ↑ "TNG-Hooks". 2019-04-08. https://github.com/getify/tng-hooks. 
  50. ↑ "Lodash documentation". 2019-04-08. https://lodash.com/docs/4.17.11#flow. 
  51. ↑ "mori". 2019-04-08. https://swannodette.github.io/mori/#pipeline. 
  52. ↑ "TNG-Hooks". 2019-04-08. https://github.com/getify/tng-hooks. 
  53. ↑ "Prolog embedding". https://hackage.haskell.org/package/hswip. 
  54. ↑ "Functional Reactive Programming". https://wiki.haskell.org/Functional_Reactive_Programming. 
  55. ↑ Cloud Haskell
  56. ↑ "Template Haskell". https://wiki.haskell.org/Template_Haskell. 
  57. ↑ "Logict: A backtracking logic-programming monad". https://hackage.haskell.org/package/logict. 
  58. ↑ Kollmansberger, Steve; Erwig, Martin (30 May 2006). "Haskell Rules: Embedding Rule Systems in Haskell". https://web.engr.oregonstate.edu/~erwig/HaskellRules/HaskellRules_June06.pdf. 
  59. ↑ https://jcp.org/en/jsr/detail?id=331 JSR 331: Constraint Programming API
  60. ↑ https://github.com/GoogleCloudPlatform/DataflowJavaSDK Google Cloud Platform Dataflow SDK
  61. ↑ "JuliaOpt/JuMP.jl". JuliaOpt. 11 February 2020. https://github.com/JuliaOpt/JuMP.jl. 
  62. ↑ "GitHub - MikeInnes/DataFlow.jl". 2019-01-15. https://github.com/MikeInnes/DataFlow.jl. 
  63. ↑ "GitHub - JuliaGizmos/Reactive.jl: Reactive programming primitives for Julia". 2018-12-28. https://github.com/JuliaGizmos/Reactive.jl. 
  64. ↑ https://github.com/davidanthoff/Query.jl Query almost anything in julia
  65. ↑ https://github.com/lilinjn/LilKanren.jl A collection of Kanren implementations in Julia
  66. ↑ "GitHub - abeschneider/PEGParser.jl: PEG Parser for Julia". 2018-12-03. https://github.com/abeschneider/PEGParser.jl. 
  67. ↑ "GitHub - gitfoxi/Parsimonious.jl: A PEG parser generator for Julia". 2017-08-03. https://github.com/gitfoxi/Parsimonious.jl. 
  68. ↑ Lazy https://github.com/MikeInnes/Lazy.jl
  69. ↑ "Execute loop iterations in parallel". http://mathworks.com/help/distcomp/parfor.html. 
  70. ↑ "Write Constraints". https://mathworks.com/help/optim/write-constraints.html. 
  71. ↑ "Getting Started with SimEvents". https://mathworks.com/help/simevents/getting-started-with-simevents.html. 
  72. ↑ "Execute loop iterations in parallel". http://mathworks.com/help/distcomp/parfor.html. 
  73. ↑ "Execute MATLAB expression in text - MATLAB eval". https://mathworks.com/help/matlab/ref/eval.html. 
  74. ↑ "Determine class of object". https://mathworks.com/help/matlab/ref/class.html. 
  75. ↑ "Class Metadata". https://mathworks.com/help/matlab/get-information-about-classes-and-objects.html. 
  76. ↑ "Object-Oriented Programming". https://mathworks.com/help/matlab/object-oriented-programming.html. 
  77. ↑ "Simulink". https://mathworks.com/help/simulink/. 
  78. ↑ interpreter based threads
  79. ↑ Higher Order Perl
  80. ↑ PHP Manual, Chapter 17. Functions
  81. ↑ PHP Manual, Chapter 19. Classes and Objects (PHP 5)
  82. ↑ PHP Manual, Anonymous functions
  83. ↑ "Parallel Processing and Multiprocessing in Python". https://wiki.python.org/moin/ParallelProcessing. 
  84. ↑ "threading — Higher-level threading interface". https://docs.python.org/2/library/threading.html. 
  85. ↑ "python-constraint". https://pypi.python.org/pypi/python-constraint. 
  86. ↑ "DistributedProgramming". https://wiki.python.org/moin/DistributedProgramming. 
  87. ↑ "Chapter 9. Metaprogramming". http://chimera.labs.oreilly.com/books/1230000000393/ch09.html. 
  88. ↑ "Metaprogramming". https://python-3-patterns-idioms-test.readthedocs.io/en/latest/Metaprogramming.html. 
  89. ↑ "PEP 443 – Single-dispatch generic functions". https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0443/. 
  90. ↑ "PEP 484 – Type Hints". https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0484/#generics. 
  91. ↑ "PyDatalog". https://sites.google.com/site/pydatalog/. 
  92. ↑ "Futureverse". https://www.futureverse.org/. 
  93. ↑ "future batchtools". https://future.batchtools.futureverse.org/. 
  94. ↑ "Magrittr: A Forward Pipe Operator for R". 17 November 2020. https://cran.r-project.org/package=magrittr. 
  95. ↑ Racket Guide: Concurrency and Synchronization
  96. ↑ The Rosette Guide
  97. ↑ FrTime: A Language for Reactive Programs
  98. ↑ Racket Guide: Distributed Places
  99. ↑ Lazy Racket
  100. ↑ Channels and other mechanisms
  101. ↑ "Problem Solver module". https://raku.land/github:FCO/ProblemSolver. 
  102. ↑ Feed operator
  103. ↑ https://github.com/perl6/doc/issues/1744#issuecomment-360565196 Cro module
  104. ↑ "Meta-programming: What, why and how". 2011-12-14. https://perl6advent.wordpress.com/2011/12/14/meta-programming-what-why-and-how/. 
  105. ↑ https://perl6advent.wordpress.com/2009/12/18/day-18-roles/ Parametrized Roles
  106. ↑ "Meta-object protocol (MOP)". https://docs.perl6.org/language/mop. 
  107. ↑ https://docs.perl6.org/language/classtut Classes and Roles
  108. ↑ "The Rust macros guide". http://doc.rust-lang.org/1.0.0-alpha/book/macros.html. 
  109. ↑ "The Rust compiler plugins guide". http://doc.rust-lang.org/1.0.0-alpha/book/plugins.html. 
  110. ↑ The Rust Reference §6.1.3.1
  111. ↑ An Overview of the Scala Programming Language
  112. ↑ Scala Language Specification
  113. ↑ "Tcl Programming/Introduction". https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Tcl_Programming/Introduction#One_language.2C_many_styles. 
  114. ↑ "TCLLIB - Tcl Standard Library: snitfaq". https://tmml.sourceforge.net/doc/tcllib/snitfaq.html. 
  115. ↑ Notes for Programming Language Experts, Wolfram Language Documentation.
  116. ↑ External Programs, Wolfram Language Documentation.

References

  • Jim Coplien, Multiparadigm Design for C++, Addison-Wesley Professional, 1998.

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