Earth:Bahariya Formation

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Bahariya Formation
Stratigraphic range: Early Cenomanian[1]
~100–95 Ma
↓
Restoration of the environment and animals of the formation
TypeGeological formation
UnderliesEl Heiz Fm., El Naqb Fm.[2]
OverliesBasement[2]
Thickness≈100 m (330 ft)[2]
Lithology
PrimarySandstone
OtherMudstone, siltstone
Location
Coordinates [ ⚑ ] 28°24′20″N 28°48′20″E / 28.40556°N 28.80556°E / 28.40556; 28.80556
RegionWestern Desert
CountryEgypt
Type section
Named forBahariya Oasis
Named bySaid
Year defined1962
Bahariya Formation is located in Egypt
Bahariya Formation
Bahariya Formation (Egypt)

The Bahariya Formation (also transcribed as Baharija Formation) is a fossiliferous geologic formation dating back to the early Cenomanian, which outcrops within the Bahariya depression in Egypt, and is known from oil exploration drilling across much of the Western Desert where it forms an important oil reservoir.[1][3][4]

Extent

Geological map

The Bahariya Formation forms the base of the depression, the lower part of the enclosing escarpment and all of the small hills within.[5] The type section for the formation is found at Gebel El-Dist, a hill at the northern end of the Bahariya depression.[6]

Stratigraphy and sedimentology

Four depositional sequences have been recognised in the Bahariya Formation in the Bahariya depression, separated by three sub-aerial unconformities. The formation was deposited during a period of relative rise in sea level, with each unconformity representing a relative fall in sea level.[1] Each of the individual sequences contains sediments deposited under fluvial, shoreline and shallow marine conditions.

Microfauna and Meiofauna

Foraminifera

Foraminifera of the Bahariya Formation
Genus Species
Charentia C. cuvillieri
Favusella F. washitensis
Mayncina M. orbignyi
Rotalipora R. cushmani
R. reicheli
Thomasinella T. aegyptia
T. fragmentaria
T. punica
Whiteinella W. archaeocretacea

Other microorganisms

Other microorganisms of the Bahariya Formation
Genus Species Images
Botryococcus
Botryococcus
Pediastrum

Scenedesmus
Coronifera C. oceanica
Cyclonephelium C. edwardsii
C. vannophorum
Dynopterigium D. cladoides
Exochosphaeridium
Florentinia F. cooksoniae
F. mantlii
Kallosphaeridium
Mudrongia M. simplex
Palaeoperidinium P. cretaceum
Pediastrum
Pseudoceratium P. anaphrisum
P. securigerum
Scenedesmus
Spiniferites
Subtilisphaera S. perlucida
S. senegalensis
Xiphophoridium X. alatum

Invertebrates

Molluscs

Molluscs of the Bahariya Formation
Genus Species Notes Images
Baculites A heteromorph ammonite with a nearly straight shell.
Baculites.
Cardium A cockle.
Exogyra A reef-forming true oyster associated with solid substrates and warm temperatures.
Gastrochaena A saltwater clam.
Neolobites N. vibrayeanus A typical rolled ammonite.
Nucula A small saltwater clam.
Ostrea O. flabeata An edible oyster.

Crustaceans (Ostracoda)

Crustaceans of the Bahariya Formation
Genus Species Notes Images
Amphicytherura A. sexta
Anticythereis A. gaensis
Bairdia B. bassiounii
B. elongata
Brachycythere B. ledaforma porosa
Bythoceratina B. avnonensis
B. tamarae
Bythocypris B. eskeri
Cythereis C. algeriana
C. bicornis levis
C. canteriolata
Cytherella C. ovata
C. paenovata
C. parallela
C. sulcata
Fabanella
Looneyella L. sohni
Loxoconcha L. clinocosta
L. fletcheri
Metacytheropteron M. berbericum
Ovocytheridea O. caudata
O. producta
O. reniformis
Paracypris P. acutocaudata
P. angusta
P. mdaouerensis
P. triangularis
Pterygocythere P. raabi
Veeniacythereis V. jezzineensis
Xestoleberis X. obesa

Insects

Direct fossils are sparse, though plant leaves with extensive damage from folivorous insects have been documented.

Vertebrates

Cartilaginous fish

Color key
Taxon Reclassified taxon Taxon falsely reported as present Dubious taxon or junior synonym Ichnotaxon Ootaxon Morphotaxon
Notes
Uncertain or tentative taxa are in small text; crossed out taxa are discredited.
Chondrichthyes of the Bahariya Formation
Genus Species Abundance Notes Images
Aegyptobatus A. kuehnei A sclerorhynchiform.
Modern Gymnura.

Onchopristis tooth.

Modern Rhinoptera.

Scapanorhynchus

Squalicorax
Modern Squatina.
Asteracanthus A. aegyptiacus A hybodont shark.
Baharipristis B. bastetiae A sclerorhynchiform.
Cretodus C. longiplicatus A shark.
Cretolamna C. appendiculata A mackerel shark.
Distobatus D. nutiae A sclerorhynchiform.
Gymnura G. laterialata A butterfly ray.
Haimirichia H. amonensis A shark previously classified in the genera Odontaspis, Serratolamna, and Carcharias.
Isidobatus I. tricarinatus A sclerorhynchiform.
Marckgrafia M. lybica A sclerorhynchiform.
Onchopristis O. numida One complete cranium and associated vertebrae. A sclerorhynchid rajoid.
Peyeria P. libyca A sclerorhynchiform.
Ptychotrygon P. henkeli A sclerorhynchiform.
Renpetia R. labiicarinata A sclerorhynchiform.
Rhinoptera A batoid ray.
Scapanorhynchus S. subulatus A mitsukurinid similar to the modern goblin shark.
Schizorhiza S. stromeri Specimens are actually from the younger Ain Giffara Formation.
Squalicorax S. baharijensis Abundant. A large shark.
Squatina An angelshark.
Tribodus T. aschersoni A hybodont.

Bony fish

Osteichthyes of the Bahariya Formation
Genus Species Abundance Notes Images
Bawitius B. bartheli A skull fragment, teeth, and several scales. A giant bichir.
Ceratodus

Enchodus

Lepidotes

Mawsonia

Neoceratodus

Saurodon
Ceratodus A lungfish.
Coelodus A pycnodontid.
Enchodus One tooth. A predatory fish.
Lepidotes Isolated scales. Possibly misidentified from Bawitius bartheli.
Mawsonia M. lybica Considered a "signature taxon" of the formation. A giant freshwater coelacanth. Species assignation deemed provisional due to the lack of neotype.
Neoceratodus N. africanus A lungfish related to the living Australian species.
Obaichthys O. africanus An obaichthyid lepisosteiform. Remains formerly attributed to "Stromerichthys".[7]
Palaeonotopterus P. greenwoodi Nomen conservandum of the two Plethodus species previously described.
Paranogmius P. doederleini Two incomplete skulls and several vertebrae. All definitive specimens were destroyed in World War II, however Concavotectum from the Kem Kem Beds of Morocco may be a synonym.
Plethodus P. libycus
P. tibniensis 		Holotypes destroyed in World War II, but now believed to have been misidentified Palaeonotopterus greenwoodi.
Retodus R. tuberculatus A lungfish species identified from remains previously assigned to Neoceratodus.
Saurodon Identified by Stromer in 1936, but now rejected due to this genus appearing only in post-Cenomanian Europe and North America. Now listed as Ichthyodectidae incertae sedis.
Stromerichthys S. aethiopicus Skull, jaw, and opercular bones. A fish initially identified as a bowfin relative, but now thought to be a chimera consisting of remains assignable to Bawitius, Obaichthys, and others.[8]

Testudines

Testudines of the Bahariya Formation
Genus Species Abundance Notes Images
Apertotemporalis[9] A. baharijensis An incomplete skull[9] A small bothremydid pleurodiran turtle. Now classified as a nomen dubium indeterminate beyond Bothremydidae.[10]
Holotype skull
cf. Araripemydidae[11] Indeterminate
cf. Bothremydidae[11] Indeterminate
cf. Chelonioidea[11] Indeterminate

Squamates

Squamates of the Bahariya Formation
Genus Species Abundance Notes Images
Simoliophis Abundant First known sea snake, with functional hind legs. Now believed to include elements from different species and at least one of a different, unnamed genus.

Plesiosaurs

Plesiosaurs of the Bahariya Formation
Genus Species Abundance Notes Images
Leptocleidus L. capensis[12] Fragmentary skull bones, teeth, and vertebrae.[12] Formerly assigned to Leptocleidus capensis, a species known from the UK and South Africa.[12][13] Now considered an indeterminate polycotylid.[14]
Fossils assigned to L. capensis by Stromer

Crocodyliformes

Crocodyliformes of the Bahariya Formation
Genus Species Abundance Notes Images
Aegyptosuchus A. peyeri An incomplete skull. A poorly known, possibly stomatosuchid crocodile.
Hamadasuchus

Stomatosuchus
Hamadasuchus H. rebouli A terrestrial, dog-like peirosaurid. It is possible that some material previously attributed to Libycosuchus actually belongs to this species.
Libycosuchus L. brevirostris A terrestrial crocodile of uncertain affinities, possibly related to Notosuchus.
Stomatosuchus S. inermis A partial skull and two vertebrae. A large, flat-headed stomatosuchid with multiple small conical teeth, and possibly a pelican-like throat pouch. The only remains were destroyed in World War II.
Stromerosuchus S. aegyptiacus Fragmentary remains Nomen dubium assigned to material found in 1911, that were badly damaged in 1922 while being shipped to Germany for study. Some material may belong to Aegyptosuchus and other to Stomatosuchus.

Pterosaurs

Pterosaurs of the Bahariya Formation
Genus Species Material Notes Images
Pterosauria indet.[15][16] Indeterminate Left first wing phalanx A medium-sized pterosaur. The first record of a pterosaur from Egypt.

Dinosaurs

Sauropods

Sauropods of the Bahariya Formation
Genus Species Material Notes Images
Aegyptosaurus[3] A. baharijensis[3] Three caudal vertebrae, a scapula, and several limb bones.[17] A small/medium sized titanosaurid. Due to the remains being destroyed and fragmentary, little is known about the taxon.[18]
Aegyptosaurus
Paralititan
Dicraeosaurus D. sp.[19] An isolated caudal vertebra.[19] Indentified as Dicraeosaurus by Stromer in 1932.[18][19] Subsequently considered a rebbachisaurid, or a third, unnamed titanosaur.[20]
Paralititan[3] P. stromeri[3] Four vertebrae, a scapula, and incomplete forelimb. An incomplete dorsal vertebra destroyed during WWII may also belong to P. stromeri.[20] A large titanosaurid.
Rebbachisauridae? indet. Unnamed An isolated scapula.

Theropods

Theropods of the Bahariya Formation
Genus Species Abundance Notes Images
Abelisauridae indet.[16] Unnamed MUVP 477, an isolated caudal (tenth) cervical vertebra. A medium-sized abelisaurid, estimated around 5.77 metres (18.9 ft) long.[16]
Deltadromeus
Spinosaurus
Tameryraptor


Abelisauridae? indet.[21] Undescribed Several shed teeth crowns.[21] A small-sized theropod, possibly an abelisaurid. Additionally, its teeth superficially resemble those of dromaeosaurids but likely come from a different kind of theropod.[21]
Bahariasaurus B. ingens[3] A holotype specimen consisting of an incomplete postcranial skeleton. Several other specimens have been assigned including femora, vertebrae, and scapulae.[22]
Carcharodontosaurus[22] C. saharicus A partial skull, teeth, and fragmentary postcranial remains.[23] Reassigned to own genus and species, Tameryraptor.[23]
Ceratosauria?
Deltadromeus D. agilis Several limb, pelvic, and pectoral girdle bones.[24] Several remains originally referred to Bahariasaurus were referred to Deltadromeus.[24][25] It is uncertain wether it and Bahariasaurus are synonymous or distinct.
cf. Elaphrosaurus cf. E. bambergi Two tibiae and a femur.[22] Identified as cf. E. bambergi by Stromer in 1934.[22] Now regarded as coming from a tetanuran, possibly a coelurosaur,[26] or "probable ceratosaur".[16]
aff. Erectopus aff. E. sauvagei An incomplete right tibia.[27] May have affinities with Ceratosauria[16] or belong to Bahariasaurus[28] or Deltadromeus.[24]
"Spinosaurus B" One individual known from a fragmentary postcranial skeleton.[22]
Spinosaurus S. aegyptiacus A large spinosaurid.
Tameryraptor[23] T. markgrafi A partial skull, teeth, and fragmentary postcranial remains.[23] A large carcharodontosaurid theropod, originally assigned to Carcharodontosaurus.[23]

In addition, there are isolated theropod teeth disputedly assigned to dromaeosaurids, or to abelisaurids.

Flora

Thirty different genera are known from Bahariya, including megaflora. Much of the material is yet to be described.[29][30] Other taxa include Sapindales, Piperaceae, Lauraceae, Platanaceae, Magnoliopsida, Nymphaeaceae, Cornaceae, Proteaceae and Vitaceae not identified at genus level; and miospore and pollen species.[31][32]

Vascular Plants
Genus Species Abundance Notes Images
Agathis[33] A/W spp. Few Specimens An Araucarian conifer, now restricted to Australasia.
Cladophlebis
Sapindopsis
Weichselia
Araliaephyllum?[29][31] Indeterminate ("Morphotype-14") Few Specimens Suggested to be related with Lauraceae
Cladophlebis[29][31] C. spp. Few Specimens Fern Laflets
Cornophyllum[29][31] C. distense Few Specimens Suggested to be related with Cornaceae
Cinnamophyllum?[29][31] Indeterminate ("Morphotype-12") Few Specimens Suggested to be related with Lauraceae
Eucalyptolaurus/"Myrtophyllum"(?)[31][32] Indeterminate ("Morphotype-08") Few Specimens Specimens of the family Lauraceae
Laurophyllum[29][31] L. africanum Few Specimens Specimens of the family Lauraceae
Liriophyllum[29][31] L. farafraense Few Specimens Specimens of the family Magnoliaceae
Marsilea[33] aff. Marsilea spp. Few Specimens Water fern.
Magnoliid[31][32]
  • "Morphotype-01"
  • "Morphotype-04"
  • "Morphotype-09"
  • "Morphotype-11"
  • "Morphotype 21"?
  • "Morphotype 24"?
 Few Specimens Shows festooned brochidodromous venation
Magnoliaephyllum[31]
  • M. auriculatum
  • M. bahariyense
  • M. isbergiana
 Few Specimens Possible affinities with Lauraceae
Monocotyledon[34] "Morphotype 26" Few Specimens Flowering Plant
Nelumbites[31][32]
  • N. schweinfurthi
  • N. giganteum
 Common occurrence in the lower shale bed Typical leaves of the faimily Nelumbonaceae
Nymphaeales[34] Indeterminate ("Morphotype-22") Few Specimens Aquatic Flowering Plant
Paradoxopteris[29][31] P. stromeri Co-Dominant plant Xerophytic tree fern suggestive of a dry tropical climate.
Plumafolium?[31][32] Indeterminate ("Morphotype-18") Few Specimens A Monocot, probably related with Liliopsida
Podozamites?[34] Indeterminate ("Morphotype-27") Few Specimens Coniferophyte
Pteridophyte[34] Indeterminate ("Morphotype-28") Few Specimens Fern clearly distinct from Weichselia
Rodgersia[29][31] R. longifolia Few Specimens Likely lobes of a much bigger leaf of Sapindopsis type
Trochodendroides?[34] Indeterminate ("Morphotype-23") Few Specimens Probably related to Cercidiphyllaceae
Typhaephyllum[29][31] cf. T. sp. Few Specimens Interpreted as a monocot, probably related to Typhaceae
Vitiphyllum[29][31] V. aff. multifidum Few Specimens Some similarities with Pabiania of the family Lauraceae
Weichselia[29] W. reticulata Dominant plant Xerophytic tree fern suggestive of a dry tropical climate.

See also

  • List of dinosaur-bearing rock formations

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 Catuneanu O., Khalifa M.A. & Wanas H.A. (2006). "Sequence stratigraphy of the Lower Cenomanian Bahariya Formation, Bahariya Oasis, Western Desert, Egypt". Sedimentary Geology 190 (1–4): 121–137. doi:10.1016/j.sedgeo.2006.05.010. Bibcode: 2006SedG..190..121C. http://www.wuestenschiff.de/dateien/bahariya.pdf. 
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 Catuneany et al., 2006, p.122
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 Weishampel, David B; et al (2004). "Dinosaur distribution (Late Cretaceous, Africa)." In: Weishampel, David B.; Dodson, Peter; and Osmólska, Halszka (eds.): The Dinosauria, 2nd, Berkeley: University of California Press. Pp. 604. ISBN 0-520-24209-2.
  4. ↑ Macgregor D.S. & Moody R.T.G. (1998). "Mesozoic and Cenozoic petroleum systems of North Africa". in Macgregor D.S.. Petroleum geology of North Africa. Special Publications. 132. Geological Society. pp. 201–216. ISBN 978-1-86239-004-1. http://sp.lyellcollection.org/content/132/1/201.abstract. 
  5. ↑ Khalifa M.A. & Catuneanu O. (2008). "Sedimentology of the fluvial and fluvio-marine facies of the Bahariya Formation (Early Cenomanian), Bahariya Oasis, Western Desert, Egypt". Journal of African Earth Sciences 51 (2): 89–103. doi:10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2007.12.004. Bibcode: 2008JAfES..51...89K. 
  6. ↑ Tanner L.H. & Khalifa M.A. (2010). "Origin of ferricretes in fluvial-marine deposits of the Lower Cenomanian Bahariya Formation, Bahariya Oasis, Western Desert, Egypt". Journal of African Earth Sciences 56 (4–5): 179–189. doi:10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2009.07.004. Bibcode: 2010JAfES..56..179T. 
  7. ↑ Pimentel, Ricardo; Barroso-Barcenilla, Fernando; Berrocal-Casero, Mélani; Callapez, Pedro Miguel; Ozkaya de Juanas, Senay; dos Santos, Vanda F. (2023). "On the Occurrence of the Gar Obaichthys africanus Grande in the Cretaceous of Portugal: Palaeoecological and Palaeobiogeographical Implications" (in en). Geosciences 13 (12): 372. doi:10.3390/geosciences13120372. ISSN 2076-3263. Bibcode: 2023Geosc..13..372P. 
  8. ↑ Cavin, Lionel; Boudad, Larbi; Tong, Haiyan; Läng, Emilie; Tabouelle, Jérôme; Vullo, Romain (2015). "Taxonomic composition and trophic structure of the continental bony fish assemblage from the early late cretaceous of Southeastern Morocco". PLOS ONE 10 (5). doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0125786. ISSN 1932-6203. PMID 26018561. Bibcode: 2015PLoSO..1025786C. 
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Stromer, Ernst (1934). "Ergebnisse der Forschungsreisen Prof. E. Stromers in den Wüsten Ägyptens. II. Wirbeltierreste der Baharije-Stufe (unterstes Cenoman). 14. Testudinata.". Abhandlungen der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Mathematisch Naturwissenschaftliche Abteilung. Neue Folge 25: 1–26. https://www.zobodat.at/publikation_volumes.php?id=47748. 
  10. ↑ Gaffney, Eugene S; Tong, Haiyan; Meylan, Peter A (2006). "Evolution of the side-necked turtles: the families Bothremydidae, Euraxemydidae, and Araripemydidae" (in en). Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 300: 1–698. doi:10.1206/0003-0090(2006)300[1:EOTSTT2.0.CO;2]. ISSN 0003-0090. http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/10.1206/0003-0090%282006%29300%5B1%3AEOTSTT%5D2.0.CO%3B2. 
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 Muhammed, Amr Mohsen; AbdelGawad, Mohamed K.; Hirayama, Ren; Sileem, Afifi; Aly, Mohamed F. (1 November 2025). "New materials on the Late Cretaceous (Cenomanian) turtles' assemblages from Bahariya depression, Western Desert, Egypt". Journal of African Earth Sciences 231. doi:10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2025.105786. Bibcode: 2025JAfES.23105786M. 
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 Stromer, Ernst (1935). "Ergebnisse der Forschungsreisen Prof. E. Stromers in den Wüsten Ägyptens. II. Wirbeltierreste der Baharije-Stufe (unterstes Cenoman) 15. Plesiosauria". Abhandlungen der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften - Mathematisch-naturwissenschaftliche Klasse 26: 1–55. https://www.zobodat.at/publikation_articles.php?id=269517. 
  13. ↑ Cruickshank,  Arthur. (1997). A Lower Cretaceous pliosauroid from South Africa. Annals of the South African Museum. (Annale van Die Suid-Afrikaanse Museum), 105, 207--226.
  14. ↑ Bunker, Georgina; Martill, David M.; Smith, Roy E.; Zouhri, Samir; Longrich, Nick (2022-12-01). "Plesiosaurs from the fluvial Kem Kem Group (mid-Cretaceous) of eastern Morocco and a review of non-marine plesiosaurs". Cretaceous Research 140. doi:10.1016/j.cretres.2022.105310. ISSN 0195-6671. Bibcode: 2022CrRes.14005310B. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0195667122001744. 
  15. ↑ Salem, Belal S.; Sallam, Hesham M.; El-Sayed, Sanaa; Thabet, Wael; Antar, Mohammed; Lamanna, Matthew C. (October 2019). "NEW DINOSAUR, PTEROSAUR, AND CROCODYLIFORM FOSSILS FROM THE UPPER CRETACEOUS (CENOMANIAN) BAHARIYA FORMATION OF THE BAHARIYA OASIS, EGYPT". Society of Vertebrate Paleontology (SVP) – Brisbane, Queensland, Australia. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/344722122. 
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 16.3 16.4 Salem, Belal S.; Lamanna, Matthew C.; O'Connor, Patrick M.; El-Qot, Gamal M.; Shaker, Fatma; Thabet, Wael A.; El-Sayed, Sanaa; Sallam, Hesham M. (2022). "First definitive record of Abelisauridae (Theropoda: Ceratosauria) from the Cretaceous Bahariya Formation, Bahariya Oasis, Western Desert of Egypt". Royal Society Open Science 9 (6). doi:10.1098/rsos.220106. PMID 35706658. Bibcode: 2022RSOS....920106S. 
  17. ↑ "Table 13.1," in Weishampel, et al. (2004). Page 267.
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 Stromer, E. (1932a). Ergebnisse der Forschungsreisen Prof. E. Stromers in den Wüsten Ägyptens. II. Wirbeltierreste der Baharîje-Stufe (unterstes Cenoman). 11. Sauropoda. Abhandlungen der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften Mathematisch-naturwissenschaftliche Abteilung, Neue Folge, 10: 1-21.
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 19.2 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Stromer36
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 "A giant sauropod dinosaur from an Upper Cretaceous mangrove deposit in Egypt". Science 292 (5522): 1704–6. June 2001. doi:10.1126/science.1060561. PMID 11387472. Bibcode: 2001Sci...292.1704S. http://doc.rero.ch/record/14792/files/PAL_E1924.pdf. 
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 21.2 Smith, Joshua; Lamanna, Matthew; Dodson, Peter; Attia, Y.; Lacovara, Kenneth (2001). "Evidence of a new theropod from the Late Cretaceous of Egypt.". Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology Meeting 21 (3): 102A. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/235708373. 
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 22.2 22.3 22.4 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named stromer34
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 23.2 23.3 23.4 Kellermann, Maximilian; Cuesta, Elena; Rauhut, Oliver W. M. (2025-01-14). "Re-evaluation of the Bahariya Formation carcharodontosaurid (Dinosauria: Theropoda) and its implications for allosauroid phylogeny" (in en). PLOS One 20 (1). doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0311096. ISSN 1932-6203. PMID 39808629. Bibcode: 2025PLoSO..2011096K. 
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 24.2 Sereno, Paul C.; Dutheil, Didier B.; Iarochene, M.; Larsson, Hans C. E.; Lyon, Gabrielle H.; Magwene, Paul M.; Sidor, Christian A.; Varricchio, David J. et al. (1996-05-17). "Predatory Dinosaurs from the Sahara and Late Cretaceous Faunal Differentiation". Science 272 (5264): 986–991. doi:10.1126/science.272.5264.986. PMID 8662584. Bibcode: 1996Sci...272..986S. https://www.science.org/doi/abs/10.1126/science.272.5264.986. 
  25. ↑ Ibrahim, Nizar; Sereno, Paul C.; Varricchio, David J.; Martill, David M.; Dutheil, Didier B.; Unwin, David M.; Baidder, Lahssen; Larsson, Hans C. E. et al. (2020-04-21). "Geology and paleontology of the Upper Cretaceous Kem Kem Group of eastern Morocco" (in en). ZooKeys (928): 1–216. doi:10.3897/zookeys.928.47517. ISSN 1313-2970. PMID 32362741. Bibcode: 2020ZooK..928....1I. 
  26. ↑ Rauhut, O.W.M., and Carrano, M.T. (2016). The theropod dinosaur Elaphrosaurus bambergi Janensch, 1920, from the Late Jurassic of Tendaguru, Tanzania. Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, (advance online publication) doi:10.1111/zoj.12425
  27. ↑ Carrano, Matthew T.; and Sampson, Scott D. (2008-01-01). "The Phylogeny of Ceratosauria (Dinosauria: Theropoda)". Journal of Systematic Palaeontology 6 (2): 183–236. doi:10.1017/S1477201907002246. ISSN 1477-2019. Bibcode: 2008JSPal...6..183C. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1017/S1477201907002246. 
  28. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Cau&Paterna25
  29. ↑ 29.00 29.01 29.02 29.03 29.04 29.05 29.06 29.07 29.08 29.09 29.10 29.11 Lejal-Nicol, A; Dominik, W. (1990). "Sur la paleoflore a Weichseliaceae et a angiospermes du Cenomanien de la region de Bahariya (Egypte du Sud-Ouest)". Berliner geowissenschaftliche Abhandlungen A 120 (5): 957–991. 
  30. ↑ Ijouhier, Jamale (2016) A reconstruction of the palaeoecology and environmental dynamics of the Bahariya Formation of Egypt. PeerJ Preprints, https://doi.org/10.7287/peerj.preprints.2470v1
  31. ↑ 31.00 31.01 31.02 31.03 31.04 31.05 31.06 31.07 31.08 31.09 31.10 31.11 31.12 31.13 31.14 31.15 El Atfy, Haytham; Coiffard, Clément; El Beialy, Salah Y.; Uhl, Dieter (2023-01-30). "Vegetation and climate change at the southern margin of the Neo-Tethys during the Cenomanian (Late Cretaceous): Evidence from Egypt". PLOS ONE 18 (1). doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0281008. ISSN 1932-6203. PMID 36716334. Bibcode: 2023PLoSO..1881008E. 
  32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 32.2 32.3 32.4 El Atfy, Haytham; Coiffard, Clément; Uhl, Dieter; Spiekermann, Rafael; El Khoriby, Essam M.; Aleraky, Heba; Mohamed, Ahmed (2023). "A new florula dominated by angiosperms from the Cenomanian of Egypt". Cretaceous Research 149. doi:10.1016/j.cretres.2023.105554. ISSN 0195-6671. Bibcode: 2023CrRes.14905554E. 
  33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 Lyon, M. A.; Johnson, K. R.; Wing, S. L.; Nichols, D. J.; Lacovara, K. J.; Smith, J. B. (2001). "Late Cretaceous equatorial coastal vegetation: new megaflora associated with dinosaur finds in the Bahariya Oasis, Egypt". Geological Society of America, Annual Meeting: 198. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/235708368. 
  34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 34.2 34.3 34.4 Coiffard, Clément; El Atfy, Haytham; Darwish, Mona H.; Mohamed, Ahmed (2025-08-31). "A reappraisal of the vegetation from the dinosaur-bearing Bahariya Formation (lower Cenomanian; Cretaceous), Egypt". Swiss Journal of Palaeontology 144 (1): 57. doi:10.1186/s13358-025-00387-0. ISSN 1664-2384. Bibcode: 2025SwJP..144...57C. 



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