Earth:Lunar Crater volcanic field

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Short description: Volcanic field in Nye County, Nevada
Lunar Crater volcanic field
Set of craters and degraded cones in an empty landscape
Aerial view of Lunar Crater and surrounding vents
Highest point
Elevation2,255 m (7,398 ft) [1]
CoordinatesTemplate:Coord/display/inline,intitle [2]
Geography
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Geology
Last eruption38,100 ± 10,000 years ago

Lunar Crater volcanic field is a volcanic field in Nye County, Nevada. It lies along the Reveille and Pancake Ranges and consists of over 200 vents, mostly small volcanic cones with associated lava flows but also several maars, including one maar named Lunar Crater. Some vents have been eroded so heavily that the structures underneath the volcanoes have been exposed. Lunar Crater itself has been used as a testing ground for Mars rovers and as training ground for astronauts.

The volcanic field has formed on top of older, Oligocene to Miocene age volcanic rocks and calderas, but its own activity commenced only about 6 million years ago. The reasons for the volcanic activity there are not well known. The volcanic field has produced various types of basaltic magma and also trachyte; the most recent eruption was about 38,000 years ago and renewed activity is possible.

Etymology and human use

Two people in astronaut-like clothing next to a deep crater
Astronaut training at Lunar Crater

The volcanic field is named after the Lunar Crater vent,[3] the most distinctive vent in the volcanic field.[1] The area is dry and rugged and thus uninhabited.[4] Owing to its diverse geology and accessibility, Lunar Crater volcanic field was used to test prototype Mars rovers[5] and as a training ground for astronauts[6] for the Moon landings.[4] Parts of the volcanic field lie within the Palisade Mesa wilderness study area,[7] and Lunar Crater is classified as a National Natural Landmark, known as Lunar Crater National Natural Landmark.[8]

Geography and geomorphology

The Lunar Crater volcanic field is located in Nye County,[9] in the central part[10] of the state of Nevada.[3] The field lies almost north from Rachel,[11] 62 miles (100 km) east-northeast from Tonopah[12] and 250 miles (400 km) north of Las Vegas.[13] Two highways run past its western and eastern margin,[14] and both Nevada State Route 375 and U.S. Route 6 pass through the volcanic field;[2] the volcanic field is about halfway between Tonopah and Ely along Route 6[15] and dirt roads run through the area.[8] A parking place lies at the foot of the Easy Chair crater[4] and another on the rim of Lunar Crater.[16]

The volcanic field covers a 50 miles (80 km) long and 12.4–6.2 miles (20–10 km) wide area[3] with a surface of about 390 square miles (1,000 km2).[17] Lunar Crater volcanic field extends in north-northeast to south-southwest direction[14] along the Reveille Range and Pancake Range and between Railroad Valley to the southeast and Hot Creek Valley/[2]Big Sand Springs Valley/Kawich Valley in the northwest.[18] Over 200 vents[lower-alpha 1] are located within the field,[19] mostly monogenetic volcanoes with[3] 0.62–6.21 miles (1–10 km) long[22] aa (blocky lava with a jagged surface[23])[24] lava flows along with a few lava domes,[3] dykes,[25] four[26] maars (craters formed by gas or steam explosions[27]), scoria cones,[10] tuff rings and volcano clusters;[3] cones reach heights of 660 feet (200 m) and widths of 3,900 feet (1,200 m) and often are open on one side while fissure vents are often associated with elongated ramparts.[28] The vents reach elevations of 1,800–2,100 meters (6,000–7,000 ft).[29] The Hot Creek geothermal field is within 18 kilometers (11 mi) from the Lunar Crater volcanic field but does not appear to have its heat source there.[30]

Erosion has led to topographic inversion at some volcanoes, forming lava-capped mesas (hills with flat tops[31]),[32] broadening and flattening volcanic cones[33] and has led to the formation of soils and drainage networks especially on older vents;[34] additionally, desert pavement and wind-transported material has accumulated on some lava flows.[10]

The 5.4 square miles (14 km2)[35] Lunar Lake playa[lower-alpha 2] is located in the northern part of the volcanic field;[37] it lies at 5,740 feet (1,750 m) elevation[35] and collects water from local drainages,[38] which only ephemerally contain water.[36]

Individual vents

Deep brown pit
Lunar Crater

Lunar Crater itself is almost circular and embedded in basaltic lavas, underlying tuffs and two older volcanic cones including Lunar Cone. A tephra ring (ring of volcanic material) defines a 3,600 feet (1,100 m) wide and 430 feet (130 m) deep crater[14] which is the endpoint of a small canyon that appears to predate the formation of Lunar Crater. An alluvial fan and a playa fill the bottom of the crater,[2] which is the lowest point in this volcanic field,[4] while its margins are surrounded by tephra beds including ash, lapilli, scoria and tuff blocks; it appears that most of these are older rocks that were torn out of the ground and ejected during the formation of Lunar Crater.[39] Cinder cones are found at Lunar Crater;[29] two vents east and southeast from Lunar Crater are known as North Kidney Butte and South Kidney Butte.[40]

The extremely well preserved[17] Marcath cone (also known as Black Rock[41][1]) only a few kilometers north of U.S. Route 6[42] is an approximately 490 feet (150 m) high and 1,600 by 3,000 feet (500 m × 900 m) wide volcanic cone, which formed over a fissure vent. Lava flows emanate from its western side, which reach lengths of several kilometers and after bypassing an older cone emerge onto the valley floor.[43] The flows have flow fronts about 16 feet (5 m) high;[44] lobes, inflation structures and material rafted off the cone appear on the lava flows,[45] which are classified as aa lava.[46] During the eruption of Marcath, tephra was emplaced northeastward for over 3.1 miles (5 km) and is formed by lapilli and scoria;[44] another tephra deposit extends south from Marcath cone.[47] The Marcath cone forms the Marcath unit,[43] the total volume of rocks is about 0.024 cubic miles (0.1 km3).[48]

The eroded[49] Kimana ("butterfly" in Shoshone) volcano is formed by aa lava flows and pyroclastic deposits that cover an area of 10 square miles (26 km2) and have a volume of 0.096 cubic miles (0.4 km3).[50] Broken Cone volcano along with several neighbouring bodies likely formed atop a fault (an offset in the ground formed by tectonic movements[51]) and consists of a pyroclastic pile, while the neighbouring bodies are remnants of lava flows.[52] There are also dykes, and the volcano may have featured a now-disappeared scoria cone.[53]

Easy Chair is an about 790 feet (240 m) high and c. 1.6 miles (2.5 km) long ridge in the Lunar Lake basin. The ridge is formed by pyroclastics emplaced on a fissure vent and partly buried/destroyed by two scoria cones and a maar; the cones in turn are the source of a lava flow field. The total volume of this structure is about 0.024 cubic miles (0.1 km3), without counting a poorly measured tephra deposit.[10]

Bea's Crater just southeast from Marcath volcano[38] is the third maar in the volcanic field[54] and appears to have had a complex history.[55] It formed within a dense cluster of older vents as two overlapping roughly 1,440 feet (440 m) and 3,440 feet (1,050 m) wide craters with a maximum depth of 482 feet (147 m); at the bottom lies a playa[38] and to its north lies Northeast Cone, which formed together with Bea's Crater.[56] Deposits including lapilli tuffs and possibly older volcanics surround Bea's Crater.[57] The so-called "Middle Maar" is the fourth maar in the volcanic field.[55]

Dark Peak in the Reveille Range is a Pliocene volcano whose underground structure, a dyke (a steep, tabular magma intrusion into rock[58]), is exposed as an almost 0.62 miles (1 km) long body that also contains the main conduit of the volcano.[59] There are also other traces of dykes[60] that formed when magma propagated away from the vent,[61] and a subdued lava field west from the vents.[62] Erosion has removed most of the volcano, exposing part of the underlying terrain.[63]

Geology

Regional

Intraplate volcanoes occur in many places of the Western United States, including along the Sierra Nevada, on the Colorado Plateau, the Basin and Range province and the Rio Grande Rift.[64] Lunar Crater volcanic field lies within the Basin and Range province[3] along with other volcanic fields, but in an unusually central[lower-alpha 3] position.[66] Upwelling of asthenospheric mantle in response to the tectonic regime of the Basin and Range may be responsible for the eruptive activity there, although other processes have also been proposed[17] such as mantle downwelling and compensating flow in the asthenosphere;[67] older volcanism in the region is related to the subduction of the Farallon Plate.[68]

The Basin and Range province has had a complicated geological history[69] and in the last 20 million years[41] features extensional tectonics (tectonic processes involving a dilatation of the crust[70])[66] represented by normal faults (faults where the downmoving blocks move in a way consistent with gravity[51]).[71] The crust is relatively thin,[69] 19–21 miles (30–33 km),[17] and underpinned by an unusually hot mantle[69] which underneath Lunar Crater volcanic field has a slow seismic velocity.[72] Crustal heat flow is low.[64]

The Lunar Crater volcanic field is part of a larger[14] Pliocene and Pleistocene[66] volcanic zone that extends over the Crater Flat area[73] southward into Death Valley, California ;[14] it is known as the "Death Valley-Pancake Range basalt zone".[65] This volcanic zone has received attention due to its proximity and relationship to Yucca Mountain, where a nuclear waste repository is planned,[74] although a relationship between Lunar Crater volcanic field and volcanics close to Yucca Mountain is debatable.[75]

Local

Older volcanic activity occurred in the field during the Oligocene and Miocene, generating calderas (usually large craters formed by the explosion or collapse of a volcano[76])[19] such as the Central Nevada Caldera Complex[54] and the Lunar Lake caldera which underlies much of the northern Lunar Crater volcanic field.[77] The volcanism produced ignimbrites, andesitic lavas and tuffs such as the 24 million years old Buckwheat Rim Tuff that Lunar Crater is embedded in; some of these volcanic rocks form structural blocks such as the Citadel Mountain block[3] and the Pancake Range[72] and others are correlated to ignimbrite sheets elsewhere in Nevada.[78] An early caldera-forming ignimbritic phase was followed by an andesitic lavic phase,[64] and in the last 11 million years basaltic eruptions have taken place in the Basin and Range.[41]

These older volcanics also form the basement (underground rock surface[79]) in the area, while parts of the region are covered by alluvium (sediment that was transported by water[80]);[81] sometimes the older volcanics are buried beneath this alluvium and playa deposits.[10] In turn, Paleozoic rocks crop out at the northeastern margin of the Lunar Crater volcanic field[26] and underlie the older volcanics.[64][54] Finally, Proterozoic crystalline rocks occur within the crust.[17] The geology of the region is dominated by fault-separated blocks with only little folding.[78]

Some vents form alignments, and the positions of (not all) individual volcanoes appear to be controlled by normal faults,[3] although isolated volcanoes or clusters also occur[19] and the ascent of magma at many vents was influenced by the general tectonic regime rather than by specific faults.[82] The faults have also influenced the older volcanism[69] and that in turn the Lunar Crater volcanic field.[83] Volcanic activity has buried many of the faults in the area[69] and there is little evidence of ongoing faulting and deformation.[84]

Composition

Pile of jagged black rocks with little vegetation
A close-up of the youngest lava flow

The Lunar Crater vents have erupted alkali basalts; trachyte occurs at two lava domes[3] and basalts, basanite, tephrite and trachybasalt have been reported as well.[85] In general, the volcanic rocks define an ocean island basalt suite that originated in the asthenosphere.[26] The rocks contain phenocrysts.[lower-alpha 4] inclusions and nodules.[lower-alpha 5] Alteration has formed chlorite, epidote and sericite.[88] In the northern part of the volcanic field, lavas have a porphyritic (with a texture characterized by visible crystals[89]) appearance.[17]

The magma appears to originate from a heterogeneous mantle and ponds and crystallizes underneath and inside the crust[90] but without stalling in long-lived magma chambers,[91] before rapidly rising to the surface.[92] Each volcano was supplied by one batch of magma.[26]

Climate and vegetation

Winter landscape in the Reveille Range

The climate is continental[29] and arid,[44] with annual precipitation of about 4.7 inches (12 cm). Mean temperatures are about 54 °F (12 °C), with maxima and minima of 90 °F (32 °C) and 18 °F (−8 °C) respectively.[12] Vegetation is scarce[44] and consists mostly of sagebrush steppe with bushes like greasewood and saltbrush with grass such as Indian ricegrass underneath.[4][12] The Lunar Crater is also the type location of the "Lunar Crater Howell's-buckwheat", Johanneshowellia crateriorum.[93]

Eruption history

The volcanic field was active in the Miocene[19]/Pliocene and Pleistocene,[3] with the oldest eruptions dated to about 6 million years ago.[19] Volcanism occurred in four stages,[94] with activity peaking every 1-2 million years.[95] The southern volcanics on Reveille Range[19] and in Kawich Valley[72] are the older ones, while more recent eruptions occurred farther north on Pancake Range although at any given point of time the field was active over a large area. As a consequence of the long duration of volcanism, the various volcanic centers have been eroded at varying degrees[19] while volcanism moved to the north[96] at a rate of about 0.39 inches per year (1 cm/year).[97] A mean magma flux rate of 4.1×10−6 cubic miles per year (0.000017 km3/a) has been reported for Lunar Crater volcanic field,[98] with a tendency to decrease over time[95] and changes in the composition.[17]

Many eruptions in Lunar Crater volcanic field have been dated; aside from radiometric dating[99] differences in the grade of weathering and erosion have also been used to determine the relative age of volcanic units[78] as older vents are often degraded and buried by soils:[100]

  • Kimana is probably about 5.7 ± 0.2 million years old.[50]
  • Qc cone was emplaced 1.61 ± 0.14 million years ago.[3]
  • The Mizpah unit was emplaced between 740,000 and 620,000 years ago.[66]
  • Easy Chair is dated to be 140,000 ± 5,000 years old.[10]
  • The Giggle Springs unit was dated to less than 81,000 ± 5,000 years ago.[66]

Lunar Crater's own age is not known,[3] a tephra potentially correlated to it may have been emplaced 600,000 ± 30,000 to 224,000 ± 43,000 years ago. Scarce traces of erosion imply a late Pleistocene age, however,[14] with a more recent age estimate of 190,000 - 72,000 years ago.[20] Bea's Crater is also not directly dated but may be 300,000 - 100,000 years old.[38]

The emplacement of individual vents often began with explosive eruptions that formed mounds, before effusive eruptions (eruptions characterized by the production of lava flows[101]) generated lava flows.[102] The volcanic eruptions had characteristics of Hawaiian or Strombolian eruptions, with maars and tuff rings forming where ascending magma interacted with groundwater[19] and volcanic cones where ejecta from the vent piled up and formed a cone.[103] In some places, several eruptions occurred over timespans of over one million years and gave rise to closely spaced vents.[3] Lava flows were produced at rates of about 35–3,531 cubic feet per second (1–100 m3/s)[22] and at Kimana and Broken Cone probably occurred through lateral vents.[104] The Marcath eruption may have lasted up to 20 days;[105] it probably occurred during southwesterly wind and formed a 3.7–5.0 miles (6–8 km) high eruption column.[106]

Most recent eruption and hazards

The most recent eruption occurred 38,000 ± 10,000 years ago[3] and formed the Marcath (or Black Rock)[lower-alpha 6] unit.[66] Tephra from the volcanic field is mixed with sediments less than 18,000 - 9,500 years old[108] and the Black Rock lava flow was once considered to be of early Holocene age but is now considered to be Pleistocene.[1] In light of the recent activity[17] future eruptions are possible, and thus the volcanic field could be considered active.[19] Scoria cone forming eruptions can be hazardous owing to the ejection of ballistic blocks, generation on lava flows and tephra which can disrupt air traffic, even though such eruptions are usually of small volume.[109]

Notes

  1. ↑ The exact number of vents is not known[19] as many of them are eroded or otherwise degraded[20] and some volcanoes may be buried under sediments in the basins.[18] Older tephra deposits crop out in a quarry.[21]
  2. ↑ Dry lake[36]
  3. ↑ Recent volcanism in the Basin and Range province usually occurs at the margins of the province[13] where it has migrated to over time.[65]
  4. ↑ Phenocrysts include amphibole,[10] clinopyroxene, olivine, plagioclase[86] and sanidine in the trachytes,[48]
  5. ↑ Inclusions and nodules are formed by clinopyroxenite, dunite,[87] gabbro,[10] harzburgite, lherzolite,[87] peridotite,[88] spinel and wehrlite[87]
  6. ↑ Formerly it was dated to be 350,000 ± 50,000 years old.[107]

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 "Lunar Crater". Smithsonian Institution. https://volcano.si.edu/volcano.cfm?vn=326803. 
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 Valentine, Shufelt & Hintz 2011, p. 757.
  3. ↑ 3.00 3.01 3.02 3.03 3.04 3.05 3.06 3.07 3.08 3.09 3.10 3.11 3.12 3.13 3.14 Valentine, Shufelt & Hintz 2011, p. 755.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 Orndorff, Wieder & Filkorn 2001, p. 178.
  5. ↑ Arvidson, R. E.; Squyres, S. W.; Baumgartner, E. T.; Schenker, P. S.; Niebur, C. S.; Larsen, K. W.; SeelosIV, F. P.; Snider, N. O. et al. (2002). "FIDO prototype Mars rover field trials, Black Rock Summit, Nevada, as test of the ability of robotic mobility systems to conduct field science" (in en). Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets 107 (E11): 6. doi:10.1029/2000JE001464. ISSN 2156-2202. Bibcode: 2002JGRE..107.8002A. 
  6. ↑ Léveillé, Richard (1 March 2010). "A half-century of terrestrial analog studies: From craters on the Moon to searching for life on Mars". Planetary and Space Science 58 (4): 634. doi:10.1016/j.pss.2009.04.001. ISSN 0032-0633. Bibcode: 2010P&SS...58..631L. 
  7. ↑ Diggles et al. 1986, p. B2.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 Diggles et al. 1986, p. B1.
  9. ↑ "Cenozoic rocks of Nevada: Four maps and brief description of distribution, lithology, age, and centers of volcanism". p. 3. http://pubs.nbmg.unr.edu/product-p/m052.htm. 
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 10.6 10.7 Valentine & Cortés 2013, p. 2.
  11. ↑ Yogodzinski et al. 1996, p. 17426.
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 Turrin, Abrahams & Dohrenwend 1987, p. 407.
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 Tadini et al. 2014, p. 2.
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4 14.5 Valentine, Shufelt & Hintz 2011, p. 756.
  15. ↑ Scott & Trask 1971, p. 11.
  16. ↑ Orndorff, Wieder & Filkorn 2001, p. 181.
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 17.3 17.4 17.5 17.6 17.7 Rasoazanamparany et al. 2015, p. 77.
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 Turrin et al. 2017, p. 395.
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 19.2 19.3 19.4 19.5 19.6 19.7 19.8 19.9 Hintz & Valentine 2012, p. 21.
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 Turrin et al. 2017, p. 394.
  21. ↑ Turrin et al. 2017, p. 424.
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 Valentine, Shufelt & Hintz 2011, p. 762.
  23. ↑ Gates & Ritchie 2006, p. 1.
  24. ↑ Turrin et al. 2017, p. 433.
  25. ↑ Hintz & Valentine 2012, p. 23.
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 26.2 26.3 Tadini et al. 2014, p. 3.
  27. ↑ Gates & Ritchie 2006, p. 157.
  28. ↑ Turrin et al. 2017, p. 414.
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 29.2 Orndorff, Wieder & Filkorn 2001, p. 177.
  30. ↑ Benoit, Dick; Blackwell, David (2005-10-31) (in English). Exploration of the Upper Hot Creek Ranch Geothermal Resource, Nye County, Nevada (Report). p. 8. 
  31. ↑ Gates & Ritchie 2006, p. 163.
  32. ↑ Turrin et al. 2017, p. 426.
  33. ↑ Wood 1980, p. 146.
  34. ↑ Turrin et al. 2017, p. 428.
  35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 Greeley, Ronald; Blumberg, Dan G.; McHone, John F.; Dobrovolskis, Anthony; Iversen, James D.; Lancaster, Nicholas; Rasmussen, Keld R.; Wall, Stephen D. et al. (25 May 1997). "Applications of spaceborne radar laboratory data to the study of aeolian processes". Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets 102 (E5): 10974. doi:10.1029/97JE00518. Bibcode: 1997JGR...10210971G. 
  36. ↑ 36.0 36.1 Diggles et al. 1986, p. B3.
  37. ↑ Turrin et al. 2017, p. 397.
  38. ↑ 38.0 38.1 38.2 38.3 Amin & Valentine 2017, p. 42.
  39. ↑ Valentine, Shufelt & Hintz 2011, p. 758.
  40. ↑ Snyder, R.P.; Ekren, E.B.; Dixon, G.L. (1972). Geologic map of the Lunar Crater Quadrangle, Nye County, Nevada (Map).
  41. ↑ 41.0 41.1 41.2 Johnson et al. 2014, p. 27.
  42. ↑ Ruth et al. 2015, p. 399.
  43. ↑ 43.0 43.1 Ruth et al. 2015, p. 398.
  44. ↑ 44.0 44.1 44.2 44.3 Johnson et al. 2014, p. 28.
  45. ↑ Turrin et al. 2017, p. 421.
  46. ↑ Younger, Valentine & Gregg 2019, p. 2.
  47. ↑ Johnson et al. 2014, p. 29.
  48. ↑ 48.0 48.1 Turrin et al. 2017, p. 419.
  49. ↑ Turrin et al. 2017, p. 416.
  50. ↑ 50.0 50.1 Hintz & Valentine 2012, p. 22.
  51. ↑ 51.0 51.1 Gates & Ritchie 2006, p. 83.
  52. ↑ Hintz & Valentine 2012, p. 26.
  53. ↑ Hintz & Valentine 2012, p. 28.
  54. ↑ 54.0 54.1 54.2 Amin & Valentine 2017, p. 41.
  55. ↑ 55.0 55.1 Turrin et al. 2017, p. 417.
  56. ↑ Amin & Valentine 2017, p. 48.
  57. ↑ Amin & Valentine 2017, p. 43.
  58. ↑ Gates & Ritchie 2006, p. 70.
  59. ↑ Harp & Valentine 2015, p. 38.
  60. ↑ Harp & Valentine 2015, p. 39.
  61. ↑ Harp & Valentine 2015, p. 41.
  62. ↑ Harp & Valentine 2015, p. 50.
  63. ↑ Harp & Valentine 2015, p. 53.
  64. ↑ 64.0 64.1 64.2 64.3 Turrin et al. 2017, p. 392.
  65. ↑ 65.0 65.1 Farmer, G. L.; Perry, F. V.; Semken, S.; Crowe, B.; Curtis, D.; DePaolo, D. J. (2012). "Isotopic evidence on the structure and origin of subcontinental lithospheric mantle in southern Nevada" (in en). Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth 94: 7887. doi:10.1029/JB094iB06p07885. ISSN 2156-2202. https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1029/JB094iB06p07885%4010.1002/%28ISSN%292169-9356.MAGLITH1. 
  66. ↑ 66.0 66.1 66.2 66.3 66.4 66.5 Ruth et al. 2015, p. 397.
  67. ↑ Cousens, Wetmore & Henry 2013, p. 32.
  68. ↑ Cousens, Wetmore & Henry 2013, p. 17.
  69. ↑ 69.0 69.1 69.2 69.3 69.4 Tadini et al. 2014, p. 4.
  70. ↑ USGS, Extensional tectonic environment.
  71. ↑ Tadini et al. 2014, p. 7.
  72. ↑ 72.0 72.1 72.2 Turrin et al. 2017, p. 393.
  73. ↑ Yogodzinski et al. 1996, p. 17425.
  74. ↑ Smith, Eugene I.; Keenan, Deborah L. (2005). "Yucca Mountain could face greater volcanic threat". Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union 86 (35): 317. doi:10.1029/2005EO350001. Bibcode: 2005EOSTr..86..317S. 
  75. ↑ Perry, F.; Youngs, R. (14 October 2004) (in English). Characterize Framework for Igneous Activity at Yucca Mountain, Nevada (Report). Yucca Mountain Project, Las Vegas, Nevada (US). pp. 29–30. 
  76. ↑ Gates & Ritchie 2006, p. 38.
  77. ↑ Diggles et al. 1986, p. B6.
  78. ↑ 78.0 78.1 78.2 Scott & Trask 1971, p. 12.
  79. ↑ Allaby, Michael (2013) (in en). A Dictionary of Geology and Earth Sciences (4 ed.). OUP Oxford. p. 56. ISBN 978-0-19-965306-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=2r7xyJSp4R0C. 
  80. ↑ Bampton, Matthew (1999). "Alluvium" (in en). Environmental Geology. Encyclopedia of Earth Science. Springer Netherlands. pp. 18–19. doi:10.1007/1-4020-4494-1_12. ISBN 978-1-4020-4494-6. 
  81. ↑ Hintz & Valentine 2012, p. 20.
  82. ↑ Tadini et al. 2014, p. 13.
  83. ↑ Turrin et al. 2017, p. 400.
  84. ↑ Turrin, Abrahams & Dohrenwend 1987, p. 406.
  85. ↑ Ruth et al. 2015, p. 400.
  86. ↑ Ruth et al. 2015, pp. 397-398.
  87. ↑ 87.0 87.1 87.2 Rasoazanamparany et al. 2015, p. 78.
  88. ↑ 88.0 88.1 Valentine & Cortés 2013, p. 5.
  89. ↑ Gates & Ritchie 2006, p. 277.
  90. ↑ Ruth et al. 2015, p. 410.
  91. ↑ Ruth et al. 2015, p. 412.
  92. ↑ Ruth et al. 2015, p. 411.
  93. ↑ Reveal, James L. (1 October 2004). "Johanneshowellia (Polygonaceae: Eriogonoideae), a new genus from the Intermountain West" (in de). Brittonia 56 (4): 304. doi:10.1663/0007-196X(2004)056[0299:JPEANG2.0.CO;2]. ISSN 0007-196X. 
  94. ↑ Turrin et al. 2017, pp. 394-395.
  95. ↑ 95.0 95.1 Bianco, Todd Anthony; Conrad, Clinton P.; Smith, Eugene I. (November 2011). "Time dependence of intraplate volcanism caused by shear-driven upwelling of low-viscosity regions within the asthenosphere". Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth 116 (B11): 13. doi:10.1029/2011JB008270. Bibcode: 2011JGRB..11611103B. 
  96. ↑ Harp & Valentine 2015, p. 37.
  97. ↑ Foland, K. A.; Kargel, J. S.; Lum, C. L.; Bergman, S.C. (1987). "Time-spatial-compositional relationships among alkali basalts in the vicinity of the Lunar Crater, south central Nevada". Geological Society of America Abstracts with Programs 19: 666. 
  98. ↑ White, Scott M.; Crisp, Joy A.; Spera, Frank J. (March 2006). "Long-term volumetric eruption rates and magma budgets". Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems 7 (3): n/a. doi:10.1029/2005GC001002. Bibcode: 2006GGG.....7.3010W. https://scholarcommons.sc.edu/geol_facpub/69. 
  99. ↑ Turrin et al. 2017, p. 398.
  100. ↑ Scott & Trask 1971, p. 13.
  101. ↑ USGS, Effusive eruption.
  102. ↑ Scott & Trask 1971, p. 17.
  103. ↑ "Black Rock Lava Flow Nye County, Nevada". University of Nevada, Reno. http://www.nbmg.unr.edu/ScienceEducation/EarthCaches/BlackRockLavaFlow.html. 
  104. ↑ Hintz & Valentine 2012, p. 31.
  105. ↑ Younger, Valentine & Gregg 2019, p. 13.
  106. ↑ Johnson, P. J.; Tadini, A.; Valentine, G. A. (1 December 2012). "Characterization of Tephra Fall Deposit at Lunar Crater Volcanic Field, Nevada". AGU Fall Meeting Abstracts 53: V53C–2852. Bibcode: 2012AGUFM.V53C2852J. 
  107. ↑ Harris, Lennox; Finkel, Robert; Caffee, Marc; Arvidson, Raymond E.; Shepard, Michael K. (1 January 1995). "Cosmogenic exposure ages of basalt flows: Lunar Crater volcanic field, Nevada" (in en). Geology 23 (1): 21. doi:10.1130/0091-7613(1995)023<0021:CEAOBF>2.3.CO;2. ISSN 0091-7613. Bibcode: 1995Geo....23...21S. 
  108. ↑ Wood 1980, p. 147.
  109. ↑ Harp, A.; Valentine, G. (1 December 2013). "Shallow Plumbing Geometry of a Monogenetic Volcano, Lunar Crater Volcanic Field, Nevada". AGU Fall Meeting Abstracts 21: V21B–2717. Bibcode: 2013AGUFM.V21B2717H. 

Sources

External links

  • Morton, Mary Caperton (2017) (in en). Aerial Geology: A High-Altitude Tour of North America's Spectacular Volcanoes, Canyons, Glaciers, Lakes, Craters, and Peaks. Timber Press. ISBN 9781604698350. 



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