Earth:Radioglaciology

From HandWiki

Radioglaciology is the study of glaciers, ice sheets, ice caps and icy moons using ice penetrating radar. It employs a geophysical method similar to ground-penetrating radar and typically operates at frequencies in the MF, HF, VHF and UHF portions of the radio spectrum.[1][2][3][4] This technique is also commonly referred to as "Ice Penetrating Radar (IPR)" or "Radio Echo Sounding (RES)".

Glaciers are particularly well suited to investigation by radar because the conductivity, imaginary part of the permittivity, and the dielectric absorption of ice are small at radio frequencies resulting in low loss tangent, skin depth, and attenuation values. This allows echoes from the base of the ice sheet to be detected through ice thicknesses greater than 4 km.[5][6] The subsurface observation of ice masses using radio waves has been an integral and evolving geophysical technique in glaciology for over half a century.[7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14] Its most widespread uses have been the measurement of ice thickness, subglacial topography, and ice sheet stratigraphy.[15][8][5] It has also been used to observe the subglacial and conditions of ice sheets and glaciers, including hydrology, thermal state, accumulation, flow history, ice fabric, and bed geology.[1] In planetary science, ice penetrating radar has also been used to explore the subsurface of the Polar Ice Caps on Mars and comets.[16][17][18] Missions are planned to explore the icy moons of Jupiter.[19][20]

Measurements and applications

Radioglaciology uses nadir facing radars to probe the subsurface of glaciers, ice sheets, ice caps, and icy moons and to detect reflected and scattered energy from within and beneath the ice.[8] This geometry tends to emphasize coherent and specular reflected energy resulting in distinct forms of the radar equation.[21][22] Collected radar data typically undergoes signal processing ranging from stacking (or pre-summing) to migration to Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) focusing in 1, 2, or 3 dimensions.[23][24][25][22] This data is collected using ice penetrating radar systems which range from commercial (or bespoke) ground penetrating radar (GPR) systems[26][27] to coherent, chirped airborne sounders [28][29][30] to swath-imaging,[31] multi-frequency,[32] or polarimetric[33] implementations of such systems. Additionally, stationary, phase-sensitive, and Frequency Modulated Continuous Wave (FMCW) radars [34][35][36] have been used to observe snow,[37] ice shelf melt rates,[38] englacial hydrology,[39] ice sheet structure,[40] and vertical ice flow.[41][42] Interferometric analysis of airborne systems have also been demonstrated to measure vertical ice flow.[43] Additionally, radioglaciological instruments have been developed to operate on autonomous platforms,[44] on in-situ probes,[45] in low-cost deployments,[46] using Software Defined Radios,[47] and exploiting ambient radio signals for passive sounding.[48][49]

The most common scientific application for radioglaciological observations is measuring ice thickness and bed topography. This includes interpolated "bed maps",[6][50][51][52] widely used in ice sheet modeling and sea level rise projections, studies exploring specific ice-sheet regions,[53][54][55][56][57] and observations of glacier beds.[58][59][60][61] The strength and character of radar echoes from the bed of the ice sheet are also used to investigate the reflectivity[62][27] of the bed, the attenuation[63][64][65] of radar in the ice, and the morphology of the bed.[66][67][68] In addition bed echoes, radar returns from englacial layers[69] are used in studies of the radio stratigraphy of ice sheets[70][71][72][73][74] including investigations of ice accumulation,[75][76][77][78][79] flow,[80][81][82][83] and fabric[84][85] as well as absence or disturbances of that stratigraphy.[86][87][88] Radioglaciology data has also been used extensively to study subglacial lakes[89][90][91][92][93][94] and glacial hydrology[95] including englacial water,[96][97][98] firn aquifers,[99] and their temporal evolution.[100][39][101] Ice penetrating radar data has also been used to investigate the subsurface of ice shelves including their grounding zones,[102][103] melt rates,[104][105] brine distribution,[106] and basal channels.[107]

Planetary exploration

There are currently two ice-penetrating radars orbiting Mars: MARSIS and SHARAD.[108][109][110][111][112][113][114][115][116][117] An ice penetrating radar was also part of the ROSETTA mission to comet 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko.[17] Ice penetrating radars are also included in the payloads of two planned missions to the icy moons of Jupiter: JUICE and Europa Clipper.[19][118][119][120][121][122][123]

IGS symposia

The International Glaciological Society (IGS) holds a periodic series of symposia focused on radioglaciology. In 2008, the "Symposium on Radioglaciology and its Applications" was hosted at the Technical University of Madrid.  In 2013, the "Symposium on Radioglaciology" was hosted at the University of Kansas. In 2019, the "Symposium of Five Decades of Radioglaciology" was hosted at Stanford University.

Further reading

The following books and papers cover important topics in radioglaciology

  • Allen C (2008) of-ice-2/ A brief history of radio-echo sounding of ice. Earthzine.
  • Bingham RG and Siegert MJ (2007) Radio-echo sounding over polar ice masses. Journal of Environmental and Engineering Geophysics 12(1), 47–62.
  • Bogorodsky, VV,  Bentley CR, and Gudmandsen PE (1985) Radioglaciology. D. Reidel Publishing
  • Dowdeswell JA and Evans S (2004) Investigations of the form and flow of ice sheets and glaciers using radio-echo sounding. Reports on Progress in Physics 67(10), 1821–1861.
  • Haynes M (2020) Surface and subsurface radar equations for radar sounders. Annals of Glaciology 61(81), 135–142.
  • Hubbard B and Glasser NF (2005). Field Techniques in Glaciology and Glacial Geomorphology. John Wiley & Sons.
  • Navarro F and Eisen O (2009). 11. Ground-penetrating radar in glaciological in Remote Sensing of Glaciers, Pellikka P and Rees GW (editors).
  • Pettinelli E and 6 others (2015) Dielectric properties of Jovian satellite ice analogs for subsurface radar exploration: a review. Reviews of Geophysics 53(3), 593–641.
  • Schroeder DM, Bingham RG, Blankenship, DD, Christianson, K, Eisen, O, Flowers, GE, Karlsson, NB, Koutnik MR, Paden JD, Siegert, MJ (2020) Five decades of radioglaciology. Annals of Glaciology 61(81), 1-13.
  • Turchetti S, Dean K, Naylor S and Siegert M (2008) Accidents and opportunities: a history of the radio echo-sounding of Antarctica, 1958–79. The British Journal for the History of Science 41(3), 417–444.

Research institutions

Research and education in radioglaciology is undertaken at universities and research institutes around the world.  These groups found in institutions and departments that span physical geography, geophysics, earth science, planetary science, electrical engineering, and related disciplines.

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Schroeder, Dustin M.; Bingham, Robert G.; Blankenship, Donald D.; Christianson, Knut; Eisen, Olaf; Flowers, Gwenn E.; Karlsson, Nanna B.; Koutnik, Michelle R. et al. (April 2020). "Five decades of radioglaciology" (in en). Annals of Glaciology 61 (81): 1–13. doi:10.1017/aog.2020.11. ISSN 0260-3055. Bibcode: 2020AnGla..61....1S. 
  2. ↑ Kulessa, B.; Booth, A. D.; Hobbs, A.; Hubbard, A. L. (2008-12-18). "Automated monitoring of subglacial hydrological processes with ground-penetrating radar (GPR) at high temporal resolution: scope and potential pitfalls" (in en). Geophysical Research Letters 35 (24): L24502. doi:10.1029/2008GL035855. ISSN 0094-8276. Bibcode: 2008GeoRL..3524502K. 
  3. ↑ Bogorodsky, VV; Bentley, CR; Gudmandsen, PE (1985). Radioglaciology. D. Reidel Publishing. 
  4. ↑ Pellikka, Petri, ed (2009-12-16) (in en). Remote Sensing of Glaciers: Techniques for Topographic, Spatial and Thematic Mapping of Glaciers (0 ed.). CRC Press. doi:10.1201/b10155. ISBN 978-0-429-20642-9. https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/9780203851302. 
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Bamber, J. L.; Griggs, J. A.; Hurkmans, R. T. W. L.; Dowdeswell, J. A.; Gogineni, S. P.; Howat, I.; Mouginot, J.; Paden, J. et al. (2013-03-22). "A new bed elevation dataset for Greenland" (in en). The Cryosphere 7 (2): 499–510. doi:10.5194/tc-7-499-2013. ISSN 1994-0424. Bibcode: 2013TCry....7..499B. https://tc.copernicus.org/articles/7/499/2013/. 
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 Fretwell, P.; Pritchard, H. D.; Vaughan, D. G.; Bamber, J. L.; Barrand, N. E. et al. (28 February 2013). "Bedmap2: improved ice bed, surface and thickness datasets for Antarctica". The Cryosphere 7 (1): 390. doi:10.5194/tc-7-375-2013. Bibcode: 2013TCry....7..375F. http://www.the-cryosphere.net/7/375/2013/tc-7-375-2013.pdf. Retrieved 6 January 2014. 
  7. ↑ Allen, Christopher (September 26, 2008). "A Brief History Of Radio – Echo Sounding Of Ice". https://earthzine.org/a-brief-history-of-radio-echo-sounding-of-ice-2/. 
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 Dowdeswell, J A; Evans, S (2004-10-01). "Investigations of the form and flow of ice sheets and glaciers using radio-echo sounding". Reports on Progress in Physics 67 (10): 1821–1861. doi:10.1088/0034-4885/67/10/R03. ISSN 0034-4885. Bibcode: 2004RPPh...67.1821D. https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/0034-4885/67/10/R03. 
  9. ↑ Drewry, DJ (1983). Antarctica: Glaciological and Geophysical Folio, Vol. 2. University of Cambridge, Scott Polar Research Institute Cambridge. 
  10. ↑ Gudmandsen, P. (December 1969). "Airborne Radio Echo Sounding of the Greenland Ice Sheet". The Geographical Journal 135 (4): 548–551. doi:10.2307/1795099. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1795099. 
  11. ↑ Robin, G. de Q. (1975). "Radio-Echo Sounding: Glaciological Interpretations and Applications" (in en). Journal of Glaciology 15 (73): 49–64. doi:10.3189/S0022143000034262. ISSN 0022-1430. 
  12. ↑ Steenson, BO (1951). Radar Methods for the Exploration of Glaciers (PhD). California Institute of Technology.
  13. ↑ Stern, W (1930). Principles, methods and results of electrodynamic thickness measurement of glacier ice. Zeitschrift fur Gletscherkunde 18, 24. 
  14. ↑ Turchetti, Simone; Dean, Katrina; Naylor, Simon; Siegert, Martin (September 2008). "Accidents and opportunities: a history of the radio echo-sounding of Antarctica, 1958–79" (in en). The British Journal for the History of Science 41 (3): 417–444. doi:10.1017/S0007087408000903. ISSN 0007-0874. https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0007087408000903/type/journal_article. 
  15. ↑ Bingham, R. G.; Siegert, M. J. (2007-03-01). "Radio-Echo Sounding Over Polar Ice Masses" (in en). Journal of Environmental & Engineering Geophysics 12 (1): 47–62. doi:10.2113/JEEG12.1.47. ISSN 1083-1363. Bibcode: 2007JEEG...12...47B. http://jeeg.geoscienceworld.org/cgi/doi/10.2113/JEEG12.1.47. 
  16. ↑ Picardi, G. (2005-12-23). "Radar Soundings of the Subsurface of Mars" (in en). Science 310 (5756): 1925–1928. doi:10.1126/science.1122165. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 16319122. Bibcode: 2005Sci...310.1925P. 
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 Kofman, W.; Herique, A.; Barbin, Y.; Barriot, J.-P.; Ciarletti, V.; Clifford, S.; Edenhofer, P.; Elachi, C. et al. (2015-07-31). "Properties of the 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko interior revealed by CONSERT radar" (in en). Science 349 (6247): aab0639. doi:10.1126/science.aab0639. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 26228153. Bibcode: 2015Sci...349b0639K. 
  18. ↑ Seu, Roberto; Phillips, Roger J.; Biccari, Daniela; Orosei, Roberto; Masdea, Arturo; Picardi, Giovanni; Safaeinili, Ali; Campbell, Bruce A. et al. (2007-05-18). "SHARAD sounding radar on the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter" (in en). Journal of Geophysical Research 112 (E5): E05S05. doi:10.1029/2006JE002745. ISSN 0148-0227. Bibcode: 2007JGRE..112.5S05S. http://doi.wiley.com/10.1029/2006JE002745. 
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 Blankenship, DD (2018). and 5 others. "Reasons for Europa". 42nd COSPAR Scientific Assembly 42. 
  20. ↑ Bruzzone, L; Alberti, G; Catallo, C; Ferro, A; Kofman, W; Orosei, R (May 2011). "Subsurface Radar Sounding of the Jovian Moon Ganymede". Proceedings of the IEEE 99 (5): 837–857. doi:10.1109/JPROC.2011.2108990. ISSN 0018-9219. https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/5738315. 
  21. ↑ Haynes, Mark S. (April 2020). "Surface and subsurface radar equations for radar sounders" (in en). Annals of Glaciology 61 (81): 135–142. doi:10.1017/aog.2020.16. ISSN 0260-3055. Bibcode: 2020AnGla..61..135H. 
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 Peters, M.E.; Blankenship, D.D.; Carter, S.P.; Kempf, S.D.; Young, D.A.; Holt, J.W. (September 2007). "Along-Track Focusing of Airborne Radar Sounding Data From West Antarctica for Improving Basal Reflection Analysis and Layer Detection". IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing 45 (9): 2725–2736. doi:10.1109/TGRS.2007.897416. ISSN 0196-2892. Bibcode: 2007ITGRS..45.2725P. https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/4294104. 
  23. ↑ Ferro, A. (2019-06-18). "Squinted SAR focusing for improving automatic radar sounder data analysis and enhancement". International Journal of Remote Sensing 40 (12): 4762–4786. doi:10.1080/01431161.2019.1573339. ISSN 0143-1161. Bibcode: 2019IJRS...40.4762F. https://doi.org/10.1080/01431161.2019.1573339. 
  24. ↑ Zhang, Qiuwang; Kandic, Ivana; Barfield, Jeffrey T.; Kutryk, Michael J. (2013). "Coculture with Late, but Not Early, Human Endothelial Progenitor Cells Up Regulates IL-1βExpression in THP-1 Monocytic Cells in a Paracrine Manner". Stem Cells International 2013: 859643. doi:10.1155/2013/859643. ISSN 1687-966X. PMID 24385987. 
  25. ↑ Paden, John; Akins, Torry; Dunson, David; Allen, Chris; Gogineni, Prasad (2010). "Ice-sheet bed 3-D tomography" (in en). Journal of Glaciology 56 (195): 3–11. doi:10.3189/002214310791190811. ISSN 0022-1430. Bibcode: 2010JGlac..56....3P. 
  26. ↑ Booth, Adam D.; Clark, Roger; Murray, Tavi (June 2010). "Semblance response to a ground-penetrating radar wavelet and resulting errors in velocity analysis" (in en). Near Surface Geophysics 8 (3): 235–246. doi:10.3997/1873-0604.2010008. http://doi.wiley.com/10.3997/1873-0604.2010008. 
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 Tulaczyk, Slawek M.; Foley, Neil T. (2020-12-08). "The role of electrical conductivity in radar wave reflection from glacier beds" (in English). The Cryosphere 14 (12): 4495–4506. doi:10.5194/tc-14-4495-2020. ISSN 1994-0416. Bibcode: 2020TCry...14.4495T. https://tc.copernicus.org/articles/14/4495/2020/. 
  28. ↑ Gogineni, S.; Tammana, D.; Braaten, D.; Leuschen, C.; Akins, T.; Legarsky, J.; Kanagaratnam, P.; Stiles, J. et al. (2001-12-27). "Coherent radar ice thickness measurements over the Greenland ice sheet" (in en). Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres 106 (D24): 33761–33772. doi:10.1029/2001JD900183. Bibcode: 2001JGR...10633761G. 
  29. ↑ Rodriguez-Morales, Fernando; Byers, Kyle; Crowe, Reid; Player, Kevin; Hale, Richard D.; Arnold, Emily J.; Smith, Logan; Gifford, Christopher M. et al. (May 2014). "Advanced Multifrequency Radar Instrumentation for Polar Research". IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing 52 (5): 2824–2842. doi:10.1109/TGRS.2013.2266415. ISSN 0196-2892. Bibcode: 2014ITGRS..52.2824R. https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/6557071. 
  30. ↑ Yan, J.; Gogineni, P.; O'Neill, C. (July 2018). "L-Band Radar Sounder for Measuing Ice Basal Conditions and Ice-Shelf Melt Rate". IGARSS 2018 - 2018 IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium. pp. 4135–4137. doi:10.1109/IGARSS.2018.8518210. ISBN 978-1-5386-7150-4. https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/8518210. 
  31. ↑ Holschuh, N.; Christianson, K.; Paden, J.; Alley, R.B.; Anandakrishnan, S. (2020-03-01). "Linking postglacial landscapes to glacier dynamics using swath radar at Thwaites Glacier, Antarctica" (in en). Geology 48 (3): 268–272. doi:10.1130/G46772.1. ISSN 0091-7613. Bibcode: 2020Geo....48..268H. https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/geology/article/48/3/268/579962/Linking-postglacial-landscapes-to-glacier-dynamics. 
  32. ↑ Carrer, Leonardo; Bruzzone, Lorenzo (December 2017). "Solving for ambiguities in radar geophysical exploration of planetary bodies by mimicking bats echolocation" (in en). Nature Communications 8 (1): 2248. doi:10.1038/s41467-017-02334-1. ISSN 2041-1723. PMID 29269728. Bibcode: 2017NatCo...8.2248C. 
  33. ↑ Dall, Jorgen; Corr, Hugh F. J.; Walker, Nick; Rommen, Bjorn; Lin, Chung-Chi (July 2018). "Sounding the Antarctic ice sheet from space: A feasibility study based on airborne P-band radar data". IGARSS 2018 - 2018 IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium. Valencia: IEEE. pp. 4142–4145. doi:10.1109/IGARSS.2018.8518826. ISBN 978-1-5386-7150-4. https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/8518826. 
  34. ↑ Brennan, Paul V.; Lok, Lai Bun; Nicholls, Keith; Corr, Hugh (2014). "Phase-sensitive FMCW radar system for high-precision Antarctic ice shelf profile monitoring" (in en). IET Radar, Sonar & Navigation 8 (7): 776–786. doi:10.1049/iet-rsn.2013.0053. ISSN 1751-8792. 
  35. ↑ Lok, L. B.; Brennan, P. V.; Ash, M.; Nicholls, K. W. (July 2015). "Autonomous phase-sensitive radio echo sounder for monitoring and imaging antarctic ice shelves". 2015 8th International Workshop on Advanced Ground Penetrating Radar (IWAGPR). pp. 1–4. doi:10.1109/IWAGPR.2015.7292636. ISBN 978-1-4799-6495-6. https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/7292636. 
  36. ↑ Vaňková, Irena; Nicholls, Keith W.; Xie, Surui; Parizek, Byron R.; Voytenko, Denis; Holland, David M. (April 2020). "Depth-dependent artifacts resulting from ApRES signal clipping" (in en). Annals of Glaciology 61 (81): 108–113. doi:10.1017/aog.2020.56. ISSN 0260-3055. Bibcode: 2020AnGla..61..108V. 
  37. ↑ Marshall, Hans-Peter; Koh, Gary (2008-04-01). "FMCW radars for snow research" (in en). Cold Regions Science and Technology. Research in Cryospheric Science and Engineering 52 (2): 118–131. doi:10.1016/j.coldregions.2007.04.008. ISSN 0165-232X. Bibcode: 2008CRST...52..118M. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0165232X07000833. 
  38. ↑ Corr, H. F. J.; Jenkins, A.; Nicholls, K. W.; Doake, C. S. M. (April 2002). "Precise measurement of changes in ice-shelf thickness by phase-sensitive radar to determine basal melt rates: ICE MELT RATES REVEALED BY RADAR" (in en). Geophysical Research Letters 29 (8): 73–1–74-4. doi:10.1029/2001GL014618. http://doi.wiley.com/10.1029/2001GL014618. 
  39. ↑ 39.0 39.1 Kendrick, A. K.; Schroeder, D. M.; Chu, W.; Young, T. J.; Christoffersen, P.; Todd, J.; Doyle, S. H.; Box, J. E. et al. (2018-10-16). "Surface Meltwater Impounded by Seasonal Englacial Storage in West Greenland" (in en). Geophysical Research Letters 45 (19): 10,474. doi:10.1029/2018GL079787. ISSN 0094-8276. Bibcode: 2018GeoRL..4510474K. 
  40. ↑ Young, Tun Jan; Schroeder, Dustin M.; Christoffersen, Poul; Lok, Lai Bun; Nicholls, Keith W.; Brennan, Paul V.; Doyle, Samuel H.; Hubbard, Bryn et al. (August 2018). "Resolving the internal and basal geometry of ice masses using imaging phase-sensitive radar" (in en). Journal of Glaciology 64 (246): 649–660. doi:10.1017/jog.2018.54. ISSN 0022-1430. Bibcode: 2018JGlac..64..649Y. 
  41. ↑ Gillet-Chaulet, F.; Hindmarsh, R.C.A.; Corr, H.F.J.; King, E.C.; Jenkins, A. (2011). "In-situ quantification of ice rheology and direct measurement of the Raymond Effect at Summit, Greenland using a phase-sensitive radar". Geophysical Research Letters 38 (24): n/a. doi:10.1029/2011GL049843. Bibcode: 2011GeoRL..3824503G. 
  42. ↑ Kingslake, Jonathan; Hindmarsh, Richard C. A.; Aðalgeirsdóttir, Guðfinna; Conway, Howard; Corr, Hugh F. J.; Gillet-Chaulet, Fabien; Martín, Carlos; King, Edward C. et al. (2014). "Full-depth englacial vertical ice sheet velocities measured using phase-sensitive radar" (in en). Journal of Geophysical Research: Earth Surface 119 (12): 2604–2618. doi:10.1002/2014JF003275. ISSN 2169-9011. Bibcode: 2014JGRF..119.2604K. 
  43. ↑ Castelletti, D.; Schroeder, D. M.; Jordan, T. M.; Young, D. (2020). "Permanent Scatterers in Repeat-Pass Airborne VHF Radar Sounder for Layer-Velocity Estimation". IEEE Geoscience and Remote Sensing Letters 18 (10): 1766–1770. doi:10.1109/LGRS.2020.3007514. ISSN 1558-0571. 
  44. ↑ Arcone, Steven A.; Lever, James H.; Ray, Laura E.; Walker, Benjamin S.; Hamilton, Gordon; Kaluzienski, Lynn (2016-01-01). "Ground-penetrating radar profiles of the McMurdo Shear Zone, Antarctica, acquired with an unmanned rover: Interpretation of crevasses, fractures, and folds within firn and marine ice" (in en). Geophysics 81 (1): WA21–WA34. doi:10.1190/geo2015-0132.1. ISSN 0016-8033. Bibcode: 2016Geop...81A..21A. https://library.seg.org/doi/10.1190/geo2015-0132.1. 
  45. ↑ Bagshaw, E. A.; Lishman, B.; Wadham, J. L.; Bowden, J. A.; Burrow, S. G.; Clare, L. R.; Chandler, D. (2014). "Novel wireless sensors for in situ measurement of sub-ice hydrologic systems" (in en). Annals of Glaciology 55 (65): 41–50. doi:10.3189/2014AoG65A007. ISSN 0260-3055. Bibcode: 2014AnGla..55...41B. 
  46. ↑ Mingo, Laurent; Flowers, Gwenn E.; Crawford, Anna J.; Mueller, Derek R.; Bigelow, David G. (April 2020). "A stationary impulse-radar system for autonomous deployment in cold and temperate environments" (in en). Annals of Glaciology 61 (81): 99–107. doi:10.1017/aog.2020.2. ISSN 0260-3055. Bibcode: 2020AnGla..61...99M. 
  47. ↑ Liu, Peng; Mendoza, Jesus; Hu, Hanxiong; Burkett, Peter G.; Urbina, Julio V.; Anandakrishnan, Sridhar; Bilen, Sven G. (March 2019). "Software-Defined Radar Systems for Polar Ice-Sheet Research". IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Applied Earth Observations and Remote Sensing 12 (3): 803–820. doi:10.1109/JSTARS.2019.2895616. ISSN 1939-1404. Bibcode: 2019IJSTA..12..803L. 
  48. ↑ Peters, Sean T.; Schroeder, Dustin M.; Castelletti, Davide; Haynes, Mark; Romero-Wolf, Andrew (December 2018). "In Situ Demonstration of a Passive Radio Sounding Approach Using the Sun for Echo Detection". IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing 56 (12): 7338–7349. doi:10.1109/TGRS.2018.2850662. ISSN 0196-2892. Bibcode: 2018ITGRS..56.7338P. 
  49. ↑ Romero-Wolf, Andrew; Vance, Steve; Maiwald, Frank; Heggy, Essam; Ries, Paul; Liewer, Kurt (2015-03-01). "A passive probe for subsurface oceans and liquid water in Jupiter's icy moons" (in en). Icarus 248: 463–477. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2014.10.043. ISSN 0019-1035. Bibcode: 2015Icar..248..463R. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0019103514006009. 
  50. ↑ Bamber, J. L.; Griggs, J. A.; Hurkmans, R. T. W. L.; Dowdeswell, J. A.; Gogineni, S. P.; Howat, I.; Mouginot, J.; Paden, J. et al. (2013-03-22). "A new bed elevation dataset for Greenland" (in English). The Cryosphere 7 (2): 499–510. doi:10.5194/tc-7-499-2013. ISSN 1994-0416. Bibcode: 2013TCry....7..499B. https://tc.copernicus.org/articles/7/499/2013/. 
  51. ↑ MacKie, E. J.; Schroeder, D. M.; Caers, J.; Siegfried, M. R.; Scheidt, C. (2020). "Antarctic Topographic Realizations and Geostatistical Modeling Used to Map Subglacial Lakes" (in en). Journal of Geophysical Research: Earth Surface 125 (3): e2019JF005420. doi:10.1029/2019JF005420. ISSN 2169-9011. Bibcode: 2020JGRF..12505420M. 
  52. ↑ Morlighem, M.; Rignot, E.; Seroussi, H.; Larour, E.; Dhia, H. Ben; Aubry, D. (2011). "A mass conservation approach for mapping glacier ice thickness" (in en). Geophysical Research Letters 38 (19): n/a. doi:10.1029/2011GL048659. ISSN 1944-8007. Bibcode: 2011GeoRL..3819503M. 
  53. ↑ Bo, Sun; Siegert, Martin J.; Mudd, Simon M.; Sugden, David; Fujita, Shuji; Xiangbin, Cui; Yunyun, Jiang; Xueyuan, Tang et al. (June 2009). "The Gamburtsev mountains and the origin and early evolution of the Antarctic Ice Sheet" (in en). Nature 459 (7247): 690–693. doi:10.1038/nature08024. ISSN 1476-4687. PMID 19494912. Bibcode: 2009Natur.459..690B. https://www.nature.com/articles/nature08024. 
  54. ↑ King, Edward C. (April 2020). "The precision of radar-derived subglacial bed topography: a case study from Pine Island Glacier, Antarctica" (in en). Annals of Glaciology 61 (81): 154–161. doi:10.1017/aog.2020.33. ISSN 0260-3055. Bibcode: 2020AnGla..61..154K. 
  55. ↑ Ross, Neil; Bingham, Robert G.; Corr, Hugh F. J.; Ferraccioli, Fausto; Jordan, Tom A.; Le Brocq, Anne; Rippin, David M.; Young, Duncan et al. (June 2012). "Steep reverse bed slope at the grounding line of the Weddell Sea sector in West Antarctica" (in en). Nature Geoscience 5 (6): 393–396. doi:10.1038/ngeo1468. ISSN 1752-0894. Bibcode: 2012NatGe...5..393R. http://www.nature.com/articles/ngeo1468. 
  56. ↑ Vaughan, David G.; Corr, Hugh F. J.; Ferraccioli, Fausto; Frearson, Nicholas; O'Hare, Aidan; Mach, Dieter; Holt, John W.; Blankenship, Donald D. et al. (2006). "New boundary conditions for the West Antarctic ice sheet: Subglacial topography beneath Pine Island Glacier" (in en). Geophysical Research Letters 33 (9): L09501. doi:10.1029/2005GL025588. ISSN 1944-8007. Bibcode: 2006GeoRL..33.9501V. https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1029/2005GL025588. 
  57. ↑ Young, Duncan A.; Wright, Andrew P.; Roberts, Jason L.; Warner, Roland C.; Young, Neal W.; Greenbaum, Jamin S.; Schroeder, Dustin M.; Holt, John W. et al. (June 2011). "A dynamic early East Antarctic Ice Sheet suggested by ice-covered fjord landscapes" (in en). Nature 474 (7349): 72–75. doi:10.1038/nature10114. ISSN 1476-4687. PMID 21637255. Bibcode: 2011Natur.474...72Y. https://www.nature.com/articles/nature10114. 
  58. ↑ Clarke, G. K. C.; Cross, G. M.; Benson, C. S. (1987). "Airborne UHF Radar Measurements of Caldera Geometry and Volcanic History, Mount Wrangell, Alaska, U.S.A." (in en). Annals of Glaciology 9: 236–237. doi:10.3189/S0260305500000707. ISSN 0260-3055. Bibcode: 1987AnGla...9R.236C. 
  59. ↑ Flowers, Gwenn E.; Clarke, Garry K. C. (1999). "Surface and bed topography of Trapridge Glacier, Yukon Territory, Canada: digital elevation models and derived hydraulic geometry" (in en). Journal of Glaciology 45 (149): 165–174. doi:10.3189/S0022143000003142. ISSN 0022-1430. 
  60. ↑ Maurer, Hansruedi; Hauck, Christian (2007). "Geophysical imaging of alpine rock glaciers" (in en). Journal of Glaciology 53 (180): 110–120. doi:10.3189/172756507781833893. ISSN 0022-1430. Bibcode: 2007JGlac..53..110M. 
  61. ↑ Zamora, Rodrigo; Ulloa, David; Garcia, Gonzalo; Mella, Ronald; Uribe, José; Wendt, Jens; Rivera, Andrés; Gacitúa, Guisella et al. (2009). "Airborne radar sounder for temperate ice: initial results from Patagonia" (in en). Journal of Glaciology 55 (191): 507–512. doi:10.3189/002214309788816641. ISSN 0022-1430. Bibcode: 2009JGlac..55..507Z. 
  62. ↑ Jacobel, Robert W.; Welch, Brian C.; Osterhouse, David; Pettersson, Rickard; MacGregor, Joseph A. (2009). "Spatial variation of radar-derived basal conditions on Kamb Ice Stream, West Antarctica" (in en). Annals of Glaciology 50 (51): 10–16. doi:10.3189/172756409789097504. ISSN 0260-3055. Bibcode: 2009AnGla..50...10J. 
  63. ↑ Matsuoka, Kenichi (2011-03-16). "Pitfalls in radar diagnosis of ice-sheet bed conditions: Lessons from englacial attenuation models: RADAR DIAGNOSIS OF ICE-SHEET BEDS" (in en). Geophysical Research Letters 38 (5): n/a. doi:10.1029/2010GL046205. 
  64. ↑ Pettinelli, Elena; Cosciotti, Barbara; Di Paolo, Federico; Lauro, Sebastian Emanuel; Mattei, Elisabetta; Orosei, Roberto; Vannaroni, Giuliano (September 2015). "Dielectric properties of Jovian satellite ice analogs for subsurface radar exploration: A review: JOVIAN ICY MOONS DIELECTRIC PROPERTIES" (in en). Reviews of Geophysics 53 (3): 593–641. doi:10.1002/2014RG000463. http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/2014RG000463. 
  65. ↑ Stillman, David E.; MacGregor, Joseph A.; Grimm, Robert E. (March 2013). "The role of acids in electrical conduction through ice: CONDUCTION OF ACIDS IN ICE" (in en). Journal of Geophysical Research: Earth Surface 118 (1): 1–16. doi:10.1029/2012JF002603. 
  66. ↑ Muto, Atsuhiro; Alley, Richard B.; Parizek, Byron R.; Anandakrishnan, Sridhar (December 2019). "Bed-type variability and till (dis)continuity beneath Thwaites Glacier, West Antarctica" (in en). Annals of Glaciology 60 (80): 82–90. doi:10.1017/aog.2019.32. ISSN 0260-3055. Bibcode: 2019AnGla..60...82M. 
  67. ↑ Rippin, D.M.; Bingham, R.G.; Jordan, T.A.; Wright, A.P.; Ross, N.; Corr, H.F.J.; Ferraccioli, F.; Le Brocq, A.M. et al. (June 2014). "Basal roughness of the Institute and Möller Ice Streams, West Antarctica: Process determination and landscape interpretation" (in en). Geomorphology 214: 139–147. doi:10.1016/j.geomorph.2014.01.021. Bibcode: 2014Geomo.214..139R. 
  68. ↑ Попов, С. В. (2017-04-18). "Flow-Lines Computation and Their Use in Subglacial Geomorphology and Glacial Erosion Modeling: The Princess Elizabeth Land (East Antarctica) Case Study" (in ru). Geomorphology Ras (1): 46–54. doi:10.15356/0435-4281-2017-1-46-54. https://geomorphology.igras.ru/jour/article/view/1275. Retrieved 2021-03-04. 
  69. ↑ Fujita, Shuji; Maeno, Hideo; Uratsuka, Seiho; Furukawa, Teruo; Mae, Shinji; Fujii, Yoshiyuki; Watanabe, Okitsugu (1999). "Nature of radio echo layering in the Antarctic Ice Sheet detected by a two-frequency experiment" (in en). Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth 104 (B6): 13013–13024. doi:10.1029/1999JB900034. ISSN 2156-2202. Bibcode: 1999JGR...10413013F. 
  70. ↑ Campbell, Seth; Balco, Greg; Todd, Claire; Conway, Howard; Huybers, Kathleen; Simmons, Christopher; Vermeulen, Michael (2013). "Radar-detected englacial stratigraphy in the Pensacola Mountains, Antarctica: implications for recent changes in ice flow and accumulation" (in en). Annals of Glaciology 54 (63): 91–100. doi:10.3189/2013AoG63A371. ISSN 0260-3055. Bibcode: 2013AnGla..54...91C. 
  71. ↑ NEEM community members (January 2013). "Eemian interglacial reconstructed from a Greenland folded ice core" (in en). Nature 493 (7433): 489–494. doi:10.1038/nature11789. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 23344358. Bibcode: 2013Natur.493..489N. http://www.nature.com/articles/nature11789. 
  72. ↑ Hindmarsh, Richard C. A.; Leysinger Vieli, Gwendolyn J.-M. C.; Raymond, Mélanie J.; Gudmundsson, G. Hilmar (2006). "Draping or overriding: The effect of horizontal stress gradients on internal layer architecture in ice sheets" (in en). Journal of Geophysical Research 111 (F2): F02018. doi:10.1029/2005JF000309. ISSN 0148-0227. Bibcode: 2006JGRF..111.2018H. http://doi.wiley.com/10.1029/2005JF000309. 
  73. ↑ Karlsson, Nanna B.; Binder, Tobias; Eagles, Graeme; Helm, Veit; Pattyn, Frank; Van Liefferinge, Brice; Eisen, Olaf (2018-07-25). "Glaciological characteristics in the Dome Fuji region and new assessment for "Oldest Ice"" (in en). The Cryosphere 12 (7): 2413–2424. doi:10.5194/tc-12-2413-2018. ISSN 1994-0424. Bibcode: 2018TCry...12.2413K. https://tc.copernicus.org/articles/12/2413/2018/. 
  74. ↑ MacGregor, Joseph A.; Fahnestock, Mark A.; Catania, Ginny A.; Paden, John D.; Prasad Gogineni, S.; Young, S. Keith; Rybarski, Susan C.; Mabrey, Alexandria N. et al. (February 2015). "Radiostratigraphy and age structure of the Greenland Ice Sheet" (in en). Journal of Geophysical Research: Earth Surface 120 (2): 212–241. doi:10.1002/2014JF003215. ISSN 2169-9003. PMID 26213664. Bibcode: 2015JGRF..120..212M. 
  75. ↑ Cavitte, Marie G. P.; Parrenin, Frédéric; Ritz, Catherine; Young, Duncan A.; Van Liefferinge, Brice; Blankenship, Donald D.; Frezzotti, Massimo; Roberts, Jason L. (2018-04-17). "Accumulation patterns around Dome C, East Antarctica, in the last 73 kyr" (in en). The Cryosphere 12 (4): 1401–1414. doi:10.5194/tc-12-1401-2018. ISSN 1994-0424. Bibcode: 2018TCry...12.1401C. https://tc.copernicus.org/articles/12/1401/2018/. 
  76. ↑ Kohler, Jack; Moore, John; Kennett, Mike; Engeset, Rune; Elvehøy, Hallgeir (1997). "Using ground-penetrating radar to image previous years' summer surfaces for mass-balance measurements" (in en). Annals of Glaciology 24: 355–360. doi:10.3189/S0260305500012441. ISSN 0260-3055. Bibcode: 1997AnGla..24..355K. 
  77. ↑ Koutnik, Michelle R.; Fudge, T. J.; Conway, Howard; Waddington, Edwin D.; Neumann, Thomas A.; Cuffey, Kurt M.; Buizert, Christo; Taylor, Kendrick C. (2016). "Holocene accumulation and ice flow near the West Antarctic Ice Sheet Divide ice core site" (in en). Journal of Geophysical Research: Earth Surface 121 (5): 907–924. doi:10.1002/2015JF003668. ISSN 2169-9011. Bibcode: 2016JGRF..121..907K. 
  78. ↑ Medley, B.; Joughin, I.; Smith, B. E.; Das, S. B.; Steig, E. J.; Conway, H.; Gogineni, S.; Lewis, C. et al. (2014-07-31). "Constraining the recent mass balance of Pine Island and Thwaites glaciers, West Antarctica, with airborne observations of snow accumulation" (in en). The Cryosphere 8 (4): 1375–1392. doi:10.5194/tc-8-1375-2014. ISSN 1994-0424. Bibcode: 2014TCry....8.1375M. https://tc.copernicus.org/articles/8/1375/2014/. 
  79. ↑ Waddington, Edwin D.; Neumann, Thomas A.; Koutnik, Michelle R.; Marshall, Hans-Peter; Morse, David L. (2007). "Inference of accumulation-rate patterns from deep layers in glaciers and ice sheets" (in en). Journal of Glaciology 53 (183): 694–712. doi:10.3189/002214307784409351. ISSN 0022-1430. Bibcode: 2007JGlac..53..694W. 
  80. ↑ Eisen, Olaf (2008). "Inference of velocity pattern from isochronous layers in firn, using an inverse method" (in en). Journal of Glaciology 54 (187): 613–630. doi:10.3189/002214308786570818. ISSN 0022-1430. Bibcode: 2008JGlac..54..613E. 
  81. ↑ Fahnestock, Mark; Abdalati, Waleed; Joughin, Ian; Brozena, John; Gogineni, Prasad (2001-12-14). "High Geothermal Heat Flow, Basal Melt, and the Origin of Rapid Ice Flow in Central Greenland" (in en). Science 294 (5550): 2338–2342. doi:10.1126/science.1065370. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 11743197. Bibcode: 2001Sci...294.2338F. https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1065370. 
  82. ↑ Vieli, G. J.-M. C. Leysinger; Hindmarsh, R. C. A.; Siegert, M. J. (2007). "Three-dimensional flow influences on radar layer stratigraphy" (in en). Annals of Glaciology 46 (1): 22–28. doi:10.3189/172756407782871729. ISSN 0260-3055. Bibcode: 2007AnGla..46...22L. 
  83. ↑ Pettit, Erin C.; Waddington, Edwin D.; Harrison, William D.; Thorsteinsson, Throstur; Elsberg, Daniel; Morack, John; Zumberge, Mark A. (2011). "The crossover stress, anisotropy and the ice flow law at Siple Dome, West Antarctica" (in en). Journal of Glaciology 57 (201): 39–52. doi:10.3189/002214311795306619. ISSN 0022-1430. Bibcode: 2011JGlac..57...39P. 
  84. ↑ Jordan, Thomas M.; Schroeder, Dustin M.; Castelletti, Davide; Li, Jilu; Dall, Jorgen (November 2019). "A Polarimetric Coherence Method to Determine Ice Crystal Orientation Fabric From Radar Sounding: Application to the NEEM Ice Core Region". IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing 57 (11): 8641–8657. doi:10.1109/TGRS.2019.2921980. ISSN 0196-2892. Bibcode: 2019ITGRS..57.8641J. https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/8755860. 
  85. ↑ Martín, Carlos; Gudmundsson, G. Hilmar; Pritchard, Hamish D.; Gagliardini, Olivier (2009-10-14). "On the effects of anisotropic rheology on ice flow, internal structure, and the age-depth relationship at ice divides" (in en). Journal of Geophysical Research 114 (F4): F04001. doi:10.1029/2008JF001204. ISSN 0148-0227. Bibcode: 2009JGRF..114.4001M. http://doi.wiley.com/10.1029/2008JF001204. 
  86. ↑ Bell, R. E.; Ferraccioli, F.; Creyts, T. T.; Braaten, D.; Corr, H.; Das, I.; Damaske, D.; Frearson, N. et al. (2011-03-25). "Widespread Persistent Thickening of the East Antarctic Ice Sheet by Freezing from the Base" (in en). Science 331 (6024): 1592–1595. doi:10.1126/science.1200109. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 21385719. Bibcode: 2011Sci...331.1592B. https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1200109. 
  87. ↑ Drews, R.; Eisen, O.; Weikusat, I.; Kipfstuhl, S.; Lambrecht, A.; Steinhage, D.; Wilhelms, F.; Miller, H. (2009-08-25). "Layer disturbances and the radio-echo free zone in ice sheets" (in English). The Cryosphere 3 (2): 195–203. doi:10.5194/tc-3-195-2009. ISSN 1994-0416. Bibcode: 2009TCry....3..195D. https://tc.copernicus.org/articles/3/195/2009/. 
  88. ↑ Winter, Kate; Woodward, John; Ross, Neil; Dunning, Stuart A.; Hein, Andrew S.; Westoby, Matthew J.; Culberg, Riley; Marrero, Shasta M. et al. (2019). "Radar-Detected Englacial Debris in the West Antarctic Ice Sheet" (in en). Geophysical Research Letters 46 (17–18): 10454–10462. doi:10.1029/2019GL084012. ISSN 1944-8007. Bibcode: 2019GeoRL..4610454W. 
  89. ↑ Carter, Sasha P.; Blankenship, Donald D.; Peters, Matthew E.; Young, Duncan A.; Holt, John W.; Morse, David L. (March 2007). "Radar-based subglacial lake classification in Antarctica: ANTARCTIC SUBGLACIAL LAKES" (in en). Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems 8 (3): n/a. doi:10.1029/2006GC001408. http://doi.wiley.com/10.1029/2006GC001408. 
  90. ↑ Ilisei, Ana-Maria; Khodadadzadeh, Mahdi; Ferro, Adamo; Bruzzone, Lorenzo (June 2019). "An Automatic Method for Subglacial Lake Detection in Ice Sheet Radar Sounder Data". IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing 57 (6): 3252–3270. doi:10.1109/TGRS.2018.2882911. ISSN 0196-2892. Bibcode: 2019ITGRS..57.3252I. https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/8590794. 
  91. ↑ Oswald, G. K. A.; Robin, G. De Q. (October 1973). "Lakes Beneath the Antarctic Ice Sheet" (in en). Nature 245 (5423): 251–254. doi:10.1038/245251a0. ISSN 0028-0836. Bibcode: 1973Natur.245..251O. http://www.nature.com/articles/245251a0. 
  92. ↑ Palmer, Steven J.; Dowdeswell, Julian A.; Christoffersen, Poul; Young, Duncan A.; Blankenship, Donald D.; Greenbaum, Jamin S.; Benham, Toby; Bamber, Jonathan et al. (2013). "Greenland subglacial lakes detected by radar" (in en). Geophysical Research Letters 40 (23): 6154–6159. doi:10.1002/2013GL058383. ISSN 1944-8007. Bibcode: 2013GeoRL..40.6154P. 
  93. ↑ Rutishauser, Anja; Blankenship, Donald D.; Sharp, Martin; Skidmore, Mark L.; Greenbaum, Jamin S.; Grima, Cyril; Schroeder, Dustin M.; Dowdeswell, Julian A. et al. (2018-04-01). "Discovery of a hypersaline subglacial lake complex beneath Devon Ice Cap, Canadian Arctic" (in en). Science Advances 4 (4): eaar4353. doi:10.1126/sciadv.aar4353. ISSN 2375-2548. PMID 29651462. Bibcode: 2018SciA....4.4353R. 
  94. ↑ Siegert, Martin J. (2018). "A 60-year international history of Antarctic subglacial lake exploration" (in en). Geological Society, London, Special Publications 461 (1): 7–21. doi:10.1144/SP461.5. ISSN 0305-8719. Bibcode: 2018GSLSP.461....7S. 
  95. ↑ Wolovick, Michael J.; Bell, Robin E.; Creyts, Timothy T.; Frearson, Nicholas (2013). "Identification and control of subglacial water networks under Dome A, Antarctica" (in en). Journal of Geophysical Research: Earth Surface 118 (1): 140–154. doi:10.1029/2012JF002555. ISSN 2169-9011. Bibcode: 2013JGRF..118..140W. https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1029/2012JF002555. 
  96. ↑ Björnsson, Helgi; Gjessing, Yngvar; Hamran, Svein-Erik; Hagen, Jon Ove; LiestøL, Olav; Pálsson, Finnur; Erlingsson, Björn (1996). "The thermal regime of sub-polar glaciers mapped by multi-frequency radio-echo sounding" (in en). Journal of Glaciology 42 (140): 23–32. doi:10.3189/S0022143000030495. ISSN 0022-1430. 
  97. ↑ Bradford, John H.; Harper, Joel T. (2005). "Wave field migration as a tool for estimating spatially continuous radar velocity and water content in glaciers" (in en). Geophysical Research Letters 32 (8): L08502. doi:10.1029/2004GL021770. ISSN 1944-8007. Bibcode: 2005GeoRL..32.8502B. 
  98. ↑ Murray, Tavi; Stuart, Graham W.; Fry, Matt; Gamble, Nicola H.; Crabtree, Mike D. (2000). "Englacial water distribution in a temperate glacier from surface and borehole radar velocity analysis" (in en). Journal of Glaciology 46 (154): 389–398. doi:10.3189/172756500781833188. ISSN 0022-1430. Bibcode: 2000JGlac..46..389M. 
  99. ↑ Forster, Richard R.; Box, Jason E.; van den Broeke, Michiel R.; Miège, Clément; Burgess, Evan W.; van Angelen, Jan H.; Lenaerts, Jan T. M.; Koenig, Lora S. et al. (February 2014). "Extensive liquid meltwater storage in firn within the Greenland ice sheet" (in en). Nature Geoscience 7 (2): 95–98. doi:10.1038/ngeo2043. ISSN 1752-0908. Bibcode: 2014NatGe...7...95F. https://www.nature.com/articles/ngeo2043. 
  100. ↑ Chu, W.; Schroeder, D. M.; Siegfried, M. R. (2018-11-16). "Retrieval of Englacial Firn Aquifer Thickness From Ice-Penetrating Radar Sounding in Southeastern Greenland" (in en). Geophysical Research Letters 45 (21): 11,770–11,778. doi:10.1029/2018GL079751. Bibcode: 2018GeoRL..4511770C. 
  101. ↑ Kulessa, B.; Booth, A. D.; Hobbs, A.; Hubbard, A. L. (2008). "Automated monitoring of subglacial hydrological processes with ground-penetrating radar (GPR) at high temporal resolution: scope and potential pitfalls" (in en). Geophysical Research Letters 35 (24): L24502. doi:10.1029/2008GL035855. ISSN 1944-8007. Bibcode: 2008GeoRL..3524502K. 
  102. ↑ Catania, G. A.; Conway, H.; Raymond, C. F.; Scambos, T. A. (2006). "Evidence for floatation or near floatation in the mouth of Kamb Ice Stream, West Antarctica, prior to stagnation" (in en). Journal of Geophysical Research: Earth Surface 111 (F1): F01005. doi:10.1029/2005JF000355. ISSN 2156-2202. Bibcode: 2006JGRF..111.1005C. 
  103. ↑ Greenbaum, J. S.; Blankenship, D. D.; Young, D. A.; Richter, T. G.; Roberts, J. L.; Aitken, A. R. A.; Legresy, B.; Schroeder, D. M. et al. (April 2015). "Ocean access to a cavity beneath Totten Glacier in East Antarctica" (in en). Nature Geoscience 8 (4): 294–298. doi:10.1038/ngeo2388. ISSN 1752-0894. Bibcode: 2015NatGe...8..294G. http://www.nature.com/articles/ngeo2388. 
  104. ↑ Khazendar, Ala; Rignot, Eric; Schroeder, Dustin M.; Seroussi, Helene; Schodlok, Michael P.; Scheuchl, Bernd; Mouginot, Jeremie; Sutterley, Tyler C. et al. (December 2016). "Rapid submarine ice melting in the grounding zones of ice shelves in West Antarctica" (in en). Nature Communications 7 (1): 13243. doi:10.1038/ncomms13243. ISSN 2041-1723. PMID 27780191. Bibcode: 2016NatCo...713243K. 
  105. ↑ Pattyn, F.; Matsuoka, K.; Callens, D.; Conway, H.; Depoorter, M.; Docquier, D.; Hubbard, B.; Samyn, D. et al. (2012). "Melting and refreezing beneath Roi Baudouin Ice Shelf (East Antarctica) inferred from radar, GPS, and ice core data" (in en). Journal of Geophysical Research: Earth Surface 117 (F4): n/a. doi:10.1029/2011JF002154. ISSN 2156-2202. Bibcode: 2012JGRF..117.4008P. 
  106. ↑ Grima, Cyril; Greenbaum, Jamin S.; Lopez Garcia, Erika J.; Soderlund, Krista M.; Rosales, Arami; Blankenship, Donald D.; Young, Duncan A. (2016-07-16). "Radar detection of the brine extent at McMurdo Ice Shelf, Antarctica, and its control by snow accumulation: BRINE EXTENT AT MCMURDO ICE SHELF" (in en). Geophysical Research Letters 43 (13): 7011–7018. doi:10.1002/2016GL069524. 
  107. ↑ Le Brocq, Anne M.; Ross, Neil; Griggs, Jennifer A.; Bingham, Robert G.; Corr, Hugh F. J.; Ferraccioli, Fausto; Jenkins, Adrian; Jordan, Tom A. et al. (November 2013). "Evidence from ice shelves for channelized meltwater flow beneath the Antarctic Ice Sheet" (in en). Nature Geoscience 6 (11): 945–948. doi:10.1038/ngeo1977. ISSN 1752-0894. Bibcode: 2013NatGe...6..945L. http://www.nature.com/articles/ngeo1977. 
  108. ↑ Campbell, Bruce A.; Schroeder, Dustin M.; Whitten, Jennifer L. (January 2018). "Mars radar clutter and surface roughness characteristics from MARSIS data" (in en). Icarus 299: 22–30. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2017.07.011. Bibcode: 2018Icar..299...22C. https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S001910351730009X. 
  109. ↑ Holt, John W.; Safaeinili, Ali; Plaut, Jeffrey J.; Head, James W.; Phillips, Roger J.; Seu, Roberto; Kempf, Scott D.; Choudhary, Prateek et al. (2008-11-21). "Radar Sounding Evidence for Buried Glaciers in the Southern Mid-Latitudes of Mars" (in en). Science 322 (5905): 1235–1238. doi:10.1126/science.1164246. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 19023078. Bibcode: 2008Sci...322.1235H. https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1164246. 
  110. ↑ Lalich, D. E.; Holt, J. W. (2017-01-28). "New Martian climate constraints from radar reflectivity within the north polar layered deposits" (in en). Geophysical Research Letters 44 (2): 657–664. doi:10.1002/2016GL071323. ISSN 0094-8276. Bibcode: 2017GeoRL..44..657L. 
  111. ↑ Lauro, Sebastian Emanuel; Pettinelli, Elena; Caprarelli, Graziella; Guallini, Luca; Rossi, Angelo Pio; Mattei, Elisabetta; Cosciotti, Barbara; Cicchetti, Andrea et al. (January 2021). "Multiple subglacial water bodies below the south pole of Mars unveiled by new MARSIS data" (in en). Nature Astronomy 5 (1): 63–70. doi:10.1038/s41550-020-1200-6. ISSN 2397-3366. Bibcode: 2021NatAs...5...63L. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41550-020-1200-6. 
  112. ↑ Nerozzi, Stefano; W. Holt, John (July 2018). "Earliest accumulation history of the north polar layered deposits, Mars from SHARAD" (in en). Icarus 308: 128–137. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2017.05.027. Bibcode: 2018Icar..308..128N. https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0019103517301008. 
  113. ↑ Orosei, R.; Lauro, S. E.; Pettinelli, E.; Cicchetti, A.; Coradini, M.; Cosciotti, B.; Paolo, F. Di; Flamini, E. et al. (2018-08-03). "Radar evidence of subglacial liquid water on Mars" (in en). Science 361 (6401): 490–493. doi:10.1126/science.aar7268. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 30045881. Bibcode: 2018Sci...361..490O. 
  114. ↑ Plaut, Jeffrey J.; Safaeinili, Ali; Holt, John W.; Phillips, Roger J.; Head, James W.; Seu, Roberto; Putzig, Nathaniel E.; Frigeri, Alessandro (2009). "Radar evidence for ice in lobate debris aprons in the mid-northern latitudes of Mars" (in en). Geophysical Research Letters 36 (2): n/a. doi:10.1029/2008GL036379. ISSN 1944-8007. Bibcode: 2009GeoRL..36.2203P. https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1029/2008GL036379. 
  115. ↑ Putzig, Nathaniel E.; Smith, Isaac B.; Perry, Matthew R.; Foss, Frederick J.; Campbell, Bruce A.; Phillips, Roger J.; Seu, Roberto (2018-07-01). "Three-dimensional radar imaging of structures and craters in the Martian polar caps" (in en). Icarus. Mars Polar Science VI 308: 138–147. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2017.09.023. ISSN 0019-1035. PMID 29749975. Bibcode: 2018Icar..308..138P. 
  116. ↑ Seu, Roberto; Phillips, Roger J.; Biccari, Daniela; Orosei, Roberto; Masdea, Arturo; Picardi, Giovanni; Safaeinili, Ali; Campbell, Bruce A. et al. (2007). "SHARAD sounding radar on the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter" (in en). Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets 112 (E5): E05S05. doi:10.1029/2006JE002745. ISSN 2156-2202. Bibcode: 2007JGRE..112.5S05S. https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1029/2006JE002745. 
  117. ↑ Smith, I. B.; Putzig, N. E.; Holt, J. W.; Phillips, R. J. (2016-05-27). "An ice age recorded in the polar deposits of Mars" (in en). Science 352 (6289): 1075–1078. doi:10.1126/science.aad6968. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 27230372. Bibcode: 2016Sci...352.1075S. 
  118. ↑ Bruzzone, L.; Alberti, G.; Catallo, C.; Ferro, A.; Kofman, W.; Orosei, R. (May 2011). "Subsurface Radar Sounding of the Jovian Moon Ganymede". Proceedings of the IEEE 99 (5): 837–857. doi:10.1109/JPROC.2011.2108990. ISSN 1558-2256. https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/5738315. 
  119. ↑ Heggy, Essam; Scabbia, Giovanni; Bruzzone, Lorenzo; Pappalardo, Robert T. (March 2017). "Radar probing of Jovian icy moons: Understanding subsurface water and structure detectability in the JUICE and Europa missions" (in en). Icarus 285: 237–251. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2016.11.039. Bibcode: 2017Icar..285..237H. https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0019103516307953. 
  120. ↑ McKinnon, W (2005). "Radar sounding of convecting ice shells in the presence of convection: application to Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto". Workshop on Radar Investigations of Planetary and Terrestrial Environments, Houston, TX: 53. Bibcode: 2005ript.work...53M. 
  121. ↑ Scanlan, Kirk M.; Grima, Cyril; Steinbrügge, Gregor; Kempf, Scott D.; Young, Duncan A.; Blankenship, Donald D. (2019-11-15). "Geometric determination of ionospheric total electron content from dual frequency radar sounding measurements" (in en). Planetary and Space Science 178: 104696. doi:10.1016/j.pss.2019.07.010. ISSN 0032-0633. Bibcode: 2019P&SS..17804696S. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0032063319300820. 
  122. ↑ Schmidt, B. E.; Blankenship, D. D.; Patterson, G. W.; Schenk, P. M. (November 2011). "Active formation of 'chaos terrain' over shallow subsurface water on Europa" (in en). Nature 479 (7374): 502–505. doi:10.1038/nature10608. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 22089135. Bibcode: 2011Natur.479..502S. http://www.nature.com/articles/nature10608. 
  123. ↑ Steinbrügge, G.; Schroeder, D. M.; Haynes, M. S.; Hussmann, H.; Grima, C.; Blankenship, D. D. (2018-01-15). "Assessing the potential for measuring Europa's tidal Love number h2 using radar sounder and topographic imager data" (in en). Earth and Planetary Science Letters 482: 334–341. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2017.11.028. ISSN 0012-821X. Bibcode: 2018E&PSL.482..334S. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0012821X17306647. 



Retrieved from "https://handwiki.org/wiki/index.php?title=Earth:Radioglaciology&oldid=3298962"