Social:Right-wing dictatorship
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Short description: Authoritarian regime
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A right-wing dictatorship, sometimes also referred to as a rightist dictatorship or right-wing authoritarianism, is an authoritarian or sometimes totalitarian regime following right-wing policies. Right-wing dictatorships are typically characterized by appeals to traditionalism, the protection of law and order and often the advocacy of nationalism, and justify their rise to power based on a need to uphold a conservative status quo. Examples of right-wing dictatorships may include anti-communist ones, such as Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy, Estado Novo, Francoist Spain, the Chilean Junta, the Greek Junta, the Brazilian military dictatorship, the Argentine Junta (or National Reorganization Process); Republic of China under Chiang Kai-shek, South Korea when it was led by Syngman Rhee, Park Chung Hee and Chun Doo-hwan; and a number of military dictatorships in Latin America during the Cold War,[1] or those that agitate anti-Western sentiments, such as Russia under Vladimir Putin.
Characteristics of a right-wing dictatorship
Military dictatorship
In the most common Western view, the perfect example of a right-wing dictatorship is any of those that once ruled in South America.[according to whom?] Those regimes were predominantly military juntas and most of them collapsed in the 1980s. Communist countries, which were very cautious about not revealing their authoritarian methods of rule to the public, were usually led by civilian governments and officers taking power were not much welcomed there.[citation needed] Few exceptions include the Burmese Way to Socialism (Burma, 1966–1988), the Military Council of National Salvation (People's Republic of Poland, 1981–1983) or the North Korean regime's evolution throughout the rule of Kim Il Sung.
Religion and the government
Many right-wing regimes kept strong ties with local clerical establishments. This policy of a strong Church-state alliance is often referred to as Clerical fascism. Pro-Catholic dictatorships included the Estado Novo (1933–1974) and the Federal State of Austria (1934–1938). There also exist clerical dictatorships in the Muslim world, including the Islamic Republic of Iran and the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan. The theocratic absolute monarchies of Saudi Arabia or Vatican City also share many similarities with the regimes mentioned above.[citation needed] Many of those are/were led by spiritual leaders, such as the Slovak Republic under the Reverend Josef Tiso or Iran under the Ayatollahs Khomeini (1979–1989) and Khamenei (1989–present). Some right-wing dictatorships, like Nazi Germany, were even openly hostile to certain religions.[2]
Right-wing dictatorships by region
The authoritarian politics of several countries can range from parties and movements on the center-right to the far-right, including some that are difficult to define. The degree of authoritarianism can also vary.
Cases supported by varius sources and definitions will be presented below:
Europe
The existence of right-wing dictatorships in Europe are largely associated with the rise of fascism. The conditions created by World War I and its aftermath gave way both to revolutionary socialism and reactionary politics. Fascism arose as part of the reaction to the socialist movement, in attempt to recreate a perceived status quo ante bellum.[3] Right-wing dictatorships in Europe were mostly destroyed with the Allied victory in World War II, although some continued to exist in Southern Europe until the 1970s.
- List of European right-wing dictatorships
| Country | Historical name(s) | Movement(s) | Years of rule | Dictator(s) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
 Austria |
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Fatherland Front |
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 Belarus |
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 Bulgaria |
Kingdom of Bulgaria |
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 Cyprus |
Republic of Cyprus |
EOKA B[10] | 1974 | Nikos Sampson[11] |
 Czech Republic |
Template:Country data Protectorate of Bohemia and MoraviaProtectorate of Bohemia and Moravia[12] | National Partnership[13] | 1939–1945 |
|
 France |
French State[14] |
Collaborationist government | 1940–1944 | Philippe Pétain[15][16] |
 Greece |
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 Italy |
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 Latvia |
Republic of Latvia |
url=http://www.lituanus.org/1971/71_3_03.htm%7Ctitle=The Emergence of an Authoritarian Regime in Latvia, 1932-1934|first=Janis|last=Rogainis|journal=Lithuanian Quarterly Journal of Arts and Sciences|volume=17|issue=3|date=Fall 1971|access-date=2021-01-12|archive-date=2020-07-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200724094833/http://www.lituanus.org/1971/71_3_03.htm%7Curl-status=dead}}</ref> | ||
 Lithuania |
Republic of Lithuania[34] |
Lithuanian Nationalist Union[35] | 1926–1940 | Antanas Smetona[36][37] |
 Netherlands |
 Reichskommissariat Niederlande[38] |
National Socialist Movement in the Netherlands[39] | 1940–1945 | Anton Mussert[40] |
 Poland |
General Government [41] |
Nazi Party | 1939–1945 | Hans Frank |
 Russia |
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 Turkey |
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 Ukraine |
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 Yugoslavia |
Kingdom of Yugoslavia[57] |
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Asia
Right-wing dictatorships in Asia emerged during the early 1930s,[61] as military regimes seized power from local constitutional democracies and monarchies. The phenomenon soon spread to other countries with the military occupations driven by the militarist expansion of the Empire of Japan. After the end of World War II, Asian right-wing dictatorships took on a decidedly anti-communist role in the Cold War, with many being backed by the United States.
- List of Asian right-wing dictatorships
| Country | Historical name(s) | Movement(s) | Years of rule | Dictator(s) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
 Afghanistan |
Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan[62] |
Taliban |
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 Bangladesh |
People's Republic of Bangladesh |
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 Cambodia |
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 Indonesia |
Republic of Indonesia |
New Order under Golkar[73][74] | 1966–1998 | Suharto[75][76][77] |
 Iran |
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 South Korea |
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 Manchuria, China |
 Manchukuo |
Concordia Association[89][90] | 1932–1945 | Puyi with Zheng Xiaoxu and Zhang Jinghui |
 Myanmar |
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 Pakistan |
Template:Country data Islamic Republic of Pakistan |
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| |
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 Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant[99] |
Islamic State | 2014–2019 | Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi |
 Syria |
 Syrian Republic[100] |
Military with the Arab Liberation Movement | 1951–1954 | Adib Shishakli |
 Thailand |
Kingdom of Thailand[101] |
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 Turkmenistan |
Turkmenistan[102] |
Democratic Party of Turkmenistan | 1991–present |
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 Uzbekistan |
Republic of Uzbekistan[103] |
Uzbekistan Liberal Democratic Party | 1991–present |
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 Southern Vietnam |
 Republic of Vietnam[104] |
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North, Central, and South America
Right-wing dictatorships largely emerged in Central America and the Caribbean during the early 20th century. Sometimes they arose in order to provide concessions to American corporations such as the United Fruit Company, forming regimes that have been described as "banana republics".[105] North American right-wing dictatorships were instrumental in suppressing their countries' labour movements and instituting corporatist economies. During the Cold War, these right-wing dictatorships were characterized by a distinct anti-communist ideology, and often rose to power through US-backed coups.
- List of North and South American right-wing dictatorships
| Country | Historical name(s) | Movement(s) | Years of rule | Dictator(s) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
 Argentina |
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 Bolivia |
Plurinational State of Bolivia[107] |
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 Brazil |
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 Chile |
Military Junta of Chile[109] |
Military | 1973–1990 | Augusto Pinochet |
 Colombia |
Republic of Colombia[110] |
Military | 1957–1958 | Gabriel París Gordillo |
 Costa Rica |
Template:Country data First Costa Rican Republic Republic of Costa Rica[111][112][113] | Military with the Peliquista Party[114] | 1917–1919 | Federico Tinoco Granados[115] |
 Ecuador |
 Republic of Ecuador[116] |
Military | 1972–1979 |
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 Mexico |
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Military with the Conservative Party |
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 Guatemala |
Republic of Guatemala |
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 Honduras |
Republic of Honduras |
Military with the National Party |
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 Nicaragua |
Republic of Nicaragua[124] |
Nationalist Liberal Party |
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 Panama |
Republic of Panama[128] |
Panama Defense Forces | 1983–1989 | Manuel Noriega |
 Paraguay |
 Republic of Paraguay[129] |
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 Peru |
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 Southern United States |
 Confederate States of America[131][132][133][134][135] |
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1861–1865 | Jefferson Davis |
 Uruguay |
Oriental Republic of Uruguay[136] |
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 Venezuela |
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Military | 1948–1958 |
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Africa
Right-wing dictatorships in Africa most commonly consist of military juntas and military dictatorships but also have included regimes that promote White Supremacy in Southern Africa from the 1940s–1990s.
- List of African right-wing dictatorships
| Country | Historical name(s) | Movement(s) | Years of rule | Dictator(s) |
|---|---|---|---|---|
 Angola |
Template:Country data Portuguese Angola Province of Angola[138] | National Union | 1933–1974 |
|
 Burundi |
Republic of Burundi[139] |
National Council for the Defense of Democracy – Forces for the Defense of Democracy | 2005–present |
|
 Cameroon |
Republic of Cameroon[140] |
Cameroon People's Democratic Movement | 1982–present | Paul Biya |
 Cape Verde |
Template:Country data Portuguese Cape Verde Overseas Province of Cape Verde[141] | National Union | 1933–1974 |
|
 Central African Republic |
Central African Empire[142] |
Military | 1976–1979 | Jean-Bédel Bokassa |
 Chad |
Republic of Chad[143] |
|
|
|
| Template:DRC |  Republic of Zaire[144] |
Military with the Popular Movement of the Revolution | 1965–1997 | Mobutu Sese Seko |
 Egypt |
Arab Republic of Egypt[145] |
Nation's Future Party | 2014–present | Abdel Fattah el-Sisi |
|
 Italian East Africa[146] |
National Fascist Party | 1936–1941 |
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 Equatorial Guinea |
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 Gabon |
Gabonese Republic[148] |
Gabonese Democratic Party | 1961–2023 |
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 Gambia |
Republic of the Gambia[149] |
Alliance for Patriotic Reorientation and Construction | 1996–2017 | Yahya Jammeh |
 Guinea-Bissau |
Template:Country data Portuguese Guinea Overseas Province of Guinea[150] | National Union | 1933–1974 |
|
 Liberia |
Republic of Liberia[151] |
National Democratic Party of Liberia | 1986–1990 | Samuel Doe |
 Libya |
Libya[152] |
National Fascist Party | 1934–1943 |
|
 Sidi Ifni of Morocco |
 Ifni[153] |
Military with the FET y de las JONS | 1936–1968 | Francisco Franco |
 Mozambique |
Template:Country data Portuguese Mozambique Province of Mozambique[154] | National Union | 1933–1974 |
|
 Namibia |
Template:Country data South West Africa Territory of South West Africa[155] | National Party | 1985–1990 | Louis Pienaar |
 Nigeria |
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Military |
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 Rwanda |
[157] |
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 Uganda |
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 São Tomé and Príncipe |
 Overseas Province of São Tomé and Príncipe[159] |
National Union | 1933–1974 |
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 Sudan |
Republic of the Sudan[160] |
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 Togo |
Togolese Republic[161] |
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| Template:SADR | Template:Country data Spanish Sahara Province of the Sahara[162] | Military with the FET y de las JONS | 1936–1968 | Francisco Franco |
See also
- Authoritarian capitalism
- Films depicting Latin American military dictatorships
- Military government
- Police state
- Operation Condor
References
- ↑ Bailey, Diane (2 September 2014). Colton, Timothy J.. ed. Dictatorship. Major Forms of World Government. Broomall, Pennsylvania: Mason Crest. p. 22. ISBN 978-1-4222-9455-0. OCLC 1088312521. https://books.google.com/books?id=u2-XDAAAQBAJ.
- ↑ Gottfried, Ted (2001). Heroes of the Holocaust. Twenty-First Century Books. pp. 24–25. ISBN 9780761317173. https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780761317173. Retrieved 14 January 2017. "Some groups that are known to have helped Jews were religious in nature. One of these was the Confessing Church, a Protestant denomination formed in May 1934, the year after Hitler became chancellor of Germany. One of its goals was to repeal the Nazi law "which required that the civil service would be purged of all those who were either Jewish or of partly Jewish descent." Another was to help those "who suffered through repressive laws, or violence." About 7,000 of the 17,000 Protestant clergy in Germany joined the Confessing Church. Much of their work has one unrecognized, but two who will never forget them are Max Krakauer and his wife. Sheltered in sixty-six houses and helped by more than eighty individuals who belonged to the Confessing Church, they owe them their lives. German Catholic churches went out of their way to protect Catholics of Jewish ancestry. More inclusive was the principled stand taken by Catholic Bishop Clemens Count von Galen of Munster. He publicly denounced the Nazi slaughter of Jews and actually succeeded in having the problem halted for a short time. ... Members of the Society of Friends--German Quakers working with organizations of Friends from other countries--were particularly successful in rescuing Jews. ... Jehovah's Witnesses, themselves targeted for concentration camps, also provided help to Jews."
- ↑ The New Fontaena Dictionary of Modern Thought Third Edition, (1999) p. 729.
- ↑ Efraim Zuroff: Occupation, Nazi-hunter: the continuing search for the perpetrators of the Holocaust. KTAV, 1994, p. 40.
- ↑ Sygkelos, Yanis (2011). Nationalism from the Left. BRILL. p. 254.
- ↑ S.G. Evans, A Short History of Bulgaria, London, Lawrence and Wishart, 1960, p. 161-170
- ↑ Tsar's Coup Time, 4 February 1935. retrieved 10 August 2008.
- ↑ Balkans and World War I SofiaEcho.com
- ↑ Tomasevich, Jozo (2001). War and Revolution in Yugoslavia, 1941–1945: Occupation and Collaboration. Stanford Univ: Stanford University Press. pp. 351–352. ISBN 978-0-8047-3615-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=fqUSGevFe5MC.
- ↑ "EOKA-B disbands in aid of unity: The notorious underground EOKA-B movement, responsible for a militant campaign against Archbishop Makarios, announces that it has disbanded itself - February 11, 1978 - Cyprus Mail" (in en-GB). Cyprus Mail. 2015-10-03. http://cyprus-mail.com/2015/10/03/eoka-b-disbands-in-aid-of-unity-the-notorious-underground-eoka-b-movement-responsible-for-a-militant-campaign-against-archbishop-makarios-announces-that-it-has-disbanded-itself-february-11-1978/.
- ↑ Cook, Chris; Diccon Bewes (1997). What Happened Where: A Guide to Places and Events in Twentieth-century History. Routledge. p. 65. ISBN 1-85728-533-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=FuGrcgcOiXoC&pg=PA65.
- ↑ Lemkin, Raphaël (1944). Axis Rule in Occupied Europe. Harold Bold Verlag. p. 343. ISBN 9781584779018. https://books.google.com/books?id=y0in2wOY-W0C&pg=PA343.
- ↑ "Vznik Národního souručenství 23. 3. 1939 - 77 let" (in cs). Fronta. http://www.fronta.cz/kalendar/vznik-narodniho-sourucenstvi.
- ↑ Julian T. Jackson, France: The Dark Years, 1940–1944 (2001).
- ↑ Jackson, Julian (15 October 2011). "7. The Republic and Vichy". in Edward G. Berenson. The French Republic: History, Values, Debates. Cornell University Press. p. 67. ISBN 978-0801-46064-7. OCLC 940719314. https://books.google.com/books?id=n_eDj7dNMfwC&pg=PA67. Retrieved 20 July 2020.
- ↑ Beigbeder, Yves (29 August 2006). Judging War Crimes and Torture: French Justice and International Criminal Tribunals and Commissions (1940-2005). Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff/Brill. p. 140. ISBN 978-90-474-1070-6. OCLC 1058436580. https://books.google.com/books?id=JEywCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA140. Retrieved 20 July 2020.
- ↑ Overy, Richard (2005). The Dictators: Hitler's Germany, Stalin's Russia. London: Penguin Books. p. 63. ISBN 978-0-393-02030-4. https://archive.org/details/dictators00rich.
- ↑ Bernhard R. Kroener, Germany and the Second World War Volume V/II, Oxford University Press, 2003, p. 44
- ↑ Payne, Stanley G (1995). A History of Fascism, 1914–45. University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 0-299-14874-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=NLiFIEdI1V4C&q=A+History+of+Fascism+payne.
- ↑ Lee, Stephen J. 2000. European Dictatorships, 1918-1945 Routledge; 2 edition (22 Jun 2000). ISBN:0415230462.
- ↑ Clogg, Richard "The Ideology of the "revolution of 21 April 1967'" p.36-58 from Greece Under Military Rule edited by Richard Clogg & George Yannopoloulos; London: Secker & Warburg, 1971 p.41.
- ↑ Template:Great Military and Naval Encyclopaedia
- ↑ Petrakis, Marina (2006). The Metaxas myth: dictatorship and propaganda in Greece. I.B.Tauris. p. 39. ISBN 1-84511-037-4.
- ↑ Brewer, David (2016). Greece The Decade of War, Occupation, Resistance, and Civil War. I.B. Tauris. p. 49. ISBN 978-1-78076-854-0.
- ↑ Mazower, Mark (1994) [1993]: Inside Hitler's Greece: The Experience of Occupation, 1941-44 (2nd Edition). Alexandria Editions, Athens. ISBN:978-960-221-096-3, p. 45
- ↑ Mark Mazower, Inside Hitler's Greece. The Experience of Occupation, 1941-44.(Greek translation), Athens: Αλεξάνδρεια, 1994(1993),125.
- ↑ Ομάδα Εκπαιδευτικών (14 July 2014). Λεξικό Σύγχρονο της Νεοελληνικής Γλώσσας. Pelekanos Books. p. 141. GGKEY:QD0C0PRDU6Z. https://books.google.com/books?id=Od8CBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA141. "απριλιανοί: οι δικτατορες του 1974"
- ↑ Pauley, Bruce F (2003) Hitler, Stalin, and Mussolini: Totalitarianism in the Twentieth Century Italy, Wheeling: Harlan Davidson, Inc., p. 107.
- ↑ Pauley, Bruce F (2003) Hitler, Stalin, and Mussolini: Totalitarianism in the Twentieth Century Italy, Wheeling: Harlan Davidson, Inc., p. 228.
- ↑ Aristotle A. Kallis, Fascist ideology: territory and expansionism in Italy and Germany, 1922–1945. London, England, UK; New York City, USA: Routledge, 2000. Pp. 41.
- ↑ John Pollard (22 July 2005). The Fascist Experience in Italy. Routledge. p. 116. ISBN 978-1-134-81904-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=mXuJAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA116.
- ↑ Lyttelton, Adrian (2009). The Seizure of Power: Fascism in Italy, 1919–1929. New York: Routledge. pp. 75–77. ISBN 978-0-415-55394-0.
- ↑ Moseley, Ray (2004). Mussolini: The Last 600 Days of Il Duce. Taylor Trade. ISBN 978-1-58979-095-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=UmxaWvOL_IgC&pg=PA7. Retrieved 3 June 2020.
- ↑ Vardys, Vytas Stanley; Judith B. Sedaitis (1997). Lithuania: The Rebel Nation. Westview Series on the Post-Soviet Republics. WestviewPress. pp. 34–36. ISBN 0-8133-1839-4. https://archive.org/details/lithuaniarebelna00vard/page/34.
- ↑ Tamošaitis, Mindaugas (27 May 2019). "Lietuvių tautininkų ir respublikonų sąjunga". Visuotinė lietuvių enciklopedija. Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos centras. https://www.vle.lt/Straipsnis/Lietuviu-tautininku-ir-respublikonu-sajunga-15466.
- ↑ Eidintas, Alfonsas; Žalys, Vytautas; Senn, Alfred Erich (1999). Tuskenis, Edvardas. ed. Lithuania in European Politics: The Years of the First Republic, 1918–1940 (Paperback ed.). New York: St. Martin's Press. pp. 117–125. ISBN 0-312-22458-3.
- ↑ Eidintas, Alfonsas (2015). Antanas Smetona and His Lithuania: From the National Liberation Movement to an Authoritarian Regime (1893-1940). On the Boundary of Two Worlds. Brill Rodopi. ISBN 9789004302037.
- ↑ Hirschfeld, Gerhard (1988). Nazi Rule and Dutch Collaboration: the Netherlands Under German Occupation 1940-1945. Oxford: Berg.
- ↑ Orlow, Dietrich (2010). The Nazi Party 1919-1945: A Complete History. New York: Enigma Books. pp. 420–422. ISBN 978-0-9824911-9-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=MFcJZHow9pEC&pg=PA420. Retrieved 2013-08-05.
- ↑ "Hitler Elevates Dutch Quisling" . Los Angeles Times, 14 December 1942
- ↑ https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/german-administration-of-poland
- ↑ Kenez, Peter (1980). "The Ideology of the White Movement". Soviet Studies 32 (32): 58–83. doi:10.1080/09668138008411280.
- ↑ "В Кремле рассказали о правом сдвиге "Единой России"" (in ru). RBK Group. https://www.rbc.ru/politics/23/12/2015/567af0bd9a7947294f286206.
- ↑ Jon Smele (2006) Civil War in Siberia: The Anti-Bolshevik Government of Admiral Kolchak, 1918–1920, Cambridge University Press, ISBN:0521029074. p.77
- ↑ Mahdawi, Arwa (2 March 2022). "Why does Putin have superfans among the US right wing?". The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2022/mar/01/why-does-putin-have-superfans-among-the-us-right-wing.
- ↑ Kolesnikov, Andrei (19 April 2022). "Authoritarianism to Hybrid Totalitarianism". https://carnegieendowment.org/2022/04/19/putin-s-war-has-moved-russia-from-authoritarianism-to-hybrid-totalitarianism-pub-86921.
- ↑ Karaveli, Halil Magnus (12 September 2008). "In the Shadow of Kenan Evren". The Turkey Analyst 1 (13). https://www.turkeyanalyst.org/publications/turkey-analyst-articles/item/135. Retrieved 4 July 2023.
- ↑ Konak, Nahide (2015). Waves of Social Movement Mobilizations in the Twenty-First Century: Challenges to the Neo-Liberal World Order and Democracy. Lexington Books. p. 64.
- ↑ Jones, Jeremy (2007). Negotiating Change: The New Politics of the Middle East. I.B. Tauris. p. 219. https://archive.org/details/negotiatingchang00jone.
- ↑ Erisen, Cengiz (2016). Political Psychology of Turkish Political Behavior. London: Routledge. p. 102. ISBN 9781317586074. OCLC 1019614461.
- ↑ Dombey, Daniel (10 May 2015). "Kenan Evren, former Turkish military dictator". Financial Times. https://www.ft.com/content/02b4a6e4-f6ef-11e4-a9c0-00144feab7de.
- ↑ Phillips, David (20 April 2017). An uncertain ally: Turkey under Erdoğan's dictatorship. New Jersey: Transaction Publishers. ISBN 9781412865456.
- ↑ "Reporters Without Borders labels Erdogan as 'enemy of press freedom'". Deutsche Welle. 2 November 2016. http://www.dw.com/en/reporters-without-borders-labels-erdogan-as-enemy-of-press-freedom/a-36228949.
- ↑ Filkins, Dexter (17 April 2017). "Turkey's Vote Makes Erdoğan Effectively a Dictator". The New Yorker. https://www.newyorker.com/news/news-desk/turkeys-vote-makes-erdogan-effectively-a-dictator. Retrieved 19 April 2017.
- ↑ Tombus, Ertug (3 March 2017). "The Fall of Turkish Democracy". http://www.publicseminar.org/2017/03/the-fall-of-turkish-democracy/#.WPeLKetHarV.
- ↑ Eastern Europe and the Commonwealth of Independent States: 1999, Routledge, 1999, ISBN:1857430581 (page 849)
- ↑ Nielsen, Christian Axboe (2009). "Policing Yugoslavism: Surveillance, Denunciations, and Ideology during King Aleksandar's Dictatorship, 1929–1934". East European Politics and Societies 23 (1): 34–62. doi:10.1177/0888325408326789.
- ↑ Payne, Stanley G. (1996). A History of Fascism, 1914–1945. University of Wisconsin Press. p. 325. ISBN 0299148742. https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780299148744.
- ↑ Farley, Brigit, "King Aleksandar and the Royal Dictatorship in Yugoslavia," in Bernd J. Fischer (ed), Balkan Strongmen: Dictators and Authoritarian Rulers of Southeastern Europe (West Lafayette, IN, 2007) (Central European Studies), 51-86.
- ↑ Djokić, Dejan (2011). "'Leader' or 'Devil'? Milan Stojadinović, Prime Minister of Yugoslavia, and his Ideology". in Haynes, Rebecca; Rady, Martyn. In the Shadow of Hitler: Personalities of the Right in Central and Eastern Europe. London: I.B. Tauris. pp. 153–167. ISBN 978-1-84511-697-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=ILRJ2ChennYC.
- ↑ Thomas David DuBois (25 April 2011), Religion and the Making of Modern East Asia, Cambridge University Press, pp. 176–, ISBN 978-1-139-49946-0, https://books.google.com/books?id=7NH4Jeh5QG4C&pg=PA176
- ↑ https://www.fairobserver.com/region/central_south_asia/omar-sadr-afghanistan-taliban-rule-totalitarianism-human-rights-news-2441/ https://www.eurotopics.net/en/305917/afghanistan-two-years-after-the-taliban-takeover https://www.britannica.com/topic/Taliban https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2021/09/03/far-right-america-taliban/ https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2023/country-chapters/afghanistan https://www.hrw.org/news/2022/01/18/afghanistan-taliban-deprive-women-livelihoods-identity https://www.politico.eu/article/far-right-taliban-afghanistan-social-media-facebook-twitter/
- ↑ Heitzman, James; Worden, Robert, eds (1989). "Mujib coup". Bangladesh: A Country Study. Washington, D.C.: Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. pp. 32–36. http://countrystudies.us/bangladesh/19.htm.
- ↑ Islam, Syed Serajul (May 1984). "The State in Bangladesh under Zia (1975–81)". Asian Survey (University of California Press) 24 (5): 556–573. doi:10.2307/2644413.
- ↑ Ahmed, Mahiuddin (2016) (in bn), BNP: Somoy-Osomoy, Prothoma, p. 99, ISBN 978-984-91762-51
- ↑ Heitzman, James; Worden, Robert, eds (1989). "Restoration of Military Rule". Bangladesh: A Country Study. Washington, D.C.: Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. pp. 36–37. http://countrystudies.us/bangladesh/20.htm.
- ↑ "Jatiya Party". http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Jatiya_Party.
- ↑ Maniruzzaman, Talukder (1992). "The Fall of the Military Dictator: 1991 Elections and the Prospect of Civilian Rule in Bangladesh". Pacific Affairs 65 (2): 203–224. doi:10.2307/2760169. ISSN 0030-851X.
- ↑ Kiernan, B. How Pol Pot came to power, Yale University Press, 2004, p.158
- ↑ Kershaw, Roger (2001). Monarchy in South East Asia: The Faces of Tradition in Transition. Routledge. pp. 55–56.
- ↑ Bahree, Megha (24 September 2014). "In Cambodia, A Close Friendship With The PM Leads To Vast Wealth For One Power Couple". Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/sites/meghabahree/2014/09/24/who-you-know-inc-in-cambodia-a-close-friendship-with-the-pm-leads-to-vast-wealth-for-one-power-couple/.
- ↑ David Roberts (29 April 2016). Political Transition in Cambodia 1991–99: Power, Elitism and Democracy. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-136-85054-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=SnYWDAAAQBAJ&pg=PR9. Retrieved 12 September 2017. (section XI, "Recreating Elite Stability, July 1997 to July 1998")
- ↑ Derbyshire, J. Denis (1990). Political Systems Of The World. Allied Publishers. p. 116.
- ↑ Thomas Bohlken, Anjali (2016). Democratization from Above. Cambridge University Press. p. 221.
- ↑ Berger, Marilyn (28 January 2008). "Suharto Dies at 86; Indonesian Dictator Brought Order and Bloodshed". The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2008/01/28/world/asia/28suharto.html.
- ↑ Gittings, John (28 January 2008). "Obituary: Suharto, former Indonesian dictator: 1921-2008". The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/jan/27/obituaries.johngittings.
- ↑ Hutton, Jeffrey (19 May 2018). "Is Indonesia's Reformasi a success, 20 years after Suharto?". South China Morning Post. https://www.scmp.com/week-asia/politics/article/2146838/indonesias-reformasi-success-20-years-after-suharto. "...would topple the dictator Suharto."
- ↑ https://www.britannica.com/biography/Mohammad-Reza-Shah-Pahlavi https://www.britannica.com/biography/Reza-Shah-Pahlavi https://www.hrw.org/news/2010/12/15/iran-discrimination-and-violence-against-sexual-minorities< https://www.wsj.com/story/irans-conservative-culture-challenged-by-working-women-f883df3f, https://www.wsj.com/story/irans-conservative-culture-challenged-by-working-women-f883df3f
- ↑ Cumings, Bruce (1997). Korea's place in the sun. New York: W.W. Norton. p. 221. ISBN 0-393-31681-5. https://archive.org/details/koreasplaceinsun00bruc.
- ↑ Yonhap News Agency (2004). Korea Annual 2004. Seoul: Author. p. 271. ISBN 89-7433-070-9.
- ↑ 81.0 81.1 Kim, B.-K., ed (2011). The Park Chung Hee Era: The Transformation of South Korea. Harvard University Press. p. 27. ISBN 9780674058200. https://archive.org/details/parkchungheeerat00kimb.
- ↑ 강준만, ed (2004). 한국 현대사 산책 1950년대편 2: 6·25 전쟁에서 4·19 전야까지. 인물과사상사. ISBN 9788988410943. https://books.google.com/books?id=fH3hBAAAQBAJ&q=%EC%9D%B4%EC%8A%B9%EB%A7%8C+%EC%9E%90%EC%9C%A0%EB%8B%B9+%EA%B7%B9%EC%9A%B0&pg=PT180.
- ↑ Kohli, A. (2004). State-Directed Development: Political Power and Industrialization in the Global Periphery. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 92.
- ↑ Kim, Youngmi (2011), The Politics of Coalition in Korea: Between institutions and culture, Routledge, p. 36
- ↑ Tirman, John (2011). The Deaths of Others: The Fate of Civilians in America's Wars. Oxford University Press. pp. 93–95. ISBN 978-0-19-538121-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=2bC5Bsc1NEQC&pg=PA93.
- ↑ Eckert, Carter Park Chung Hee and Modern Korea The Roots of Militarism, Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2016 pages 1–2.
- ↑ Yi, Pyŏng-chʻŏn (2006). Developmental Dictatorship and the Park Chung Hee Era: The Shaping of Modernity in the Republic of Korea. Homa & Sekey Books. pp. 248–280. ISBN 978-1-9319-0728-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=DjQBBU8GQbQC&q=Expressway&pg=PP1.
- ↑ "South Korea's ex-dictator Chun Doo-hwan tries to keep low profile in his twilight years". Los Angeles Times. 29 November 2015. https://www.latimes.com/world/asia/la-fg-south-korea-dictator-20151129-story.html.
- ↑ Prasenjit Duara (2004). Sovereignty and Authenticity:Manchukuo and the East Asian Modern. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. ISBN 9780742530911. https://books.google.com/books?id=L77chgc58X8C&q=concordia+association+fascist+manchukuo&pg=PA74.
- ↑ Annika A. Culver (2013). Glorify the Empire: Japanese Avant-Garde Propaganda in Manchukuo. UBC Press. ISBN 9780774824361. https://books.google.com/books?id=BRjNCF98rqwC&q=concordia+association+fascist+manchukuo&pg=PA141.
- ↑ Donald M. Seekins, Historical Dictionary of Burma (Myanmar) (Scarecrow Press, 2006), 123–26 and 354.
- ↑ Ferrara, Federico. (2003). Why Regimes Create Disorder: Hobbes's Dilemma during a Rangoon Summer. The Journal of Conflict Resolution, 47(3), pp. 302–325.
- ↑ "The world's enduring dictators". CBS News. May 16, 2011.
- ↑ "Myanmar's Troubled History: Coups, Military Rule, and Ethnic Conflict". https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/myanmar-history-coup-military-rule-ethnic-conflict-rohingya.
- ↑ Hassan Abbas (2005). Pakistan's drift into extremism: Allah, the army, and America's war on terror. M.E. Sharpe. pp. 16–40. ISBN 978-0-7656-1496-4. https://archive.org/details/pakistansdriftin00hass/page/16.
- ↑ Hyman, Anthony; Ghayur, Muhammed; Kaushik, Naresh (1989). Pakistan, Zia and After--. New Delhi: Abhinav Publications. p. 30. ISBN 81-7017-253-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=cjPgESaC-7sC&pg=PA30.
- ↑ Dossani, Rafiq; Rowen, Henry S. (2005). Prospects for Peace in South Asia. Stanford University Press. p. 42. ISBN 978-0-8047-5085-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=TwO9zmj6aQ0C&pg=PA42.
- ↑ Haque, Ihtasham-ul (23 October 1999). "Musharraf addresses nation: Security Council to run state affairs". asianstudies.github.io. Dawn Newspapers (Dawn Wire Service, Haque) (5/43). https://asianstudies.github.io/area-studies/SouthAsia/SAserials/Dawn/1999/23oct99.html#mush.
- ↑ https://www.al-islam.org/40-questions-islamic-state-hamid-reza-shakerin/dictatorship-and-islamic-state https://www.britannica.com/topic/Islamic-State-in-Iraq-and-the-Levant
- ↑ https://www.britannica.com/biography/Adib-al-Shishakli https://www.jstor.org/stable/163235
- ↑ Thak Chaloemtiarana. Thailand: The Politics of Despotic Paternalism (The Southeast Asia Program Edition) Silkworm Books, 2007 ISBN:978-974-9511-28-2 https://www.reuters.com/article/us-thailand-politics-timeline/timeline-thailands-turbulent-politics-since-2014-military-coup-idUSKCN2520CB
- ↑ ISBN:978-974-9511-28-2 https://www.indianarrative.com/opinion-news/after-afghanistan-turkmenistans-creeping-shift-to-conservative-islam-is-alarming-36272.html, https://carnegieendowment.org/2017/01/30/turkmenistan-at-twenty-five-high-price-of-authoritarianism-pub-67839, https://www.walkfree.org/global-slavery-index/country-studies/turkmenistan/
- ↑ https://foreignpolicy.com/2018/06/21/uzbekistans-new-era-might-just-be-real/ https://www.britannica.com/place/Uzbekistan [1]
- ↑ https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ngo-Dinh-Diem https://www.britannica.com/biography/Nguyen-Van-Thieu https://www.britannica.com/event/Vietnam-War/The-fall-of-South-Vietnam
- ↑ O. Henry (1904). Cabbages and Kings. New York City: Doubleday, Page & Company. pp. 132, 296. https://books.google.com/books?id=6jpMsL2T0CoC.
- ↑ https://www.britannica.com/biography/Pedro-Eugenio-Aramburu https://www.britannica.com/event/Dirty-War https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/collection/argentina-declassification-project-dirty-war-1976-83 https://www.britannica.com/biography/Juan-Peron
- ↑ https://www.britannica.com/biography/Hugo-Banzer-Suarez https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/local/2002/05/12/hugo-banzer-bolivian-president/17613c63-cc40-4ef4-bdee-3552a85874c6/ https://www.wsws.org/en/articles/2021/09/30/banz-s30.html https://www.britannica.com/biography/Luis-Garcia-Meza https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1994-03-21-mn-36804-story.html https://countrystudies.us/bolivia/18.htm https://www.britannica.com/biography/Hugo-Banzer-Suarez
- ↑ https://www.britannica.com/biography/Joao-Baptista-de-Oliveira-Figueiredo https://voices.uchicago.edu/vaeranda/2023/03/23/revolution-not-transition-the-collapse-of-the-brazilian-military-regime/ https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2020/09/how-anti-communist-conspiracies-haunt-brazil/614665/ https://www.americasquarterly.org/article/50-years-ago-brazil-virtually-legalized-torture-and-censorship/
- ↑ https://www.theguardian.com/world/2006/dec/11/chile.pinochet4 https://researchportal.bath.ac.uk/en/publications/the-pinochet-regime-and-the-trans-nationalization-of-italian-neo- https://www.hrw.org/news/1999/10/14/extradition-general-augusto-pinochet
- ↑ https://www.nytimes.com/1957/05/15/archives/colombian-junta-may-face-test-antimilitary-reaction-expected.html
- ↑ "Dictadura de los Tinoco". Guías de Costa Rica. 28 June 2013. https://guiascostarica.info/acontecimientos/dictadura-de-los-tinoco/.
- ↑ Bonilla, Alejandro (22 March 2009). "La última dictadura". La Nación. https://wvw.nacion.com/ancora/2009/marzo/22/ancora1910482.html+&cd=7&hl=es&ct=clnk&gl=cr&client=firefox-b-d.
- ↑ Soto, Carlos (8 April 2019). "A 100 años de la última dictadura". La Nación. https://www.nacion.com/revista-dominical/a-100-anos-de-la-ultima-dictadura-el-gobierno-de/DRNPLT6TQFF4JJOHDGFDQJEZRM/story/+&cd=8&hl=es&ct=clnk&gl=cr&client=firefox-b-d.
- ↑ Fernández Morales, Jesús Manuel (2010). Las Presidencias del Castillo Azul (1 ed.). Imprenta LIL.
- ↑ El Tribunal Supremo de Elecciones: Presidentes de la República de Costa Rica
- ↑ https://www.britannica.com/biography/Alfredo-Poveda-Burbano#ref947232 https://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/rodriguez-lara-guillermo-1923-1988 https://www.britannica.com/biography/Alfredo-Poveda-Burbano
- ↑ https://www.britannica.com/biography/Antonio-Lopez-de-Santa-Anna https://www.britannica.com/biography/Mariano-Paredes-y-Arrillaga
- ↑ Jim Handy (1982) Gift of the Devil: A History of Guatemala, South End Press
- ↑ Mayra Valladares de Ruiz. "EL PARTIDO LIBERAL Y OTRAS ·FUERZAS POLÍTICAS 1871-1944". http://iihaa.usac.edu.gt/archivohemerografico/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/26_estudios_ago_1995_valladares.pdf.
- ↑ Bauer Paz, Alfonso (1965) (in es). Compilación de leyes laborales de Guatemala de 1872 a 1930. Guatemala: Centro de Estudios Económicos y Sociales, University of San Carlos of Guatemala. http://ufdc.ufl.edu/UF00078500/00001/52x?vo=3.
- ↑ Immerman, Richard H. (1983). The CIA in Guatemala: The Foreign Policy of Intervention. University of Texas Press. ISBN 9780292710832. https://books.google.com/books?id=erAkfz6c9HoC.
- ↑ Streeter, Stephen M. (2000). Managing the counterrevolution: the United States and Guatemala, 1954-1961. Ohio University Press. ISBN 978-0-89680-215-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=h17R_A0n-1MC.
- ↑ Fraser, Andrew (August 2006). "Architecture of a Broken Dream: The CIA and Guatemala, 1952–54". Intelligence and National Security 20 (3): 486–508. doi:10.1080/02684520500269010.
- ↑ Keen, Benjamin; Haynes, Keith A. (2009). A History of Latin America. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company. pp. 450. ISBN 978-0-618-78318-2.
- ↑ Dunbar-Ortiz, Roxanne (2005). Blood on the Border. Prologue. http://www.southendpress.org/2005/items/7417/Prologue.
- ↑ Christopher, Byron (Fall 2003). "Quiet Cleansing: Public Kept in the Dark about Talisman Lawsuit". https://www.ualberta.ca/PARKLAND/post/Vol-VII-No3/08Christopher.html.
- ↑ "Gobernantes de Nicaragua". Ministerio de Educación. 9 December 2012. http://www.mined.gob.ni/gobern42.php.
- ↑ https://www.pbs.org/tpt/dictators-playbook/episodes/manuel-noriega/ https://www.loc.gov/exhibitions/drawing-justice-courtroom-illustrations/about-this-exhibition/crime-corruption-and-cover-ups/manuel-noriega-on-trial/ https://www.britannica.com/biography/Manuel-Noriega
- ↑ 129.0 129.1 https://www.nytimes.com/1948/06/04/archives/paraguay-deposes-morinigo-after-an-8year-dictatorship-coup.html https://apnews.com/hub/alberto-fujimori https://apnews.com/hub/alberto-fujimori https://www.britannica.com/biography/Alberto-Fujimori
- ↑ https://www.britannica.com/biography/Francisco-Morales-Bermudez https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/francisco-morales-bermudez-cerruti
- ↑ ISBN:978-974-9511-28-2
- ↑ "Ku Klux Klan". 29 October 2019. https://www.history.com/topics/19th-century/ku-klux-klan.
- ↑ "Confederate States of America". 9 November 2009. https://www.history.com/topics/american-civil-war/confederate-states-of-america.
- ↑ "The American Civil War as a Conservative Revolution". 25 April 2022. https://www.history.ox.ac.uk/event/the-american-civil-war-as-a-conservative-revolution.
- ↑ "Slavery as a Cause of the Civil War". n.d.. https://www.nps.gov/liho/learn/historyculture/slavery-cause-civil-war.htm.
- ↑ https://www.britannica.com/place/Uruguay/The-military-regime https://www.refinery29.com/en-us/2021/09/10641174/real-stories-uruguay-disaparecidos-military-dictatorship https://www.tni.org/en/article/50-years-after-the-coup-detat-in-uruguay https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/jul/19/juan-maria-bordaberry-obituary https://countrystudies.us/uruguay/22.htm
- ↑ https://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/delgado-chalbaud-carlos-1909-1950 https://www.britannica.com/biography/Marcos-Perez-Jimenez https://www.nytimes.com/2001/09/22/world/marcos-perez-jimenez-87-venezuela-ruler.html https://www.jstor.org/stable/156130
- ↑ https://www.worldhistory.org/Portuguese_Angola/
- ↑ https://www.gq-magazine.co.uk/politics/article/burundi-pierre-nkurunziza https://www.independent.co.uk/news/obituaries/pierre-nkurunziza-burundi-president-dead-a9558731.html
- ↑ https://www.focusonafrica.info/en/cameroon-paul-biya-corrupt-dictator-in-power-for-over-38-years/ https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2022-01-26-cameroon-the-corrupt-and-brutal-central-african-state-is-run-by-five-men-with-support-from-the-united-kingdom/
- ↑ https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1762/the-portuguese-colonization-of-cape-verde/
- ↑ https://www.britannica.com/biography/Jean-Bedel-Bokassa
- ↑ https://foreignpolicy.com/2022/12/06/chad-deby-coup-leader-democracy/ https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/chad-rebel-group-threatens-military-led-government-2023-08-22/ https://www.britannica.com/biography/Idriss-Deby#ref1112176
- ↑ https://www.britannica.com/biography/Mobutu-Sese-Seko https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/africaatlse/2023/06/08/a-brief-historical-review-of-joseph-mobutus-kleptocracy/
- ↑ https://peoplesdispatch.org/2023/07/13/egypts-decade-of-dictatorship-and-repression/ https://dawnmena.org/sisi-cant-disguise-egypts-dictatorship-as-a-new-republic/
- ↑ https://www.britannica.com/place/Italian-East-Africa
- ↑ https://www.europenowjournal.org/2018/02/28/a-forgotten-colony-equatorial-guinea-and-spain/ https://mondediplo.com/2021/11/11equatorialguinea https://www.jstor.org/stable/40395170
- ↑ https://lens.civicus.org/gabon-the-end-of-a-dictatorship-and-the-beginning-of-another/
- ↑ https://www.britannica.com/place/The-Gambia/1994-coup-1996-presidential-election-and-new-constitution#ref1010062
- ↑ https://uca.edu/politicalscience/home/research-projects/dadm-project/sub-saharan-africa-region/portuguese-guinea-1951-1974/
- ↑ https://www.britannica.com/biography/Samuel-K-Doe
- ↑ https://daily.jstor.org/libya-italian-connection/
- ↑ https://www.britannica.com/place/Ifni
- ↑ https://uca.edu/politicalscience/home/research-projects/dadm-project/sub-saharan-africa-region/portuguese-mozambique-1951-1975/
- ↑ https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1989/10/21/s-africa-accused-in-namibia/70eb70a4-6c3f-4d10-864d-7cca6433a5b3/
- ↑ https://www.britannica.com/place/Nigeria/Military-regimes-1983-99 https://www.jstor.org/stable/45313293
- ↑ https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-26875506 https://www.britannica.com/topic/National-Revolutionary-Movement-for-Development https://www.britannica.com/biography/Juvenal-Habyarimana https://www.nytimes.com/2023/04/11/opinion/paul-kagame-rwanda-britain.html https://www.britannica.com/biography/Paul-Kagame
- ↑ https://www.britannica.com/biography/Idi-Amin https://www.cnn.com/2023/06/29/africa/uganda-life-for-lgbt-community-intl-cmd/index.html https://www.jstor.org/stable/4187590
- ↑ https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1763/the-portuguese-colonization-of-sao-tome-and-princi/
- ↑ https://www.britannica.com/place/Sudan/Sudan-under-Bashir https://www.wsj.com/articles/sudan-leader-arrested-as-north-africa-rocked-by-political-upheaval-11554985262 https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/4/16/who-is-al-burhan-sudans-military-de-facto-head-of-state https://www.britannica.com/biography/Abdel-Fattah-al-Burhan
- ↑ https://www.britannica.com/topic/Rally-of-the-Togolese-People https://www.theguardian.com/news/2005/feb/07/guardianobituaries https://www.cfr.org/blog/togo-slides-toward-authoritarianism https://blogging.africa/democracy/it-is-confirmed-and-proven-togo-is-a-dictatorship/
- ↑ https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76ve09p1/d87
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