Social:Democracy indices

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Short description: Overview of democracy measures
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Democracy indices are quantitative and comparative assessments of the state of democracy[1] for different countries according to various definitions of democracy.[2]

The democracies indices differ in whether they are categorical, such as classifying countries into democracies, hybrid regimes, and autocracies,[3][4] or continuous values.[5] The qualitative nature of democracy indices enables data analytical approaches for studying causal mechanisms of regime transformation processes.

Democracy indices differ in scope and weighting of different aspects of democracy, including the breadth of core democratic institutions, competitiveness and inclusiveness of polyarchy, freedom of expression, various aspects of governance, democratic norm transgressions, co-option of opposition, electoral system manipulation, electoral fraud, and popular support of anti-democratic alternatives.[6][7][8]

Prominent democracy indices

Operating

  • The Economist Democracy Index, by the UK-based Economist Intelligence Unit, is an assessment of countries' democracy. Countries are rated as full democracies, flawed democracies, hybrid regimes, or authoritarian regimes. The index is based on five different categories measuring pluralism, civil liberties, and political culture.[9]
  • V-Dem Democracy indices by V-Dem Institute distinguishes between five high-level principles of democracy: electoral, liberal, participatory, deliberative, and egalitarian, and quantifies these principles.[10] The V-Dem Democracy indices include the Citizen-initiated component of direct popular vote index, which indicates the strength of direct democracy and the presidentialism index, which indicates higher concentration of political power in the hands of one individual.
  • Bertelsmann Transformation Index by the Bertelsmann Stiftung, evaluations by country, regional, and general experts, some evaluations by representative surveys of regular citizens for most countries in the world. Spectrum, then averaging of scores for: hard-line autocracy, moderate autocracy, very defective democracy, defective democracy, consolidating democracy.[11]
  • The Global State of Democracy Indices by International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance assesses democratic performance using different types of sources: expert surveys, standards-based coding by research groups and analysts, observational data and composite measures.[12]

Indices measuring aspects of democracy

  • Freedom in the World, is a yearly survey and report by the U.S.-based[13] non-governmental organization Freedom House that measures the degree of civil liberties and political rights in every nation and significant related and disputed territories around the world.[14]
  • Effective number of parties is an index of the adjusted number of political parties in a country's party system.[15]
  • Fragile States Index, formerly the Failed States Index, is an annual report that aims to assess states' vulnerability to conflict or collapse, ranking all sovereign states with membership in the United Nations where there is enough data available for analysis.[16]
  • Gallagher index measures an electoral system's relative disproportionality between votes received and seats in a legislature.[17]
  • The Pedersen index is a measure of political volatility in party systems.

Other measured aspects of democracy include voter turnout, efficiency gap, wasted vote, and political efficacy.[18][19]

Historical

  • Democracy-Dictatorship Index is a binary measure of democracy and dictatorship.[20]
  • Democracy Ranking is a democracy ranking by the Association for Development and Advancement of the Democracy Award.[21]
  • Polity data series contains annual information on regime authority characteristics and covers the years 1800–2018 based on competitiveness, openness, and level of participation, sponsored by the Political Instability Task Force (PITF).[22]
  • Boix-Miller-Rosato dichotomous coding of democracy, easy-to-observe characteristics, few evaluations by own researchers based on academic literature. As a classification: non-democracy to democracy.[23]
  • Lexical Index of Electoral Democracy (LIED) by Skaaning et al. democracy's characteristics assessed with easy-to-observe characteristics, few evaluations by own researchers based on academic research. Then evaluating whether necessary characteristics are present or not.[24]
  • The Index of Democratization created by Tatu Vanhanen

Maps of indices

Further information: Social:Democratic backsliding by country

  • Country ratings from Freedom House's Freedom in the World 2021 survey

  • Democracy Index map in 2020 according to The Economist Intelligence Unit

  • Global trend report analyzes the results of the Bertelsmann Transformation Index 2022 [25]

  • Fragile States Index 2005–2013'

Difficulties in measuring democracy

Because democracy is an overarching concept that includes the functioning of diverse institutions which are not easy to measure, limitations exist in quantifying and econometrically measuring the potential effects of democracy or its relationship with other phenomena—whether inequality, poverty, education etc.[27] Given the constraints in acquiring reliable data with within-country variations on aspects of democracy, academics have largely studied cross-country variations, yet variations in democratic institutions can be large within countries. Another way of conceiving the difficulties in measuring democracy is through the debate between minimalist versus maximalist definitions of democracy. A minimalist conception of democracy defines democracy by primarily considering the essence of democracy; such as electoral procedures.[28] A maximalist definition of democracy can include outcomes, such as economic or administrative efficiency, into measures of democracy.[29] Some aspects of democracy, such as responsiveness[30] or accountability, are generally not included in democracy indices due to the difficulty measuring these aspects. Other aspects, such as judicial independence or quality of the electoral system, are included in some democracy indices but not in others.

Some measures of democracy, notably Freedom House and Polity IV, deploy a maximalist understanding of democracy by analyzing indicators that go beyond electoral procedure.[31] These measures attempt to gauge contestation and inclusion; two features Robert Dahl argued are essential in democracies that successfully promote accountable governments.[32][33] The democratic rating given by these mainstream measures can vary greatly depending on the indicators and evidence they deploy.[34] The definition of democracy utilized by these measures is important because of the discouraging and alienating power such ratings can have, particularly when determined by indicators which are biased toward Western democracies.[35]

Dieter Fuchs and Edeltraud Roller suggest that, in order to truly measure the quality of democracy, objective measurements need to be complemented by "subjective measurements based on the perspective of citizens".[36] Similarly, Quinton Mayne and Brigitte Geißel also defend that the quality of democracy does not depend exclusively on the performance of institutions, but also on the citizens' own dispositions and commitment.[37]

Critiques of measures of democracy

Data on democracy, and particularly global indices of democracy, have been scrutinized and criticized by various scholars. Gerardo L. Munck and Jay Verkuilen questioned various aspects of the data produced by Freedom House and Polity, such as the concept of democracy they measured, the design of indicators, and the aggregation rule.[38] Political scientists Andrew T. Little and Anne Meng "highlight measurement concerns regarding time-varying bias in expert-coded data" such as Freedom House and V-Dem and encourage improving expert-coding practices.[39] Knutsen et al.[40] didn't see evidence for time-varying bias in their expert-coded data and note the application of item response theory, factor analysis and estimates of uncertainties to limit expert biases while discussing concerns in operationalization of observer-invariant measures of democracy.

See also

References

  1. ↑ Geissel, Brigitte; Kneuer, Marianne; Lauth, Hans-Joachim (2016). "Measuring the quality of democracy: Introduction". International Political Science Review (Sage Publications) 37 (5): 571–579. doi:10.1177/0192512116669141. ISSN 0192-5121. https://www.jstor.org/stable/26556872. Retrieved 2023-04-03. 
  2. ↑ Greenwood, Shannon (2022-12-06). "Appendix A: Classifying democracies". https://www.pewresearch.org/global/2022/12/06/online-civic-engagement-spring-2022-appendix-a-classifying-democracies/. 
  3. ↑ Dobratz, B.A. (2015). Power, Politics, and Society: An Introduction to Political Sociology. Taylor & Francis. p. 47. ISBN 978-1-317-34529-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=RoK9CgAAQBAJ&pg=PA47. Retrieved Apr 30, 2023. 
  4. ↑ Michie, J. (2014). Reader's Guide to the Social Sciences. Taylor & Francis. pp. 95–97. ISBN 978-1-135-93226-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=ip_IAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA95. Retrieved 2023-04-03. 
  5. ↑ "Democracy data: how do researchers measure democracy?". Jun 17, 2022. https://ourworldindata.org/democracies-measurement. 
  6. ↑ "The 'Varieties of Democracy' data: how do researchers measure democracy?". 2022-11-30. https://ourworldindata.org/vdem-electoral-democracy-data. 
  7. ↑ "Breaking Down Democracy". https://freedomhouse.org/report/special-report/2017/breaking-down-democracy. 
  8. ↑ Democracy and Autocracy, Why do Democracies Develop and Decline, Vol. 21(1) June 2023, Democracy and Autocracy Section, American Political Science Association
  9. ↑ "Democracy Index 2021: the China challenge" (in en-GB). https://www.eiu.com/n/campaigns/democracy-index-2021/. 
  10. ↑ "Democracy Report 2022: Autocratization Changing Nature?", V-Dem Institute (University of Gothenburg), https://v-dem.net/media/publications/dr_2022.pdf 
  11. ↑ "Governance Report". https://bti-project.org/en/reports/global/governance-report. 
  12. ↑ "The Global State of Democracy Indices". https://www.idea.int/gsod-indices/democracy-indices/. 
  13. ↑ William Ide (January 11, 2000). "Freedom House Report: Asia Sees Some Significant Progress". Voice of America. http://www.voanews.com/content/report--asia-sees-some-significant-progress-81235887/165280.html. 
  14. ↑ "Freedom in the World". 2021-02-01. https://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world. 
  15. ↑ Laakso, Markku; Taagepera, Rein (1979). ""Effective" Number of Parties: A Measure with Application to West Europe" (in en). Comparative Political Studies 12 (1): 3–27. doi:10.1177/001041407901200101. ISSN 0010-4140. https://escholarship.org/uc/item/703827nv. 
  16. ↑ "Failed States FAQ". the Fund for Peace. http://www.fundforpeace.org/web/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=102&Itemid=327. 
  17. ↑ "The Gallagher Index – iscanadafair.ca". https://iscanadafair.ca/gallagher-index/. 
  18. ↑ Karp, Jeffrey A.; Banducci, Susan A. (2008). "Political Efficacy and Participation in Twenty-Seven Democracies: How Electoral Systems Shape Political Behaviour". British Journal of Political Science (Cambridge University Press) 38 (2): 311–334. doi:10.1017/S0007123408000161. ISSN 0007-1234. http://www.jstor.org/stable/27568347. Retrieved 2023-06-16. 
  19. ↑ "Internal and external political efficacy - Government at a Glance 2021". https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/sites/b6d836a0-en/index.html?itemId=/content/component/b6d836a0-en. 
  20. ↑ "Democracy-Dictatorship_Index". Jul 17, 2020. https://www.kaggle.com/datasets/mathurinache/democracy-dictatorship-index. 
  21. ↑ "Home" (in de). Feb 12, 2017. http://democracyranking.org/wordpress/. 
  22. ↑ "Polity IV Project". Table footnote. http://www.systemicpeace.org/polity/polity4.htm. 
  23. ↑ "Boix-Miller-Rosato dichotomous coding of democracy, 1800-2020, version 4.0 - bmr". https://xmarquez.github.io/democracyData/reference/bmr.html. 
  24. ↑ Skaaning, Svend-Erik; Gerring, John; Bartusevičius, Henrikas (Apr 26, 2015). "A Lexical Index of Electoral Democracy". Comparative Political Studies (SAGE Publications) 48 (12): 1491–1525. doi:10.1177/0010414015581050. ISSN 0010-4140. https://pure.au.dk/ws/files/110316577/A_Lexical_Index_of_Electoral_Democracy_postprint_2015.pdf. 
  25. ↑ "Global Dashboard". https://bti-project.org/en/reports/global-dashboard?&cb=00000. 
  26. ↑ Cheibub, José Antonio; Gandhi, Jennifer; Vreeland, James Raymond (April 2010). "Democracy and dictatorship revisited". Public Choice 143 (1–2): 67–101. doi:10.1007/s11127-009-9491-2. 
  27. ↑ Krauss, Alexander (January 2, 2016). "The scientific limits of understanding the (potential) relationship between complex social phenomena: the case of democracy and inequality". Journal of Economic Methodology 23 (1): 97–109. doi:10.1080/1350178X.2015.1069372. http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/1350178X.2015.1069372. 
  28. ↑ Dahl, Robert A., Ian Shapiro, José Antônio Cheibub, and Adam Przeworski. “Minimalist Conception of Democracy: A Defense.” Essay. In The Democracy Sourcebook, 12–17. Cambridge, MA, MA: MIT Press, 2003.
  29. ↑ Schmitter, Philippe C. and Terry Lynn Karl. 1991. "What Democracy is.. . and is Not." Journal of Democracy 2 (3): 75-88
  30. ↑ Esaiasson, Peter, and Christopher Wlezien. "Advances in the study of democratic responsiveness: An introduction." Comparative political studies 50.6 (2017): 699-710.
  31. ↑ Coppedge, Michael, Angel Alvarez, and Claudia Maldonado. 2008. "Two Persistent Dimensions of Democracy: Contestation and Inclusiveness." The Journal of Politics70 (3): 632-647.
  32. ↑ Samuels, David. “Chapter 3: Democratic Political Regimes.” Essay. In Comparative Politics. New York: Pearson Education, 2013.
  33. ↑ Clark, William Roberts, Matt Golder, and Sona Nadenichek Golder. “Chapter 5: Economic Determinates of Democracy.” Chapter. In Foundations of Comparative Politics, 351–92.
  34. ↑ Högström, John. “Does the Choice of Democracy Measure Matter? Comparisons between the Two Leading Democracy Indices, Freedom House and Polity IV.” Government and Opposition 48, no. 2 (2013): 201–21. doi:10.1017/gov.2012.10.
  35. ↑ Piironen, Ossi. 2005. "Minimalist Democracy without Substance? an Evaluation of the Mainstream Measures of Democracy." Politiikka 47 (3): 189-204.
  36. ↑ Fuchs, Dieter; Roller, Edeltraud (2018). "Conceptualizing and Measuring the Quality of Democracy: The Citizens' Perspective". Politics and Governance 6 (1): 22. doi:10.17645/pag.v6i1.1188. 
  37. ↑ Mayne, Quinton; Geißel, Brigitte (2018). "Don't Good Democracies Need "Good" Citizens? Citizen Dispositions and the Study of Democratic Quality". Politics and Governance 6 (1): 33. doi:10.17645/pag.v6i1.1216. 
  38. ↑ Gerardo L. Munck and Jay Verkuilen, “Conceptualizing and Measuring Democracy: Evaluating Alternative Indices,” Comparative Political Studies 35, 1 (2002): 5-34. https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.469.3177&rep=rep1&type=pdf
  39. ↑ Little, Andrew T.; Meng, Anne (2024-01-11). "Measuring Democratic Backsliding" (in en). PS: Political Science & Politics: 1–13. doi:10.1017/S104909652300063X. ISSN 1049-0965. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/ps-political-science-and-politics/article/measuring-democratic-backsliding/9EE2044CDA598BD815349912E61189D8. 
  40. ↑ Knutsen, Carl Henrik; Marquardt, Kyle L.; Seim, Brigitte; Coppedge, Michael; Edgell, Amanda B.; Medzihorsky, Juraj; Pemstein, Daniel; Teorell, Jan et al. (2024-01-11). "Conceptual and Measurement Issues in Assessing Democratic Backsliding" (in en). PS: Political Science & Politics: 1–16. doi:10.1017/S104909652300077X. ISSN 1049-0965. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/ps-political-science-and-politics/article/conceptual-and-measurement-issues-in-assessing-democratic-backsliding/7A620BD91885C932B48E6783BC32CA24. 

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