WebAssembly

From HandWiki

WebAssembly (Wasm) defines a portable binary-code format and a corresponding text format for executable programs[1] as well as software interfaces for facilitating communication between such programs and their host environment.[2][3][4][5]

The main goal of WebAssembly is to facilitate high-performance applications on web pages, but it is also designed to be usable in non-web environments.[6] It is an open standard[7][8] intended to support any language on any operating system,[9] and in practice many of the most popular languages already have at least some level of support.

Announced in Script error: No such module "Date time". and first released in Script error: No such module "Date time"., WebAssembly became a World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) recommendation on 5 December 2019[10][11][12] and it received the Programming Languages Software Award from ACM SIGPLAN in 2021.[13] The W3C maintains the standard with contributions from Mozilla, Microsoft, Google, Apple, Fastly, Intel, and Red Hat.[14][15]

History

The name WebAssembly is intended to suggest bringing assembly language programming to the World Wide Web, where it will be executed client-side, by the website-user's computer via the user's web browser. To accomplish this, WebAssembly must be much more hardware-independent than a true assembly language.

WebAssembly was first announced in 2015,[16] and the first demonstration was executing Unity's Angry Bots in Firefox,[17] Google Chrome,[18] and Microsoft Edge [Legacy].[19] The precursor technologies were asm.js from Mozilla and Google Native Client,[20][21] and the initial implementation was based on the feature set of asm.js.[22][note 1]

In March 2017, the design of the minimum viable product (MVP) was declared to be finished and the preview phase ended.[24] In late September 2017, Safari 11 was released with support. In February 2018, the WebAssembly Working Group published three public working drafts for the Core Specification, JavaScript Interface, and Web API.[25][26][27][28]

In June 2019, Chrome 75 was released with WebAssembly threads enabled by default.[29]

Since April 2022, WebAssembly 2.0 has been in draft status.[30][31] It adds many SIMD-related instructions and a new v128 datatype, with the ability for functions to return multiple values, and mass memory initialize/copy.

Implementations

While WebAssembly was initially designed to permit near-native code execution speed in the web browser, it has been considered valuable outside of such, in more generalized contexts.[32][33] Since WebAssembly's runtime environments (RE) are low-level virtual stack machines (akin to JVM or Flash VM) that may be embedded into host applications, some implementations create standalone runtime environments like Template:Wdrl and Template:Wdrl.[8][9] WebAssembly runtime environments are embedded in application servers to host "server-side" WebAssembly applications and in other applications to support plug-in-based software extension architectures, e.g., "WebAssembly for Proxies" (Proxy-Wasm) which specifies a WebAssembly-based ABI for extending proxy servers.[34][35]

Web browsers

In November 2017, Mozilla declared support "in all major browsers",[36] after WebAssembly was enabled by default in Edge [Legacy] 16.[37] This support also includes mobile web browsers for iOS and Android. As of March 2024, 99% of tracked web browsers support WebAssembly (version 1.0),[38] more than for its predecessor asm.js.[39] For some extensions, from the 2.0 draft standard, support may be lower, but still more than 90% of web browsers may already support, e.g. the reference types extension.[40]

Compilers

WebAssembly implementations generally use either ahead-of-time (AOT) or just-in-time (JIT) compilation, though some may also use an interpreter. While the first implementations appeared in web browsers, there are now many non-browser implementations for general-purpose use.

Implementations and runtimes

Non-browser WebAssembly runtimes include Wasmer,[9] Wasmtime,[41] WAMR, WAVM, wasm3, and others.[42] These systems execute precompiled Wasm modules and often provide additional APIs for embedding WebAssembly in different environments.

Compiler toolchains

Because WebAssembly executables are precompiled, a variety of programming languages can target Wasm.[43] Compilation is achieved either through direct output to Wasm or via intermediate virtual machines implemented in Wasm.

Notable toolchains include:

  • Emscripten, which compiles C and C++ to Wasm using Clang as a frontend, Binaryen as an optimizer, and can also target any LLVM-supported language.[24]
  • Standalone Clang (version 8 and later), which supports direct compilation to Wasm.[44]
  • LLVM-based workflows for languages such as Rust and AssemblyScript.[45]

Language support

As of 2021, around 40 programming languages support WebAssembly as a compilation target.[45] Examples include:

  • C and C++: via Emscripten or Clang standalone.[24]
  • Rust: via rustc with Wasm target.[46][45]
  • AssemblyScript: a TypeScript-like language compiling directly to Wasm.[47]
  • Go: native WebAssembly support introduced in Go 1.11.[48]
  • .NET languages: C# (via Blazor), F# (via Bolero and Blazor).[49][50][51]
  • Python: implementations such as Pyodide.[52]
  • Java and JVM languages: via CheerpJ,[53] JWebAssembly,[54] and TeaVM.[55]
  • Kotlin: direct Wasm compilation support.[56][57]
  • Haskell: supported via GHC backend.[58]
  • Julia: community implementations.[59]
  • Ruby: supported through MRuby.[60]
  • Ring: supported with Wasm backend.[61]

Recent enhancements

Post-MVP developments in WebAssembly, such as support for multithreading and garbage collection (WasmGC), have enabled more efficient compilation for garbage-collected languages like C#, F#, and Python.[62][63]

Limitations

Web browsers do not permit WebAssembly code to directly manipulate the Document Object Model. Wasm code must defer to JavaScript for this.[note 2]

In an October 2023 survey of developers, less than half of the 303 participants were satisfied with the state of WebAssembly. A large majority cited the need for improvement in four areas: WASI, debugging support, integration with JavaScript and browser APIs, and build tooling.[66]

For memory-intensive allocations in WebAssembly, there are "grave limitations that make many applications infeasible to be reliably deployed on mobile browsers [..] Currently allocating more than ~300MB of memory is not reliable on Chrome on Android without resorting to Chrome-specific workarounds, nor in Safari on iOS."[67]

All major browsers allow WebAssembly if Content-Security-Policy is not specified, or if "unsafe-eval" is used, but behave differently otherwise.[68] Chrome requires "unsafe-eval",[69][70] though a worker thread can be a workaround.[70]

Security considerations

In June 2018, a security researcher presented the possibility of using WebAssembly to circumvent browser mitigations for Spectre and Meltdown security vulnerabilities once support for threads with shared memory is added. Due to this concern, WebAssembly developers put the feature on hold.[71][72][73] However, in order to explore these future language extensions, Google Chrome added experimental support for the WebAssembly thread proposal in October 2018.[74]

WebAssembly has been criticized for allowing greater ease of hiding the evidence for malware writers, scammers and phishing attackers; WebAssembly is present on the user's machine only in its compiled form, which "[makes malware] detection difficult".[75] Speed and the easy ability to conceal in WebAssembly have led to its use in hidden crypto mining within the website visitor's device.[75][76][71] Coinhive, a now defunct service facilitating cryptocurrency mining in website visitors' browsers, claims their "miner uses WebAssembly and runs with about 65% of the performance of a native Miner."[71] A June 2019 study from the Technische Universität Braunschweig analyzed the usage of WebAssembly in the Alexa top 1 million websites and found the prevalent use was for malicious crypto mining, and that malware accounted for more than half of the WebAssembly-using websites studied.[77][78] An April 2021 study from Universität Stuttgart found that since then crypto mining has been marginalized, falling to below 1% of all WebAssembly modules gathered from a wide range of sources, also including the Alexa top 1 million websites.[79]

As WebAssembly supports only structured control flow, it is amenable toward security verification techniques including symbolic execution.[80]

Performance

Benchmark results vary between implementations and between themselves. Performance was benchmarked early to be around 91% (i.e., 10% slower) for running code, not including load/instantiation time[81] or more recently between 100% and 33% of native rates,[82] and 120% of JavaScript (i.e. 20% faster).[83][note 3]

A 2021 study suggested that WebAssembly, in the versions they tested at that time, was much faster than JavaScript in certain cases with some browsers, such as running a complex function on a small file, e.g. processing a graphics file, but that JavaScript had some optimizations available, e.g. JIT, that WebAssembly did not.[85]

In 2022, the startup company named Zaplib summarized in a blog why they were shutting down.[86] Their goal had been to significantly increase the performance of existing web apps by incrementally porting them to Rust/Wasm. However, porting a customer's simulator from JavaScript only yielded a 5% improvement.[86] Regarding Figma, they stated: "upon closer inspection it seems that their use of Wasm is more due to historical accidents—wanting to build in C++ to hedge for their native app—than for critical performance needs. Figma files are processed in C++/Wasm, and this is likely a huge speedup, but most of Figma's performance magic is due to their WebGL renderer."[86]

Benchmarking has revealed several other pain-points for WebAssembly, such as poor performance because of no direct access to the DOM,[note 4] a problem which is being addressed.[88]

WASI

WebAssembly System Interface (WASI) is a simple interface (ABI and API) designed by Mozilla, which is intended to be portable to any platform.[89] It provides POSIX-like features like file I/O constrained by capability-based security.[90][91] There are additional proposed ABI/APIs.[92][93]

WASI is influenced by CloudABI and Capsicum.[94]

Solomon Hykes [fr; fr], a co-founder of Docker, wrote in 2019, "If WASM+WASI existed in 2008, we wouldn't have needed to create Docker. That's how important it is. WebAssembly on the server is the future of computing."[95]

Specification

Host environment

The general standard provides core specifications for the JavaScript API and details on embedding.[4]

Virtual machine

Wasm code (binary code, i.e. bytecode) is intended to be run on a portable virtual stack machine (VM).[96] The VM is designed to be faster to parse and execute than JavaScript and to have compact code representation.[97] Any external functionality (like syscalls) that may be expected by Wasm binary code is not stipulated by the standard. It rather provides a way to deliver interfacing via modules by the host environment that the VM runs in.[98][8]

Wasm program

A Wasm program is designed as a separate module containing collections of various Wasm-defined values and program type definitions. These are provided in either binary or textual format (see below) that have a common structure.[99] Such a module may provide a start function that is executed upon instantiation of a wasm binary.

Instruction set

The core standard for the binary format of a Wasm program defines an instruction set architecture (ISA) consisting of specific binary encodings of types of operations which are executed by the VM (without specifying how exactly they must be executed).[100] The list of instructions includes standard memory load/store instructions, numeric, parametric, control of flow instruction types and Wasm-specific variable instructions.[101]

The number of opcodes used in the original standard (MVP) was a bit fewer than 200 of the 256 possible opcodes. Subsequent versions of WebAssembly pushed the number of opcodes a bit over 200. The WebAssembly SIMD proposal (for parallel processing) introduces an alternate opcode prefix (0xfd) for 128-bit SIMD. The concatenation of the SIMD prefix, plus an opcode that is valid after the SIMD prefix, forms a SIMD opcode. The SIMD opcodes bring an additional 236 instructions for the "minimum viable product" (MVP) SIMD capability (for a total of around 436 instructions).[102][103] Those instructions, the "finalized opcodes"[104] are enabled by default across Google's V8 (in Google Chrome), the SpiderMonkey engine in Mozilla Firefox, and the JavaScriptCore engine in Apple's Safari[105] and there are also some additional proposal for instructions for later "post SIMD MVP", and there is also a separate "relaxed-simd" proposal on the table.[106]

These SIMD opcodes are also portable and translate to native instruction sets like x64 and ARM. In contrast, neither Java's JVM nor CIL support SIMD, at their opcode level, i.e. in the standard; both do have some parallel APIs which provide SIMD speedup. There is an extension for Java adding intrinsics for x64 SIMD,[107] that isn't portable, i.e. not usable on ARM or smartphones. Smartphones can support SIMD by calling assembly code with SIMD, and C# has similar support.

Code representation

In March 2017, the WebAssembly Community Group reached consensus on the initial (MVP) binary format, JavaScript API, and reference interpreter.[108] It defines a WebAssembly binary format (.wasm), which is not designed to be used by humans, as well as a human-readable WebAssembly text format (.wat) that resembles a cross between S-expressions and traditional assembly languages.

The table below shows an example of a factorial function written in C and its corresponding WebAssembly code after compilation, shown both in .wat text format (a human-readable textual representation of WebAssembly) and in .wasm binary format (the raw bytecode, expressed below in hexadecimal), that is executed by a Web browser or run-time environment that supports WebAssembly.

C source code and corresponding WebAssembly
C source code WebAssembly .wat text format WebAssembly .wasm binary format 
int factorial(int n) {
    if (n == 0) {
        return 1;
    } else {
        return n * factorial(n - 1);
    }
}

(func (param i64) (result i64)
  local.get 0
  i64.eqz
  if (result i64)
      i64.const 1
  else
      local.get 0
      local.get 0
      i64.const 1
      i64.sub
      call 0
      i64.mul
  end)

00 61 73 6D 01 00 00 00
01 06 01 60 01 7E 01 7E
03 02 01 00
0A 17 01
15 00
20 00
50
04 7E
42 01
05
20 00
20 00
42 01
7D
10 00
7E
0B
0B

All integer constants are encoded using a space-efficient, variable-length LEB128 encoding.[109]

The WebAssembly text format is more canonically written in a folded format using S-expressions. For instructions and expressions, this format is purely syntactic sugar and has no behavioral differences with the linear format.[110] Through wasm2wat, the code above decompiles to: 

(module
  (type $t0 (func (param i64) (result i64)))
  (func $f0 (type $t0) (param $p0 i64) (result i64)
    (if $I0 (result i64) ;; $I0 is an unused label name
      (i64.eqz
        (local.get $p0)) ;; the name $p0 is the same as 0 here
      (then
        (i64.const 1))
      (else
        (i64.mul
          (local.get $p0)
          (call $f0      ;; the name $f0 is the same as 0 here
            (i64.sub
              (local.get $p0)
              (i64.const 1))))))))

A module is implicitly generated by the compiler. The function is referenced by an entry of the type table in the binary, hence a type section and the type emitted by the decompiler.[111] The compiler and decompiler can be accessed online.[112]

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ The asm.js file already provides near-native code execution speeds: "Even discarding the one score where asm.js did better, it executes at around 70% of the speed (i.e., slower) of native C++ code.[23] and can be considered a viable alternative for browsers that do not support WebAssembly or have it disabled for security reasons.
  2. ↑ For Rust/Wasm development, third-party libraries can provide some of the necessary JavaScript I/O.[64][65]
  3. ↑ A personal web page of 2024 reported a benchmark of a simple game application on a mobile phone found between 110% and 190% (i.e. faster) of native rates depending on the browser.[84]
  4. ↑ "WebAssembly provides no access to the surrounding environment other than via the JavaScript API described in the JS API specification."[87]

References

  1. ↑ "Understanding WebAssembly text format" (in en-US). https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/WebAssembly/Understanding_the_text_format. 
  2. ↑ "Introduction — WebAssembly 1.0". https://webassembly.github.io/spec/core/intro/introduction.html. "WebAssembly is an open standard..." 
  3. ↑ "Introduction — WebAssembly 1.0". https://webassembly.github.io/spec/core/intro/introduction.html. "WebAssembly is a ... code format" 
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 "Conventions — WebAssembly 1.0". https://webassembly.github.io/spec/core/syntax/conventions.html. "WebAssembly is a programming language that has multiple concrete representations (its binary format and the text format). Both map to a common structure." 
  5. ↑ "Introduction — WebAssembly 1.0". https://webassembly.github.io/spec/core/intro/introduction.html. "... this specification is complemented by additional documents defining interfaces to specific embedding environments such as the Web. These will each define a WebAssembly application programming interface (API) suitable for a given environment." 
  6. ↑ "Introduction — WebAssembly 1.1". https://webassembly.github.io/spec/core/intro/introduction.html. "Its main goal is to enable high performance applications on the Web, but it does not make any Web-specific assumptions or provide Web-specific features, so it can be employed in other environments as well." 
  7. ↑ Haas, Andreas; Rossberg, Andreas; Schuff, Derek L.; Titzer, Ben L.; Holman, Michael; Gohman, Dan; Wagner, Luke; Zakai, Alon et al. (14 June 2017). "Bringing the Web Up to Speed with WebAssembly". SIGPLAN Notices 52 (6): 185–200. doi:10.1145/3140587.3062363. ISSN 0362-1340. "While the Web is the primary motivation for WebAssembly, nothing in its design depends on the Web or a JavaScript environment. It is an open standard specifically designed for embedding in multiple contexts, and we expect that stand-alone implementations will become available in the future.". 
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 "Outside the web: standalone WebAssembly binaries using Emscripten · V8". https://v8.dev/blog/emscripten-standalone-wasm#running-in-wasm-runtimes. 
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 "Wasmer - The Universal WebAssembly Runtime". https://wasmer.io/. "Compile everything to WebAssembly. Run it on any OS or embed it into other languages." 
  10. ↑ "WebAssembly Core Specification". https://www.w3.org/TR/wasm-core-1/. 
  11. ↑ Couriol, Bruno. "WebAssembly 1.0 Becomes a W3C Recommendation and the Fourth Language to Run Natively in Browsers". https://www.infoq.com/news/2019/12/webassembly-w3c-recommendation/. 
  12. ↑ "WebAssembly Specification — WebAssembly 1.1". https://webassembly.github.io/spec/core/. 
  13. ↑ "Programming Languages Software Award". http://www.sigplan.org/Awards/Software/. 
  14. ↑ Bright, Peter (18 June 2015). "The Web is getting its bytecode: WebAssembly". Ars Technica. Condé Nast. https://arstechnica.com/information-technology/2015/06/the-web-is-getting-its-bytecode-webassembly/. 
  15. ↑ "New Bytecode Alliance Brings the Security, Ubiquity, and Interoperability of the Web to the World of Pervasive Computing" (in en). Mozilla. 12 November 2019. https://blog.mozilla.org/press/2019/11/new-bytecode-alliance-brings-the-security-ubiquity-and-interoperability-of-the-web-to-the-world-of-pervasive-computing/. 
  16. ↑ "Launch bug". 11 June 2015. https://github.com/WebAssembly/design/issues/150. 
  17. ↑ Wagner, Luke (14 March 2016). "A WebAssembly Milestone: Experimental Support in Multiple Browsers". https://hacks.mozilla.org/2016/03/a-webassembly-milestone/. 
  18. ↑ Thompson, Seth (15 March 2016). "Experimental support for WebAssembly in V8". https://v8project.blogspot.com/2016/03/experimental-support-for-webassembly.html. 
  19. ↑ Zhu, Limin (15 March 2016). "Previewing WebAssembly experiments in Microsoft Edge". https://blogs.windows.com/msedgedev/2016/03/15/previewing-webassembly-experiments/. 
  20. ↑ Lardinois, Frederic (17 June 2015). "Google, Microsoft, Mozilla And Others Team Up To Launch WebAssembly, A New Binary Format For The Web" (in en). TechCrunch. https://techcrunch.com/2015/06/17/google-microsoft-mozilla-and-others-team-up-to-launch-webassembly-a-new-binary-format-for-the-web/. 
  21. ↑ Avram, Abel (31 May 2017). "Google Is to Remove Support for PNaCl". https://www.infoq.com/news/2017/05/pnacl-webassembly-google. 
  22. ↑ "WebAssembly: a binary format for the web". ②ality – JavaScript and more. 18 June 2015. https://www.2ality.com/2015/06/web-assembly.html. 
  23. ↑ "Staring at the Sun: Dalvik vs. ASM.js vs. Native". August 2013. https://blog.mozilla.org/javascript/2013/08/01/staring-at-the-sun-dalvik-vs-spidermonkey/. 
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 24.2 Krill, Paul (6 March 2017). "WebAssembly is now ready for browsers to use" (in en). InfoWorld. https://www.infoworld.com/article/3176681/. 
  25. ↑ "WebAssembly First Public Working Drafts". W3C. 15 February 2018. https://www.w3.org/blog/news/archives/6838. 
  26. ↑ "WebAssembly Core Specification". W3C. 15 February 2018. https://www.w3.org/TR/2018/WD-wasm-core-1-20180215/. 
  27. ↑ "WebAssembly JavaScript Interface". W3C. 15 February 2018. https://www.w3.org/TR/2018/WD-wasm-js-api-1-20180215/. 
  28. ↑ "WebAssembly Web API". W3C. 15 February 2018. https://www.w3.org/TR/2018/WD-wasm-web-api-1-20180215/. 
  29. ↑ "WebAssembly Worker Based Threads - Chrome Platform Status". https://chromestatus.com/feature/5724132452859904. 
  30. ↑ "WebAssembly Specification — WebAssembly 2.0 (Draft 2022-09-01)". https://webassembly.github.io/spec/core/. 
  31. ↑ "WebAssembly 2.0 First Public Working Drafts | W3C News" (in en-US). 19 April 2022. https://www.w3.org/blog/news/archives/9509. 
  32. ↑ "Non-Web Embeddings". WebAssembly. https://webassembly.org/docs/non-web/. 
  33. ↑ "Non-Web Embeddings". GitHub / WebAssembly. https://github.com/WebAssembly/design/blob/master/NonWeb.md. 
  34. ↑ Freese, Danny (2023-10-03). "Proxy-Wasm: It's WebAssembly for Proxies". https://konghq.com/blog/engineering/proxy-wasm. 
  35. ↑ "proxy-wasm/spec: WebAssembly for Proxies (ABI specification)". https://github.com/proxy-wasm/spec. 
  36. ↑ "WebAssembly support now shipping in all major browsers" (in en-US). https://blog.mozilla.org/blog/2017/11/13/webassembly-in-browsers/. 
  37. ↑ "Introducing new JavaScript optimizations, WebAssembly, SharedArrayBuffer, and Atomics in EdgeHTML 16" (in en-US). 31 October 2017. https://blogs.windows.com/msedgedev/2017/10/31/optimizations-webassembly-sharedarraybuffer-atomics-edgehtml-16/. 
  38. ↑ "WebAssembly | Can I use... Support tables for HTML5, CSS3, etc". https://caniuse.com/wasm. 
  39. ↑ "asm.js | Can I use... Support tables for HTML5, CSS3, etc". https://caniuse.com/asmjs. 
  40. ↑ "WebAssembly Reference Types | Can I use... Support tables for HTML5, CSS3, etc". https://caniuse.com/wasm-reference-types. 
  41. ↑ "Wasmtime — a small and efficient runtime for WebAssembly & WASI". https://wasmtime.dev/. 
  42. ↑ "Roadmap". https://webassembly.org/roadmap/. 
  43. ↑ Ball, Kevin (26 June 2018). "How WebAssembly is Accelerating the Future of Web Development". https://zendev.com/2018/06/26/webassembly-accelerating-future-web-development.html. 
  44. ↑ "LLVM 8.0.0 Release Notes — LLVM 8 documentation". https://releases.llvm.org/8.0.0/docs/ReleaseNotes.html#changes-to-the-webassembly-target. 
  45. ↑ 45.0 45.1 45.2 "Awesome WebAssembly Languages". 26 June 2018. https://github.com/appcypher/awesome-wasm-langs. 
  46. ↑ Krill, Paul (29 November 2017). "Direct WebAssembly compilation comes to Rust language" (in en). InfoWorld. https://www.infoworld.com/article/3239129/. 
  47. ↑ "AssemblyScript/assemblyscript". The AssemblyScript Project. 2020-09-09. https://github.com/AssemblyScript/assemblyscript. 
  48. ↑ Bonventre, Andrew (2018-08-24). "Go 1.11 is released". The Go Blog. https://go.dev/blog/go1.11. 
  49. ↑ "Frequently asked questions (FAQ) about Blazor". https://blazor.net/docs/introduction/faq.html. 
  50. ↑ "Bolero: F# in WebAssembly". https://fsbolero.io/. 
  51. ↑ "Running F# in WebAssembly with Bolero" (in English). Microsoft. 20 November 2019. Archived from the original. Error: If you specify |archiveurl=, you must also specify |archivedate=. https://archive.today/20250917195346/https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/shows/on-dotnet/f-sharp-wasm. 
  52. ↑ "Pyodide: Bringing the scientific Python stack to the browser – Mozilla Hacks". https://hacks.mozilla.org/2019/04/pyodide-bringing-the-scientific-python-stack-to-the-browser. 
  53. ↑ "Java to WebAssembly Compiler - CheerpJ". https://leaningtech.com/cheerpj/. 
  54. ↑ "JWebAssembly". 27 April 2023. https://github.com/i-net-software/JWebAssembly. 
  55. ↑ "TeaVM — Overview". https://www.teavm.org/docs/intro/overview.html. 
  56. ↑ "Bringing Kotlin to the Web". https://developers.googleblog.com/2023/05/bringing-kotlin-to-web.html. 
  57. ↑ Deleuze, Sébastien (2023-02-13). "The huge potential of Kotlin/Wasm". https://seb.deleuze.fr/the-huge-potential-of-kotlin-wasm/. 
  58. ↑ "Using the GHC WebAssembly backend". https://ghc.gitlab.haskell.org/ghc/doc/users_guide/wasm.html. 
  59. ↑ "Julia in the Browser". https://nextjournal.com/sdanisch/wasm-julia. 
  60. ↑ "MRuby in Your Browser". https://ruby.dj/. 
  61. ↑ Paul Krill (24 August 2020). "Ring language upgrade focuses on WebAssembly". InfoWorld. https://www.infoworld.com/article/3572395/ring-language-upgrade-focuses-on-webassembly.html. 
  62. ↑ "WebAssembly Garbage Collection (WasmGC) now enabled by default in Chrome". https://developer.chrome.com/blog/wasmgc. 
  63. ↑ "A new way to bring garbage collected programming languages efficiently to WebAssembly · V8". https://v8.dev/blog/wasm-gc-porting#demo-and-status. 
  64. ↑ "stdweb - Rust". https://docs.rs/stdweb/*/stdweb/. "The goal of this crate is to provide Rust bindings to the Web APIs and to allow a high degree of interoperability between Rust and JavaScript." 
  65. ↑ "web_sys - Rust". https://docs.rs/web-sys/*/web_sys/. "Raw API bindings for Web APIs. This is a procedurally generated crate from browser WebIDL which provides a binding to all APIs that browser provide on the web." 
  66. ↑ "The State of WebAssembly 2023". Scott Logic. 18 October 2023. https://blog.scottlogic.com/2023/10/18/the-state-of-webassembly-2023.html. 
  67. ↑ "Wasm needs a better memory management story · Issue #1397 · WebAssembly/design" (in en). https://github.com/WebAssembly/design/issues/1397. 
  68. ↑ "WebAssembly/content-security-policy" (in en). https://github.com/WebAssembly/content-security-policy. 
  69. ↑ "948834 - chromium - An open-source project to help move the web forward. - Monorail". https://bugs.chromium.org/p/chromium/issues/detail?id=948834&can=1&q=wasm-eval. 
  70. ↑ 70.0 70.1 "No way to use WebAssembly on Chrome without 'unsafe-eval' · Issue #7 · WebAssembly/content-security-policy" (in en). https://github.com/WebAssembly/content-security-policy/issues/7. 
  71. ↑ 71.0 71.1 71.2 Neumann, Robert; Toro, Abel (19 April 2018). "In-browser mining: Coinhive and WebAssembly" (in en). Forcepoint. https://www.forcepoint.com/blog/x-labs/browser-mining-coinhive-and-webassembly. 
  72. ↑ Cimpanu, Catalin (24 June 2018). "Changes in WebAssembly Could Render Meltdown and Spectre Browser Patches Useless" (in en-us). Bleeping Computer. https://www.bleepingcomputer.com/news/security/changes-in-webassembly-could-render-meltdown-and-spectre-browser-patches-useless/. 
  73. ↑ Sanders, James (25 June 2018). "How opaque WebAssembly code could increase the risk of Spectre attacks online" (in en). https://www.techrepublic.com/article/how-opaque-webassembly-code-could-increase-the-risk-of-spectre-attacks-online/. 
  74. ↑ R, Bhagyashree (30 October 2018). "Google Chrome 70 now supports WebAssembly threads to build multi-threaded web applications". https://hub.packtpub.com/google-chrome-70-now-supports-webassembly-threads-to-build-multi-threaded-web-applications/. 
  75. ↑ 75.0 75.1 Lonkar, Aishwarya; Chandrayan, Siddhesh (October 2018). "The dark side of WebAssembly". https://www.virusbulletin.com/virusbulletin/2018/10/dark-side-webassembly/. 
  76. ↑ Segura, Jérôme (29 November 2017). "Persistent drive-by cryptomining coming to a browser near you". Malwarebytes. https://blog.malwarebytes.com/cybercrime/2017/11/persistent-drive-by-cryptomining-coming-to-a-browser-near-you/. 
  77. ↑ "Recent Study Estimates That 50% of Websites Using WebAssembly Apply It for Malicious Purposes". https://www.infoq.com/news/2019/10/WebAssembly-wasm-malicious-usage/. 
  78. ↑ Musch, Marius; Wressnegger, Christian; Johns, Martin; Rieck, Konrad (June 2019). "New Kid on the Web: A Study on the Prevalence of WebAssembly in the Wild". Detection of Intrusions and Malware, and Vulnerability Assessment. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. 11543. Detection of Intrusions and Malware, and Vulnerability Assessment. pp. 23–42. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-22038-9_2. ISBN 978-3-030-22037-2. https://www.sec.cs.tu-bs.de/pubs/2019a-dimva.pdf. Retrieved 15 February 2022.  Slides (PDF)
  79. ↑ Aaron Hilbig, Daniel Lehmann, and Michael Pradel (April 2021). "An Empirical Study of Real-World WebAssembly Binaries: Security, Languages, Use Cases." (Archived April 2021) https://software-lab.org/publications/www2021.pdf
  80. ↑ Watt, Conrad (2018-01-08). "Mechanising and verifying the WebAssembly specification" (in en). Proceedings of the 7th ACM SIGPLAN International Conference on Certified Programs and Proofs. CPP 2018. Los Angeles CA USA: ACM. pp. 53–65. doi:10.1145/3167082. ISBN 978-1-4503-5586-5. https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/3167082. Retrieved 9 August 2023. 
  81. ↑ Jangda, Abhinav; Powers, Bobby; Berger, Emery; Guha, Arjun (2019-05-31). "Not So Fast: Analyzing the Performance of WebAssembly vs. Native Code". 2019 USENIX Annual Technical Conference. Renton, WA. pp. 107–120. OCLC 1106328738. https://www.usenix.org/sites/default/files/atc19-full-proceedings.pdf. Retrieved 2025-03-20. 
  82. ↑ Denis, Frank (4 January 2023). "Performance of WebAssembly runtimes in 2023". https://00f.net/2023/01/04/webassembly-benchmark-2023/. 
  83. ↑ De Macedo, Joao; Abreu, Rui; Pereira, Rui; Saraiva, Joao (June 2022). "WebAssembly versus JavaScript: Energy and Runtime Performance". 2022 International Conference on ICT for Sustainability (ICT4S). pp. 24–34. doi:10.1109/ICT4S55073.2022.00014. ISBN 978-1-6654-8286-8. 
  84. ↑ Turner, Aaron. "WebAssembly Is Fast: A Real-World Benchmark of WebAssembly vs. ES6". https://medium.com/@torch2424/webassembly-is-fast-a-real-world-benchmark-of-webassembly-vs-es6-d85a23f8e193. 
  85. ↑ Yan, Yutian; Tu, Tengfei; Zhao, Lijian; Zhou, Yuchen; Wang, Weihang (2 November 2021). "Understanding the performance of webassembly applications". Proceedings of the 21st ACM Internet Measurement Conference. pp. 533–549. doi:10.1145/3487552.3487827. ISBN 978-1-4503-9129-0. https://weihang-wang.github.io/slides/Yan-IMC21.pptx. 
  86. ↑ 86.0 86.1 86.2 "Zaplib post-mortem". April 2022. https://zaplib.com/docs/blog_post_mortem.html. 
  87. ↑ "WebAssembly Web API". https://webassembly.github.io/spec/web-api/index.html#security-considerations. 
  88. ↑ Kambale, Enoch. "WebAssembly in 2024: Promises, Challenges, and the Road Ahead" (in en). https://blog.enkambale.com/webassembly-2024-state-of-wasm/. 
  89. ↑ "WebAssembly System Interface Repo". GitHub / WebAssembly. 10 February 2020. https://github.com/WebAssembly/WASI. 
  90. ↑ "Additional background on Capabilities" (in en). bytecodealliance. 4 March 2022. https://github.com/bytecodealliance/wasmtime/blob/master/docs/WASI-capabilities.md. 
  91. ↑ "Standardizing WASI: A system interface to run WebAssembly outside the web – Mozilla Hacks - the Web developer blog". https://hacks.mozilla.org/2019/03/standardizing-wasi-a-webassembly-system-interface/. 
  92. ↑ "reference-sysroot Repo". GitHub / WebAssembly. 12 January 2020. https://github.com/WebAssembly/reference-sysroot. 
  93. ↑ "wasm-c-api Repo". GitHub / WebAssembly. 3 February 2020. https://github.com/WebAssembly/wasm-c-api. 
  94. ↑ NuxiNL/cloudlibc, Nuxi, 2024-12-06, https://github.com/NuxiNL/cloudlibc, retrieved 2025-04-01 
  95. ↑ Hykes, Solomon (March 27, 2019). "Solomon Hykes on X". https://x.com/solomonstre/status/1111004913222324225. 
  96. ↑ "Design Rationale". GitHub / WebAssembly / design. 1 October 2016. https://github.com/WebAssembly/design/blob/main/Rationale.md#why-a-stack-machine. 
  97. ↑ "WebAssembly High-Level Goals". GitHub / WebAssembly / design. 11 December 2015. https://github.com/WebAssembly/design/blob/main/HighLevelGoals.md. 
  98. ↑ "Portability - WebAssembly". https://webassembly.org/docs/portability/#assumptions-for-efficient-execution. 
  99. ↑ "Conventions — WebAssembly 1.0". https://webassembly.github.io/spec/core/syntax/conventions.html. 
  100. ↑ "Introduction — WebAssembly 1.0". https://webassembly.github.io/spec/core/intro/introduction.html?highlight=isa#scope. 
  101. ↑ "Instructions — WebAssembly 1.0". https://webassembly.github.io/spec/core/syntax/instructions.html. 
  102. ↑ Lively, Thomas (2021-02-19). "Final opcodes by tlively · Pull Request #452 · WebAssembly/simd · GitHub". Bytecode Alliance. https://github.com/WebAssembly/simd/pull/452. 
  103. ↑ Delendik, Yury (2021-02-19). "File wasm-tools/expr.rs at b5c3d98e40590512a3b12470ef358d5c7b983b15 · bytecodealliance/wasm-tools · GitHub". Bytecode Alliance. https://github.com/bytecodealliance/wasm-tools/blob/b5c3d98e40590512a3b12470ef358d5c7b983b15/crates/wast/src/ast/expr.rs. 
  104. ↑ "Update interpreter and text with finalized opcodes by ngzhian · Pull Request #486 · WebAssembly/simd" (in en). https://github.com/WebAssembly/simd/pull/486. 
  105. ↑ "WebAssembly/simd" (in en). https://github.com/WebAssembly/simd. 
  106. ↑ WebAssembly/relaxed-simd, WebAssembly, 2021-05-03, https://github.com/WebAssembly/relaxed-simd, retrieved 2021-05-14 
  107. ↑ "How we made the JVM 40x faster". https://astojanov.github.io/blog/2017/12/20/scala-simd.html. 
  108. ↑ "Roadmap". March 2017. https://webassembly.org/roadmap/. 
  109. ↑ WebAssembly Community Group (January 2020). "WebAssembly Specification Release 1.0". https://webassembly.github.io/spec/core/binary/values.html#integers. 
  110. ↑ "Folded instructions". GitHub. https://webassembly.github.io/spec/core/text/instructions.html#folded-instructions.  / WebAssembly / spec
  111. ↑ "Modules (Binary)". https://webassembly.github.io/spec/core/syntax/modules.html. 
  112. ↑ "WebAssembly Binary Toolkit (wabt) demos". https://webassembly.github.io/wabt/demo/. 

 This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under Apache License 2.0 License statement: Text Format, jfbastien; rossberg-chromium; kripken; titzer; s3ththompson; sunfishcode; lukewagner; flagxor; enricobacis; c3d; binji; andrewosh, GitHub. WebAssembly/design. To learn how to add open license text to HandWiki articles, please see this how-to page. For information on reusing text from HandWiki, please see the terms of use.



Retrieved from "https://handwiki.org/wiki/index.php?title=WebAssembly&oldid=3986616"