WebAssembly
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Paradigm | structured; stack machine[1] |
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Designed by | W3C |
Developer | |
First appeared | March 2017 |
License | Apache License 2.0 |
Filename extensions |
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Influenced by | |
WebAssembly (sometimes abbreviated Wasm) defines a portable binary-code format and a corresponding text format for executable programs[2] as well as software interfaces for facilitating interactions between such programs and their host environment.[3][4][5][6]
The main goal of WebAssembly is to enable high-performance applications on web pages, "but it does not make any Web-specific assumptions or provide Web-specific features, so it can be employed in other environments as well."[7] It is an open standard[8][9] and aims to support any language on any operating system,[10] and in practice all of the most popular languages already have at least some level of support.
Announced in 2015World Wide Web Consortium recommendation on 5 December 2019[11][12][13] and it received the Programming Languages Software Award from ACM SIGPLAN in 2021.[14] The World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) maintains the standard with contributions from Mozilla, Microsoft, Google, Apple, Fastly, Intel, and Red Hat.[15][16]
and first released in March 2017 , WebAssembly became aHistory
WebAssembly is named to evoke the concept of assembly language, a term which dates to the 1950s. The name suggests bringing assembly-like programming to the Web, where it will be executed client-side — by the website-user's computer via the user's web browser. To accomplish this, WebAssembly must be much more hardware-independent than a true assembly language.
WebAssembly was first announced in 2015,[17] and the first demonstration was executing Unity's Angry Bots in Firefox,[18] Google Chrome,[19] and Microsoft Edge.[20] The precursor technologies were asm.js from Mozilla and Google Native Client,[21][22] and the initial implementation was based on the feature set of asm.js.[23] The asm.js technology already provides near-native code execution speeds[24][25] and can be considered a viable alternative for browsers that don't support WebAssembly or have it disabled for security reasons.
In March 2017, the design of the minimum viable product (MVP) was declared to be finished and the preview phase ended.[26] In late September 2017, Safari 11 was released with support. In February 2018, the WebAssembly Working Group published three public working drafts for the Core Specification, JavaScript Interface, and Web API.[27][28][29][30]
In June 2019, Chrome 75 was released with WebAssembly threads enabled by default.[31]
(As of April 2022) WebAssembly 2.0 is in draft status,[32][33] which adds many SIMD-related instructions and a new v128 datatype, the ability for functions to return multiple values, and mass memory initialize/copy.
Implementations
While WebAssembly was initially designed to enable near-native code execution speed in the web browser, it has been considered valuable outside of such, in more generalized contexts.[34][35] Since WebAssembly's runtime environments (RE) are low level virtual stack machines (akin to JVM or Flash VM) that can be embedded into host applications, some of them have found a way to standalone runtime environments like Wasmtime and Wasmer.[9][10]
Web browsers
In November 2017, Mozilla declared support "in all major browsers",[36] after WebAssembly was enabled by default in Edge 16.[37] The support includes mobile web browsers for iOS and Android. (As of December 2023) 99% of tracked web browsers support WebAssembly (version 1.0).[38] But for older browsers, Wasm can be compiled into asm.js by a JavaScript polyfill.[39]
Compilers
WebAssembly implementations usually use either ahead-of-time (AOT) or just-in-time (JIT) compilation, but may also use an interpreter. While the first implementations have landed in web browsers, there are also non-browser implementations for general-purpose use, including Wasmer,[10] Wasmtime[40] or WAMR,[16] wasm3, WAVM, and many others.[41]
Because WebAssembly executables are precompiled, it is possible to use a variety of programming languages to make them.[42] This is achieved either through direct compilation to Wasm, or through implementation of the corresponding virtual machines in Wasm. There have been around 40 programming languages reported to support Wasm as a compilation target.[43]
Emscripten compiles C and C++ to Wasm[26] using the Binaryen and LLVM as backend.[44] The Emscripten SDK can compile any LLVM-supported languages (such as C, C++ or Rust, among others) source code into a binary file which runs in the same sandbox as JavaScript code.[note 1] Emscripten provides bindings for several commonly used environment interfaces like WebGL.
As of version 8, a standalone Clang can compile C and C++ to Wasm.[49] Its initial aim was to support compilation from C and C++,[50] though support for other source languages such as Rust, .NET languages[51][52][43] and AssemblyScript[53] (TypeScript-like) is also emerging.
After the MVP release, WebAssembly added support for multithreading and garbage collection[54][55] which enabled compilation for garbage-collected programming languages like C# (supported via Blazor), F# (supported via Bolero[56] with help of Blazor), Python, and even JavaScript where the browser's just-in-time compilation speed is considered too slow.
A number of other languages have some support including Python,[57] Julia,[58][59][60] and Ruby.[61]
A number of systems can compile Java and other bytecode languages to JavaScript and WebAssembly. These include CheerpJ,[62] JWebAssembly[63] and TeaVM.[64] These all take Java byte code .class files as input allowing other JVM languages like Groovy, and Scala to be used as well. Kotlin supports WebAssembly directly.[65][66]
Limitations
- In general, WebAssembly does not allow direct interaction with the DOM. All interaction must flow through JavaScript interop.
- Security considerations (discussed below)
WebAssembly is supported on desktops, and mobile, but on the latter, in practice (for memory-intensive allocations, such as with Unity game engine) there are "grave limitations that make many applications infeasible to be reliably deployed on mobile browsers [..] Currently allocating more than ~300MB of memory is not reliable on Chrome on Android without resorting to Chrome-specific workarounds, nor in Safari on iOS."[67]
There is no direct Document Object Model (DOM) access; however, it is possible to create proxy functions for this, for example through stdweb[68] or web_sys[69] when using the Rust language.
All major web browsers allow WebAssembly if Content-Security-Policy is not specified, or if "unsafe-eval" is used, but otherwise the major web browsers behave differently.[70] In practice WebAssembly can't be used on Chrome without "unsafe-eval",[71][72] while a worker thread workaround is available.[72]
Security considerations
In June 2018, a security researcher presented the possibility of using WebAssembly to circumvent browser mitigations for Spectre and Meltdown security vulnerabilities once support for threads with shared memory is added. Due to this concern, WebAssembly developers put the feature on hold.[73][74][75] However, in order to explore these future language extensions, Google Chrome added experimental support for the WebAssembly thread proposal in October 2018.[76]
WebAssembly has been criticized for allowing greater ease of hiding the evidence for malware writers, scammers and phishing attackers; WebAssembly is present on the user's machine only in its compiled form, which "[makes malware] detection difficult".[77] The speed and concealability of WebAssembly have led to its use in hidden crypto mining on the website visitor's device.[77][78][73] Coinhive, a now defunct service facilitating cryptocurrency mining in website visitors' browsers, claims their "miner uses WebAssembly and runs with about 65% of the performance of a native Miner."[73] A June 2019 study from the Technische Universität Braunschweig analyzed the usage of WebAssembly in the Alexa top 1 million websites and found the prevalent use was for malicious crypto mining, and that malware accounted for more than half of the WebAssembly-using websites studied.[79][80] An April 2021 study from Universität Stuttgart found that since then crypto mining has been marginalized, falling to below 1% of all WebAssembly modules gathered from a wide range of sources, also including the Alexa top 1 million websites.[81]
The ability to effectively obfuscate large amounts of code can also be used to bypass ad blocking and privacy tools that prevent web tracking like Privacy Badger.[citation needed]
As WebAssembly supports only structured control flow, it is amenable toward security verification techniques including symbolic execution.[82] Current efforts in this direction include the Manticore symbolic execution engine.[83]
WASI
WebAssembly System Interface (WASI) is a simple interface (ABI and API) designed by Mozilla intended to be portable to any platform.[84] It provides POSIX-like features like file I/O constrained by capability-based security.[85][86] There are also a few other proposed ABI/APIs.[87][88]
WASI is influenced by CloudABI and Capsicum.
Solomon Hykes, a co-founder of Docker, wrote in 2019, "If WASM+WASI existed in 2008, we wouldn't have needed to create Docker. That's how important it is. WebAssembly on the server is the future of computing."[89] Wasmer, out in version 1.0, provides "software containerization, we create universal binaries that work anywhere without modification, including operating systems like Linux, macOS, Windows, and web browsers. Wasm automatically sandboxes applications by default for secure execution".[89]
Specification
Host environment
The general standard provides core specifications for JavaScript API and details on embedding.[5]
Virtual machine
Wasm code (binary code, i.e. bytecode) is intended to be run on a portable virtual stack machine (VM).[90] The VM is designed to be faster to parse and execute than JavaScript and to have a compact code representation.[50] Any external functionality (like syscalls) that may be expected by Wasm binary code is not stipulated by the standard. It rather provides a way to deliver interfacing via modules by the host environment that the VM implementation runs in.[91][9]
Wasm program
A Wasm program is designed to be a separate module containing collections of various Wasm-defined values and program type definitions. These are expressed in either binary or textual format (see below) that both have a common structure.[92] Such module may provide a start function that is executed upon instantiation of a wasm binary.
Instruction set
The core standard for the binary format of a Wasm program defines an instruction set architecture (ISA) consisting of specific binary encodings of types of operations which are executed by the VM (without specifying how exactly they must be executed).[93] The list of instructions includes standard memory load/store instructions, numeric, parametric, control of flow instruction types and Wasm-specific variable instructions.[94]
The number of opcodes used in the original standard (MVP) was a bit fewer than 200 of the 256 possible opcodes. Subsequent versions of WebAssembly pushed the number of opcodes a bit over 200. The WebAssembly SIMD proposal (for parallel processing) introduces an alternate opcode prefix (0xfd) for 128-bit SIMD. The concatenation of the SIMD prefix, plus an opcode that is valid after the SIMD prefix, forms a SIMD opcode. The SIMD opcodes bring an additional 236 instructions for the "minimum viable product" (MVP) SIMD capability (for a total of around 436 instructions).[95][96] Those instructions, the "finalized opcodes"[97] are enabled by default across Google's V8 (in Google Chrome), the SpiderMonkey engine in Mozilla Firefox, and the JavaScriptCore engine in Apple's Safari[98] and there are also some additional proposal for instructions for later "post SIMD MVP", and there's also a separate "relaxed-simd" proposal on the table.[99]
These SIMD opcodes are also portable and translate to native instruction sets like x64 and ARM. In contrast, neither Java's JVM nor CIL support SIMD, at their opcode level, i.e. in the standard; both do have some parallel APIs which provide SIMD speedup. There is an extension for Java adding intrinsics for x64 SIMD,[100] that isn't portable, i.e. not usable on ARM or smartphones. Smartphones can support SIMD by calling assembly code with SIMD, and C# has similar support.
Code representation
In March 2017, the WebAssembly Community Group reached consensus on the initial (MVP) binary format, JavaScript API, and reference interpreter.[101] It defines a WebAssembly binary format (.wasm
), which is not designed to be used by humans, as well as a human-readable WebAssembly text format (.wat
) that resembles a cross between S-expressions and traditional assembly languages.
The table below shows an example of a factorial function written in C and its corresponding WebAssembly code after compilation, shown both in .wat text format (a human-readable textual representation of WebAssembly) and in .wasm binary format (the raw bytecode, expressed below in hexadecimal), that is executed by a Web browser or run-time environment that supports WebAssembly.
C source code | WebAssembly .wat text format | WebAssembly .wasm binary format |
---|---|---|
int factorial(int n) { if (n == 0) return 1; else return n * factorial(n-1); } |
(func (param i64) (result i64) local.get 0 i64.eqz if (result i64) i64.const 1 else local.get 0 local.get 0 i64.const 1 i64.sub call 0 i64.mul end) |
00 61 73 6D 01 00 00 00 01 06 01 60 01 7E 01 7E 03 02 01 00 0A 17 01 15 00 20 00 50 04 7E 42 01 05 20 00 20 00 42 01 7D 10 00 7E 0B 0B |
All integer constants are encoded using a space-efficient, variable-length LEB128 encoding.[102]
The WebAssembly text format is more canonically written in a folded format using S-expressions. For instructions and expressions, this format is purely syntactic sugar and has no behavioral differences with the linear format.[103] Through wasm2wat
, the code above decompiles to:
(module (type $t0 (func (param i64) (result i64))) (func $f0 (type $t0) (param $p0 i64) (result i64) (if $I0 (result i64) ;; $I0 is an unused label name (i64.eqz (local.get $p0)) ;; the name $p0 is the same as 0 here (then (i64.const 1)) (else (i64.mul (local.get $p0) (call $f0 ;; the name $f0 is the same as 0 here (i64.sub (local.get $p0) (i64.const 1))))))))
Note that a module is implicitly generated by the compiler. The function is actually referenced by an entry of the type table in the binary, hence a type section and the type
emitted by the decompiler.[104] The compiler and decompiler can be accessed online.[105]
Notes
See also
- Architecture Neutral Distribution Format (ANDF)
- UNCOL
- Java bytecode
- Common Language Runtime
- LLVM
- Compilation
- Software portability
References
- ↑ "WebAssembly/design/Semantics.md" (in en). https://github.com/WebAssembly/design/blob/376bcc4b9cba79280d79be023d71e30d0b00ba47/Semantics.md. "WebAssembly code can be considered a structured stack machine; a machine where most computations use a stack of values, but control flow is expressed in structured constructs such as blocks, ifs, and loops. In practice, implementations need not maintain an actual value stack, nor actual data structures for control; they need only behave as if they did so."
- ↑ "Understanding WebAssembly text format" (in en-US). https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/WebAssembly/Understanding_the_text_format.
- ↑ "Introduction — WebAssembly 1.0". https://webassembly.github.io/spec/core/intro/introduction.html. "WebAssembly is an open standard..."
- ↑ "Introduction — WebAssembly 1.0". https://webassembly.github.io/spec/core/intro/introduction.html. "WebAssembly is a ... code format"
- ↑ 5.0 5.1 "Conventions — WebAssembly 1.0". https://webassembly.github.io/spec/core/syntax/conventions.html. "WebAssembly is a programming language that has multiple concrete representations (its binary format and the text format). Both map to a common structure."
- ↑ "Introduction — WebAssembly 1.0". https://webassembly.github.io/spec/core/intro/introduction.html. "... this specification is complemented by additional documents defining interfaces to specific embedding environments such as the Web. These will each define a WebAssembly application programming interface (API) suitable for a given environment."
- ↑ "Introduction — WebAssembly 1.1". https://webassembly.github.io/spec/core/intro/introduction.html. "Its main goal is to enable high performance applications on the Web, but it does not make any Web-specific assumptions or provide Web-specific features, so it can be employed in other environments as well."
- ↑ Haas, Andreas; Rossberg, Andreas; Schuff, Derek L.; Titzer, Ben L.; Holman, Michael; Gohman, Dan; Wagner, Luke; Zakai, Alon et al. (14 June 2017). "Bringing the Web Up to Speed with WebAssembly". SIGPLAN Notices 52 (6): 185–200. doi:10.1145/3140587.3062363. ISSN 0362-1340. "While the Web is the primary motivation for WebAssembly, nothing in its design depends on the Web or a JavaScript environment. It is an open standard specifically designed for embedding in multiple contexts, and we expect that stand-alone implementations will become available in the future.".
- ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 "Outside the web: standalone WebAssembly binaries using Emscripten · V8". https://v8.dev/blog/emscripten-standalone-wasm#running-in-wasm-runtimes.
- ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 "Wasmer - The Universal WebAssembly Runtime". https://wasmer.io/. "Compile everything to WebAssembly. Run it on any OS or embed it into other languages."
- ↑ "WebAssembly Core Specification". https://www.w3.org/TR/wasm-core-1/.
- ↑ Couriol, Bruno. "WebAssembly 1.0 Becomes a W3C Recommendation and the Fourth Language to Run Natively in Browsers". https://www.infoq.com/news/2019/12/webassembly-w3c-recommendation/.
- ↑ "WebAssembly Specification — WebAssembly 1.1". https://webassembly.github.io/spec/core/.
- ↑ "Programming Languages Software Award". http://www.sigplan.org/Awards/Software/.
- ↑ Bright, Peter (18 June 2015). "The Web is getting its bytecode: WebAssembly". Ars Technica. Condé Nast. https://arstechnica.com/information-technology/2015/06/the-web-is-getting-its-bytecode-webassembly/.
- ↑ 16.0 16.1 "New Bytecode Alliance Brings the Security, Ubiquity, and Interoperability of the Web to the World of Pervasive Computing" (in en). Mozilla. 12 November 2019. https://blog.mozilla.org/press/2019/11/new-bytecode-alliance-brings-the-security-ubiquity-and-interoperability-of-the-web-to-the-world-of-pervasive-computing/.
- ↑ "Launch bug". 11 June 2015. https://github.com/WebAssembly/design/issues/150.
- ↑ Wagner, Luke (14 March 2016). "A WebAssembly Milestone: Experimental Support in Multiple Browsers". https://hacks.mozilla.org/2016/03/a-webassembly-milestone/.
- ↑ Thompson, Seth (15 March 2016). "Experimental support for WebAssembly in V8". https://v8project.blogspot.com/2016/03/experimental-support-for-webassembly.html.
- ↑ Zhu, Limin (15 March 2016). "Previewing WebAssembly experiments in Microsoft Edge". https://blogs.windows.com/msedgedev/2016/03/15/previewing-webassembly-experiments/.
- ↑ Lardinois, Frederic (17 June 2015). "Google, Microsoft, Mozilla And Others Team Up To Launch WebAssembly, A New Binary Format For The Web" (in en). TechCrunch. https://techcrunch.com/2015/06/17/google-microsoft-mozilla-and-others-team-up-to-launch-webassembly-a-new-binary-format-for-the-web/.
- ↑ Avram, Abel (31 May 2017). "Google Is to Remove Support for PNaCl". https://www.infoq.com/news/2017/05/pnacl-webassembly-google.
- ↑ "WebAssembly: a binary format for the web". ②ality – JavaScript and more. 18 June 2015. https://www.2ality.com/2015/06/web-assembly.html.
- ↑ "Staring at the Sun: Dalvik vs. ASM.js vs. Native". August 2013. https://blog.mozilla.org/javascript/2013/08/01/staring-at-the-sun-dalvik-vs-spidermonkey/. "Even discarding the one score where asm.js did better, it executes at around 70% of the speed of native C++ code."
- ↑ Arjun, Jangda, Abhinav Powers, Bobby Berger, Emery Guha (2019-01-25). Not So Fast: Analyzing the Performance of WebAssembly vs. Native Code. OCLC 1106328738. http://worldcat.org/oclc/1106328738.
- ↑ 26.0 26.1 Krill, Paul (6 March 2017). "WebAssembly is now ready for browsers to use" (in en). InfoWorld. https://www.infoworld.com/article/3176681/.
- ↑ "WebAssembly First Public Working Drafts". W3C. 15 February 2018. https://www.w3.org/blog/news/archives/6838.
- ↑ "WebAssembly Core Specification". W3C. 15 February 2018. https://www.w3.org/TR/2018/WD-wasm-core-1-20180215/.
- ↑ "WebAssembly JavaScript Interface". W3C. 15 February 2018. https://www.w3.org/TR/2018/WD-wasm-js-api-1-20180215/.
- ↑ "WebAssembly Web API". W3C. 15 February 2018. https://www.w3.org/TR/2018/WD-wasm-web-api-1-20180215/.
- ↑ "WebAssembly Worker Based Threads - Chrome Platform Status". https://chromestatus.com/feature/5724132452859904.
- ↑ "WebAssembly Specification — WebAssembly 2.0 (Draft 2022-09-01)". https://webassembly.github.io/spec/core/.
- ↑ "WebAssembly 2.0 First Public Working Drafts | W3C News" (in en-US). 19 April 2022. https://www.w3.org/blog/news/archives/9509.
- ↑ "Non-Web Embeddings". WebAssembly. https://webassembly.org/docs/non-web/.
- ↑ "Non-Web Embeddings". GitHub / WebAssembly. https://github.com/WebAssembly/design/blob/master/NonWeb.md.
- ↑ "WebAssembly support now shipping in all major browsers" (in en-US). https://blog.mozilla.org/blog/2017/11/13/webassembly-in-browsers/.
- ↑ "Introducing new JavaScript optimizations, WebAssembly, SharedArrayBuffer, and Atomics in EdgeHTML 16" (in en-US). 31 October 2017. https://blogs.windows.com/msedgedev/2017/10/31/optimizations-webassembly-sharedarraybuffer-atomics-edgehtml-16/.
- ↑ "WebAssembly | Can I use... Support tables for HTML5, CSS3, etc". https://caniuse.com/wasm.
- ↑ Bright, Peter (18 June 2015). "The Web is getting its bytecode: WebAssembly" (in en-us). Ars Technica. https://arstechnica.com/information-technology/2015/06/the-web-is-getting-its-bytecode-webassembly/.
- ↑ "Wasmtime — a small and efficient runtime for WebAssembly & WASI". https://wasmtime.dev/.
- ↑ "Roadmap". https://webassembly.org/roadmap/.
- ↑ Ball, Kevin (26 June 2018). "How WebAssembly is Accelerating the Future of Web Development". https://zendev.com/2018/06/26/webassembly-accelerating-future-web-development.html.
- ↑ 43.0 43.1 "Awesome WebAssembly Languages". 26 June 2018. https://github.com/appcypher/awesome-wasm-langs.
- ↑ Zakai, Alon [@kripken] (21 October 2019). "Emscripten has switched to the upstream LLVM wasm backend by default! / Details:https://groups.google.com/forum/#!topic/emscripten-discuss/NpxVAOirSl4 …". https://twitter.com/kripken/status/1186407352880074752.
- ↑ "Developer's Guide - WebAssembly". https://webassembly.org/getting-started/developers-guide/.
- ↑ "Compiling a New C/C++ Module to WebAssembly" (in en). https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/WebAssembly/C_to_wasm.
- ↑ "Building to WebAssembly — Emscripten 1.38.33 documentation". https://emscripten.org/docs/compiling/WebAssembly.html.
- ↑ "Emscripting a C library to Wasm | Web" (in en). https://developers.google.com/web/updates/2018/03/emscripting-a-c-library.
- ↑ "LLVM 8.0.0 Release Notes — LLVM 8 documentation". https://releases.llvm.org/8.0.0/docs/ReleaseNotes.html#changes-to-the-webassembly-target.
- ↑ 50.0 50.1 "WebAssembly High-Level Goals". GitHub / WebAssembly / design. 11 December 2015. https://github.com/WebAssembly/design/blob/main/HighLevelGoals.md.
- ↑ Krill, Paul (29 November 2017). "Direct WebAssembly compilation comes to Rust language" (in en). InfoWorld. https://www.infoworld.com/article/3239129/.
- ↑ "Frequently asked questions (FAQ) about Blazor". https://blazor.net/docs/introduction/faq.html.
- ↑ AssemblyScript/assemblyscript, The AssemblyScript Project, 2020-09-09, https://github.com/AssemblyScript/assemblyscript, retrieved 2020-09-09
- ↑ "A new way to bring garbage collected programming languages efficiently to WebAssembly · V8". https://v8.dev/blog/wasm-gc-porting#demo-and-status.
- ↑ "WebAssembly Garbage Collection (WasmGC) now enabled by default in Chrome | Blog" (in en). https://developer.chrome.com/blog/wasmgc.
- ↑ "Bolero: F# in WebAssembly". https://fsbolero.io/.
- ↑ "Pyodide: Bringing the scientific Python stack to the browser – Mozilla Hacks - the Web developer blog" (in en-US). https://hacks.mozilla.org/2019/04/pyodide-bringing-the-scientific-python-stack-to-the-browser.
- ↑ "Julia in the Browser". https://nextjournal.com/sdanisch/wasm-julia.
- ↑ "WebAssembly platform by tshort · Pull Request #2 · JuliaPackaging/Yggdrasil" (in en). https://github.com/JuliaPackaging/Yggdrasil/pull/2.
- ↑ Fischer, Keno (22 July 2019), GitHub - Keno/julia-wasm: Running julia on wasm., https://github.com/Keno/julia-wasm, retrieved 25 July 2019
- ↑ "MRuby in Your Browser". https://ruby.dj/.
- ↑ "Java to WebAssembly Compiler - CheerpJ". https://leaningtech.com/cheerpj/.
- ↑ JWebAssembly, 27 April 2023, https://github.com/i-net-software/JWebAssembly
- ↑ "TeaVM — Overview". https://www.teavm.org/docs/intro/overview.html.
- ↑ "Bringing Kotlin to the Web" (in en). https://developers.googleblog.com/2023/05/bringing-kotlin-to-web.html.
- ↑ Deleuze, Sébastien (2023-02-13). "The huge potential of Kotlin/Wasm" (in en). https://seb.deleuze.fr/the-huge-potential-of-kotlin-wasm/.
- ↑ "Wasm needs a better memory management story · Issue #1397 · WebAssembly/design" (in en). https://github.com/WebAssembly/design/issues/1397.
- ↑ "stdweb - Rust". https://docs.rs/stdweb/*/stdweb/. "The goal of this crate is to provide Rust bindings to the Web APIs and to allow a high degree of interoperability between Rust and JavaScript."
- ↑ "web_sys - Rust". https://docs.rs/web-sys/*/web_sys/. "Raw API bindings for Web APIs. This is a procedurally generated crate from browser WebIDL which provides a binding to all APIs that browser provide on the web."
- ↑ "WebAssembly/content-security-policy" (in en). https://github.com/WebAssembly/content-security-policy.
- ↑ "948834 - chromium - An open-source project to help move the web forward. - Monorail". https://bugs.chromium.org/p/chromium/issues/detail?id=948834&can=1&q=wasm-eval.
- ↑ 72.0 72.1 "No way to use WebAssembly on Chrome without 'unsafe-eval' · Issue #7 · WebAssembly/content-security-policy" (in en). https://github.com/WebAssembly/content-security-policy/issues/7.
- ↑ 73.0 73.1 73.2 Neumann, Robert; Toro, Abel (19 April 2018). "In-browser mining: Coinhive and WebAssembly" (in en). Forcepoint. https://www.forcepoint.com/blog/x-labs/browser-mining-coinhive-and-webassembly.
- ↑ Cimpanu, Catalin (24 June 2018). "Changes in WebAssembly Could Render Meltdown and Spectre Browser Patches Useless" (in en-us). Bleeping Computer. https://www.bleepingcomputer.com/news/security/changes-in-webassembly-could-render-meltdown-and-spectre-browser-patches-useless/.
- ↑ Sanders, James (25 June 2018). "How opaque WebAssembly code could increase the risk of Spectre attacks online" (in en). https://www.techrepublic.com/article/how-opaque-webassembly-code-could-increase-the-risk-of-spectre-attacks-online/.
- ↑ R, Bhagyashree (30 October 2018). "Google Chrome 70 now supports WebAssembly threads to build multi-threaded web applications". https://hub.packtpub.com/google-chrome-70-now-supports-webassembly-threads-to-build-multi-threaded-web-applications/.
- ↑ 77.0 77.1 Lonkar, Aishwarya; Chandrayan, Siddhesh (October 2018). "The dark side of WebAssembly". https://www.virusbulletin.com/virusbulletin/2018/10/dark-side-webassembly/.
- ↑ Segura, Jérôme (29 November 2017). "Persistent drive-by cryptomining coming to a browser near you". Malwarebytes. https://blog.malwarebytes.com/cybercrime/2017/11/persistent-drive-by-cryptomining-coming-to-a-browser-near-you/.
- ↑ "Recent Study Estimates That 50% of Websites Using WebAssembly Apply It for Malicious Purposes". https://www.infoq.com/news/2019/10/WebAssembly-wasm-malicious-usage/.
- ↑ Musch, Marius; Wressnegger, Christian; Johns, Martin; Rieck, Konrad (June 2019). "New Kid on the Web: A Study on the Prevalence of WebAssembly in the Wild". Detection of Intrusions and Malware, and Vulnerability Assessment. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. 11543. Detection of Intrusions and Malware, and Vulnerability Assessment. pp. 23–42. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-22038-9_2. ISBN 978-3-030-22037-2. https://www.sec.cs.tu-bs.de/pubs/2019a-dimva.pdf. Retrieved 15 February 2022. Slides (PDF)
- ↑ Aaron Hilbig, Daniel Lehmann, and Michael Pradel (April 2021). "An Empirical Study of Real-World WebAssembly Binaries: Security, Languages, Use Cases." (Archived April 2021) https://software-lab.org/publications/www2021.pdf
- ↑ Watt, Conrad (2018-01-08). "Mechanising and verifying the WebAssembly specification" (in en). Proceedings of the 7th ACM SIGPLAN International Conference on Certified Programs and Proofs. CPP 2018. Los Angeles CA USA: ACM. pp. 53–65. doi:10.1145/3167082. ISBN 978-1-4503-5586-5. https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/3167082.
- ↑ "Symbolically Executing WebAssembly in Manticore". 31 January 2020. https://blog.trailofbits.com/2020/01/31/symbolically-executing-webassembly-in-manticore/.
- ↑ "WebAssembly System Interface Repo". GitHub / WebAssembly. 10 February 2020. https://github.com/WebAssembly/WASI.
- ↑ "Additional background on Capabilities" (in en). bytecodealliance. 4 March 2022. https://github.com/bytecodealliance/wasmtime/blob/master/docs/WASI-capabilities.md.
- ↑ "Standardizing WASI: A system interface to run WebAssembly outside the web – Mozilla Hacks - the Web developer blog". https://hacks.mozilla.org/2019/03/standardizing-wasi-a-webassembly-system-interface/.
- ↑ "reference-sysroot Repo". GitHub / WebAssembly. 12 January 2020. https://github.com/WebAssembly/reference-sysroot.
- ↑ "wasm-c-api Repo". GitHub / WebAssembly. 3 February 2020. https://github.com/WebAssembly/wasm-c-api.
- ↑ 89.0 89.1 "The "Wasmer" WebAssembly Runtime is Generally Available" (in en). https://www.infoq.com/news/2021/01/wasmer-generally-available/.
- ↑ "Design Rationale". GitHub / WebAssembly / design. 1 October 2016. https://github.com/WebAssembly/design/blob/main/Rationale.md#why-a-stack-machine.
- ↑ "Portability - WebAssembly". https://webassembly.org/docs/portability/#assumptions-for-efficient-execution.
- ↑ "Conventions — WebAssembly 1.0". https://webassembly.github.io/spec/core/syntax/conventions.html.
- ↑ "Introduction — WebAssembly 1.0". https://webassembly.github.io/spec/core/intro/introduction.html?highlight=isa#scope.
- ↑ "Instructions — WebAssembly 1.0". https://webassembly.github.io/spec/core/syntax/instructions.html.
- ↑ Lively, Thomas (2021-02-19). "Final opcodes by tlively · Pull Request #452 · WebAssembly/simd · GitHub". Bytecode Alliance. https://github.com/WebAssembly/simd/pull/452.
- ↑ Delendik, Yury (2021-02-19). "File wasm-tools/expr.rs at b5c3d98e40590512a3b12470ef358d5c7b983b15 · bytecodealliance/wasm-tools · GitHub". Bytecode Alliance. https://github.com/bytecodealliance/wasm-tools/blob/b5c3d98e40590512a3b12470ef358d5c7b983b15/crates/wast/src/ast/expr.rs.
- ↑ "Update interpreter and text with finalized opcodes by ngzhian · Pull Request #486 · WebAssembly/simd" (in en). https://github.com/WebAssembly/simd/pull/486.
- ↑ "WebAssembly/simd" (in en). https://github.com/WebAssembly/simd.
- ↑ WebAssembly/relaxed-simd, WebAssembly, 2021-05-03, https://github.com/WebAssembly/relaxed-simd, retrieved 2021-05-14
- ↑ "How we made the JVM 40x faster". https://astojanov.github.io/blog/2017/12/20/scala-simd.html.
- ↑ "Roadmap". March 2017. https://webassembly.org/roadmap/.
- ↑ WebAssembly Community Group (January 2020). "WebAssembly Specification Release 1.0". https://webassembly.github.io/spec/core/binary/values.html#integers.
- ↑ "Folded instructions". GitHub. https://webassembly.github.io/spec/core/text/instructions.html#folded-instructions. / WebAssembly / spec
- ↑ "Modules (Binary)". https://webassembly.github.io/spec/core/syntax/modules.html.
- ↑ "WebAssembly Binary Toolkit (wabt) demos". https://webassembly.github.io/wabt/demo/.
This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under Apache License 2.0 License statement: Text Format, jfbastien; rossberg-chromium; kripken; titzer; s3ththompson; sunfishcode; lukewagner; flagxor; enricobacis; c3d; binji; andrewosh, GitHub. WebAssembly/design. To learn how to add open license text to HandWiki articles, please see this how-to page. For information on reusing text from HandWiki, please see the terms of use.
External links
- W3C Community Group
- WebAssembly Design
- .wasm is WebAssembly Binary File
- (in en-US) WebAssembly, https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/WebAssembly – with info on browser compatibility and specifications (WebAssembly JavaScript API)
![]() | Original source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WebAssembly.
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