Comparison of multi-paradigm programming languages

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Programming languages can be grouped by the number and types of paradigms supported.

Paradigm summaries

A concise reference for the programming paradigms listed in this article.

  • Concurrent programming – have language constructs for concurrency, these may involve multi-threading, support for distributed computing, message passing, shared resources (including shared memory), or futures
    • Actor programming – concurrent computation with actors that make local decisions in response to the environment (capable of selfish or competitive behaviour)
  • Constraint programming – relations between variables are expressed as constraints (or constraint networks), directing allowable solutions (uses constraint satisfaction or simplex algorithm)
  • Dataflow programming – forced recalculation of formulas when data values change (e.g. spreadsheets)
  • Declarative programming – describes what computation should perform, without specifying detailed state changes c.f. imperative programming (functional and logic programming are major subgroups of declarative programming)
  • Distributed programming – have support for multiple autonomous computers that communicate via computer networks
  • Functional programming – uses evaluation of mathematical functions and avoids state and mutable data
  • Generic programming – uses algorithms written in terms of to-be-specified-later types that are then instantiated as needed for specific types provided as parameters
  • Imperative programming – explicit statements that change a program state
  • Logic programming – uses explicit mathematical logic for programming
  • Metaprogramming – writing programs that write or manipulate other programs (or themselves) as their data, or that do part of the work at compile time that would otherwise be done at runtime
    • Template metaprogramming – metaprogramming methods in which a compiler uses templates to generate temporary source code, which is merged by the compiler with the rest of the source code and then compiled
    • Reflective programming – metaprogramming methods in which a program modifies or extends itself
  • Object-oriented programming – uses data structures consisting of data fields and methods together with their interactions (objects) to design programs
    • Class-based – object-oriented programming in which inheritance is achieved by defining classes of objects, versus the objects themselves
    • Prototype-based – object-oriented programming that avoids classes and implements inheritance via cloning of instances
  • Pipeline programming – a simple syntax change to add syntax to nest function calls to language originally designed with none
  • Rule-based programming – a network of rules of thumb that comprise a knowledge base and can be used for expert systems and problem deduction & resolution
  • Visual programming – manipulating program elements graphically rather than by specifying them textually (e.g. Simulink); also termed diagrammatic programming[1]

Language overview

List of multi-paradigm programming languages
Language Number of paradigms Concurrent Constraints Data­flow Declarative Distributed Functional Meta­programming Generic Imperative Logic Reflection Object­oriented Pipe­lines Visual Rule-­based Other paradigms
Ada[2][3][4][5][6] 5 Yes[a 1] No No No Yes No No Yes Yes No No Yes[a 2] No No No No
ALF 2 No No No No No Yes No No No Yes No No No No No No
AmigaE style="background:#F99;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;" class="table-no"|No No No No No No No No Yes No No Yes[a 2] No No No No
APL 3 No No No No No Yes No No Yes No No No No No No Array (multi-dimensional)
BETA[citation needed] 3 No No No No No Yes No No Yes No No Yes[a 2] No No No No
C++ 7 (15) Yes[7][8][9] Library[10] Library[11][12] Library[13][14] Library[15][16] Yes Yes[17] Yes[a 3] Yes Library[18][19] Library[20] Yes[a 2] Yes[21] No Library[22] Array (multi-dimensional; using STL)
C# 6 (7) Yes No Library[a 4] No No Yes[a 5] No Yes Yes No Yes Yes[a 2] No No No reactive[a 6]
ChucK style="background:#9F9;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;" class="table-yes"|Yes No No No No No No No Yes No No Yes[a 2] No No No No
Claire 2 No No No No No Yes No No No No No Yes[a 2] No No No No
Clojure 5 Yes[23][24] No No Yes No Yes[25] Yes[26] No No Library[27] No No Yes[28] Editor[29] No Multiple dispatch,[30] Agents[31]
Common Lisp 7 (14) Library[32] Library[33] Library[34] Yes[35] Library[36] Yes Yes Yes[37] Yes Library[38] Yes Yes (multiple dispatch, method combinations)[39][a 2] Library[40] Library[41] Library[42] Multiple dispatch, meta-OOP system,[43] Language is extensible via metaprogramming.
Curl 5 No No No No No Yes No Yes[a 3] Yes No Yes Yes[a 2] No No No No
Curry 4 Yes Yes No No No Yes No No No Yes No No No No No No
D (version 2.0)[44][45] 7 Yes[a 7] No No No No Yes Yes[46][a 3] Yes[a 3] Yes No Yes Yes[a 2] No No No No
Delphi 3 No No No No No No No Yes[a 3] Yes No No Yes[a 2] No No No No
Dylan[citation needed] 3 No No No No No Yes No No No No Yes Yes[a 2] No No No No
E 3 Yes No No No Yes No No No No No No Yes[a 2] No No No No
ECMAScript[47][48] (ActionScript, E4X, JavaScript, JScript) 4 (5) partial (promises, native extensions)[a 8] No No Library[49][50] No Yes No No Yes No Yes Yes[a 9] Library[51][52] Editor[53] No reactive,[a 10][54] event driven[a 11][a 12]
Erlang 3 Yes No No Yes Yes Yes No No No No No No Yes No No No
Elixir 4 Yes No No No Yes Yes Yes No No No No No Yes No No No
Elm 6 Yes No Yes Yes No Yes (pure)[a 13] No Yes No No No No Yes No No reactive
F# 7 (8) Yes[a 7] No Library[a 4] Yes No Yes No Yes Yes No Yes Yes[a 2] No No No reactive[a 6]
Fortran 4 (5) Yes No No No No Yes[a 13] No Yes[a 14] No No No Yes[a 2] No No No Array (multi-dimensional)
Go 4 Yes No No No No No No No Yes No Yes No Yes No No No
Haskell 8 (15) Yes Library[55] Library[56] Yes Library[57] Yes (lazy) (pure)[a 13] Yes[58] Yes Yes Library[59] No Immutable Yes Yes Library[60] literate, reactive, dependent types (partial)
Io 4 Yes[a 7] No No No No Yes No No Yes No No Yes[a 9] No No No No
J[citation needed] 3 No No No No No Yes No No Yes No No Yes[a 2] No No No No
Java 6 Yes Library[61] Library[62] No No Yes No Yes Yes No Yes Yes[a 2] No No No No
Julia 9 (17) Yes Library[63] Library[64][65] Library[66] Yes Yes (eager) Yes Yes Yes Library[67] Yes Yes (multiple dispatch, not traditional single) Yes No Library[68][69] Multiple dispatch,
Array (multi-dimensional); optionally lazy[70] and reactive (with libraries)
Kotlin 8 Yes No No No No Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes Yes Yes No No No
LabVIEW 4 Yes No Yes No No No No No No No No Yes No Yes No No
Lava 2 No No No No No No No No No No No Yes[a 2] No Yes No No
LispWorks (version 6.0 with support for symmetric multi-processing, rules, logic (Prolog), CORBA) 9 Yes No No No Yes Yes Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes[a 2] No No Yes No
Lua[citation needed] 3 No No No No No Yes No No Yes No No Yes[a 9] No No No No
MATLAB 6 (10) Toolbox[71] Toolbox[72] Yes[73] No Toolbox[74] No Yes[75] Yes[76] No No Yes[77] Yes[78] No Yes[79] No Array (multi-dimensional)
Nemerle 7 Yes No No No No Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes Yes[a 2] No No No No
Object Pascal 4 Yes No No No No Yes No No Yes No No Yes[a 2] No No No No
OCaml 4 No No No No No Yes No Yes Yes No No Yes[a 2] No No No No
Oz 11 Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No No Yes Yes No Yes[a 2] Yes No Yes No
Perl style="background:#9F9;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;" class="table-yes"|Yes[80] Library[81] Yes[82] No No Yes Yes No Yes No Yes[a 2] Yes[a 2] Yes No No No
PHP[83][84][85] 4 No No No No No Yes No No Yes No Yes Yes[a 2] No No No No
Poplog 3 No No No No No Yes No No Yes Yes No No No No No No
Prograph 3 No No Yes No No No No No No No No Yes[a 2] No Yes No No
Python 5 (10) Library[86][87] Library[88] No No Library[89] Yes Yes[90][91] Yes[92][93] Yes Library[94] Yes Yes[a 2] No Editor[95] No structured
R 4 (6) Library[96] No No No Library[97] Yes No No Yes No Yes Yes Yes[98] No No Array (multi-dimensional)
Racket 10 Yes[99] Yes[100] Yes[101] No Yes[102] Yes Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes No No No Lazy[103]
Raku 10 Yes[104] Yes[105] Yes[106] No Library[107] Yes Yes[108] Yes[109] Yes No Yes[110] Yes[111] Yes No No Multiple dispatch, lazy lists, reactive.
ROOP 3 No No No No No No No No Yes Yes No No No No Yes No
Ruby 5 No No No No No Yes Yes No Yes No Yes Yes[a 2] No No No No
Rust (version 1.0.0-alpha) 6 Yes[a 7] No No No No Yes Yes[112][113] Yes[114] Yes No No Yes No No No linear, affline, and ownership types
Sather style="background:#F99;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;" class="table-no"|No No No No No Yes No No No No No Yes[a 2] No No No No
Scala[115][116] 9 Yes[a 7] No Yes[a 15] Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes Yes[a 2] No No No No
Simula style="background:#F99;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;" class="table-no"|No No No No No No No No Yes No No Yes[a 2] No No No No
SISAL 3 Yes No Yes No No Yes No No No No No No No No No No
Spreadsheets 2 No No No No No Yes No No No No No No No Yes No No
Swift 7 Yes No No No No Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes Yes[a 2] No No No block-structured
Tcl with Snit extension[citation needed] 3 No No No No No Yes[117] No No Yes No No Yes[a 9][118] No No No No
Visual Basic .NET 6 (7) Yes No Library[a 4] No No Yes No Yes Yes No Yes Yes[a 2] No No No reactive[a 6]
Windows PowerShell 6 No No No No No Yes No Yes Yes No Yes Yes[a 2] Yes No No No
Wolfram Language & Mathematica 13[119] (14) Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes[120] No Yes Knowledge Based

See also

Notes

  1. rendezvous and monitor-like based
  2. 2.00 2.01 2.02 2.03 2.04 2.05 2.06 2.07 2.08 2.09 2.10 2.11 2.12 2.13 2.14 2.15 2.16 2.17 2.18 2.19 2.20 2.21 2.22 2.23 2.24 2.25 2.26 2.27 2.28 2.29 2.30 2.31 2.32 2.33 2.34 Class-based
  3. 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 Template metaprogramming
  4. 4.0 4.1 4.2 using TPL Dataflow
  5. only lambda support (lazy functional programming)
  6. 6.0 6.1 6.2 using Reactive Extensions (Rx)
  7. 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 actor programming
  8. using Node.js' cluster module or child_process.fork method, web workers in the browser, etc.
  9. 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3 Prototype-based
  10. using Reactive Extensions (RxJS)
  11. in Node.js via their events module
  12. in browsers via their native EventTarget API
  13. 13.0 13.1 13.2 purely functional
  14. parameterized classes
  15. Akka

Citations

  1. Bragg, S.D.; Driskill, C.G. (20–22 September 1994). "Diagrammatic-graphical programming languages and DoD-STD-2167A". Proceedings of AUTOTESTCON '94 (IEEEXplore). Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE). pp. 211–220. doi:10.1109/AUTEST.1994.381508. ISBN 978-0-7803-1910-3. 
  2. Ada Reference Manual, ISO/IEC 8652:2005(E) Ed. 3, Section 9: Tasks and Synchronization
  3. Ada Reference Manual, ISO/IEC 8652:2005(E) Ed. 3 Annex E: Distributed Systems
  4. Ada Reference Manual, ISO/IEC 8652:2005(E) Ed. 3, Section 12: Generic Units
  5. Ada Reference Manual, ISO/IEC 8652:2005(E) Ed. 3, Section 6: Subprograms
  6. Ada Reference Manual, ISO/IEC 8652:2005(E) Ed. 3, 3.9 Tagged Types and Type Extensions
  7. Thread support
  8. Atomics support
  9. Memory model
  10. Gecode
  11. SystemC
  12. Boost.Iostreams
  13. Boolinq
  14. "AraRat". https://www.cs.technion.ac.il/~lkeren/scp.pdf. 
  15. OpenMPI
  16. Boost.MPI
  17. Boost.MPL
  18. LC++
  19. Castor
  20. Reflect Library
  21. N3534
  22. Boost.Spirit
  23. Clojure - Concurrent Programming
  24. Clojure - core.async
  25. Clojure - Functional Programming
  26. Clojure - Macros
  27. Clojure - core.logic
  28. Clojure - Threading Macros Guide
  29. "Light Table". 2019-04-08. http://lighttable.com/. 
  30. Multimethods and Hierarchies
  31. Agents and Asynchronous Actions
  32. [1] many concurrency paradigms implemented as language extensions
  33. [2] constraint programming inside CL through extensions
  34. [3] dataflow extension
  35. [4] by creating DSLs using the built-in metaprogramming; also see note on functional, constraint and logic paradigms, which are part of declarative
  36. [5] MPI, etc via language extensions
  37. template metaprogramming using macros (see C++)
  38. [6] [7] [8] Prolog implemented as a language extension
  39. Common Lisp Object System see Wikipedia article on CLOS, the Common Lisp Object System.
  40. implemented by the user via a short macro, example of implementation
  41. - Visual programming tool based on Common Lisp
  42. [9] rule-based programming extension
  43. [10] through the Meta Object Protocol
  44. D Language Feature Table
  45. Phobos std.algorithm
  46. D language String Mixins
  47. The Little JavaScripter demonstrates fundamental commonality with Scheme, a functional language.
  48. Object-Oriented Programming in JavaScript gives an overview of object-oriented programming techniques in JavaScript.
  49. "React – A JavaScript library for building user interfaces". 2019-04-08. https://reactjs.org/. 
  50. "TNG-Hooks". 2019-04-08. https://github.com/getify/tng-hooks. 
  51. "Lodash documentation". 2019-04-08. https://lodash.com/docs/4.17.11#flow. 
  52. "mori". 2019-04-08. https://swannodette.github.io/mori/#pipeline. 
  53. "Light Table". 2019-04-08. http://lighttable.com/. 
  54. "TNG-Hooks". 2019-04-08. https://github.com/getify/tng-hooks. 
  55. "Prolog embedding". https://hackage.haskell.org/package/hswip. 
  56. "Functional Reactive Programming". https://wiki.haskell.org/Functional_Reactive_Programming. 
  57. Cloud Haskell
  58. "Template Haskell". https://wiki.haskell.org/Template_Haskell. 
  59. "Logict: A backtracking logic-programming monad". https://hackage.haskell.org/package/logict. 
  60. Kollmansberger, Steve; Erwig, Martin (30 May 2006). "Haskell Rules: Embedding Rule Systems in Haskell". https://web.engr.oregonstate.edu/~erwig/HaskellRules/HaskellRules_June06.pdf. 
  61. https://jcp.org/en/jsr/detail?id=331 JSR 331: Constraint Programming API
  62. https://github.com/GoogleCloudPlatform/DataflowJavaSDK Google Cloud Platform Dataflow SDK
  63. "JuliaOpt/JuMP.jl". JuliaOpt. 11 February 2020. https://github.com/JuliaOpt/JuMP.jl. 
  64. "GitHub - MikeInnes/DataFlow.jl". 2019-01-15. https://github.com/MikeInnes/DataFlow.jl. 
  65. "GitHub - JuliaGizmos/Reactive.jl: Reactive programming primitives for Julia". 2018-12-28. https://github.com/JuliaGizmos/Reactive.jl. 
  66. https://github.com/davidanthoff/Query.jl Query almost anything in julia
  67. https://github.com/lilinjn/LilKanren.jl A collection of Kanren implementations in Julia
  68. "GitHub - abeschneider/PEGParser.jl: PEG Parser for Julia". 2018-12-03. https://github.com/abeschneider/PEGParser.jl. 
  69. "GitHub - gitfoxi/Parsimonious.jl: A PEG parser generator for Julia". 2017-08-03. https://github.com/gitfoxi/Parsimonious.jl. 
  70. Lazy https://github.com/MikeInnes/Lazy.jl
  71. "Execute loop iterations in parallel". http://mathworks.com/help/distcomp/parfor.html. 
  72. "Write Constraints". https://mathworks.com/help/optim/write-constraints.html. 
  73. "Getting Started with SimEvents". https://mathworks.com/help/simevents/getting-started-with-simevents.html. 
  74. "Execute loop iterations in parallel". http://mathworks.com/help/distcomp/parfor.html. 
  75. "Execute MATLAB expression in text - MATLAB eval". https://mathworks.com/help/matlab/ref/eval.html. 
  76. "Determine class of object". https://mathworks.com/help/matlab/ref/class.html. 
  77. "Class Metadata". https://mathworks.com/help/matlab/get-information-about-classes-and-objects.html. 
  78. "Object-Oriented Programming". https://mathworks.com/help/matlab/object-oriented-programming.html. 
  79. "Simulink". https://mathworks.com/help/simulink/. 
  80. interpreter based threads
  81. Moose
  82. Higher Order Perl
  83. PHP Manual, Chapter 17. Functions
  84. PHP Manual, Chapter 19. Classes and Objects (PHP 5)
  85. PHP Manual, Anonymous functions
  86. "Parallel Processing and Multiprocessing in Python". https://wiki.python.org/moin/ParallelProcessing. 
  87. "threading — Higher-level threading interface". https://docs.python.org/2/library/threading.html. 
  88. "python-constraint". https://pypi.python.org/pypi/python-constraint. 
  89. "DistributedProgramming". https://wiki.python.org/moin/DistributedProgramming. 
  90. "Chapter 9. Metaprogramming". http://chimera.labs.oreilly.com/books/1230000000393/ch09.html. 
  91. "Metaprogramming". https://python-3-patterns-idioms-test.readthedocs.io/en/latest/Metaprogramming.html. 
  92. "PEP 443 – Single-dispatch generic functions". https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0443/. 
  93. "PEP 484 – Type Hints". https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0484/#generics. 
  94. "PyDatalog". https://sites.google.com/site/pydatalog/. 
  95. "Light Table". 2019-04-08. http://lighttable.com/. 
  96. "Futureverse". https://www.futureverse.org/. 
  97. "future batchtools". https://future.batchtools.futureverse.org/. 
  98. "Magrittr: A Forward Pipe Operator for R". 17 November 2020. https://cran.r-project.org/package=magrittr. 
  99. Racket Guide: Concurrency and Synchronization
  100. The Rosette Guide
  101. FrTime: A Language for Reactive Programs
  102. Racket Guide: Distributed Places
  103. Lazy Racket
  104. Channels and other mechanisms
  105. "Class Signature". https://docs.perl6.org/type/Signature#Type_Constraints. 
  106. Feed operator
  107. https://github.com/perl6/doc/issues/1744#issuecomment-360565196 Cro module
  108. "Meta-programming: What, why and how". 2011-12-14. https://perl6advent.wordpress.com/2011/12/14/meta-programming-what-why-and-how/. 
  109. https://perl6advent.wordpress.com/2009/12/18/day-18-roles/ Parametrized Roles
  110. "Meta-object protocol (MOP)". https://docs.perl6.org/language/mop. 
  111. https://docs.perl6.org/language/classtut Classes and Roles
  112. "The Rust macros guide". http://doc.rust-lang.org/1.0.0-alpha/book/macros.html. 
  113. "The Rust compiler plugins guide". http://doc.rust-lang.org/1.0.0-alpha/book/plugins.html. 
  114. The Rust Reference §6.1.3.1
  115. An Overview of the Scala Programming Language
  116. Scala Language Specification
  117. "Tcl Programming/Introduction". https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Tcl_Programming/Introduction#One_language.2C_many_styles. 
  118. "TCLLIB - Tcl Standard Library: snitfaq". http://tmml.sourceforge.net/doc/tcllib/snitfaq.html. 
  119. Notes for Programming Language Experts, Wolfram Language Documentation.
  120. External Programs, Wolfram Language Documentation.

References

  • Jim Coplien, Multiparadigm Design for C++, Addison-Wesley Professional, 1998.