Biology:Aurochs

From HandWiki
Short description: Extinct species of large cattle that inhabited Asia, Europe, and Northern Africa


Aurochs
Temporal range: Early Pleistocene–Recent
Copenhagen Aurochse.jpg
Mounted skeleton of an aurochs bull at the National Museum of Denmark

Extinct  (1627) (IUCN 3.1)[1]
Scientific classification edit
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Artiodactyla
Family: Bovidae
Subfamily: Bovinae
Genus: Bos
Species:
B. primigenius
Binomial name
Bos primigenius
Bojanus, 1825[2]
Subspecies
Aurochs distribution.png
Former distribution of the aurochs

The aurochs (Bos primigenius) (/ˈɔːrɒks/ or /ˈrɒks/) is an extinct cattle species, considered to be the wild ancestor of modern domestic cattle. With a shoulder height of up to 180 cm (71 in) in bulls and 155 cm (61 in) in cows, it was one of the largest herbivores in the Holocene; it had massive elongated and broad horns that reached 80 cm (31 in) in length.

The aurochs was part of the Pleistocene megafauna. It probably evolved in Asia and migrated west and north during warm interglacial periods. The oldest known aurochs fossils found in India and North Africa date to the Middle Pleistocene and in Europe to the Holstein interglacial. As indicated by fossil remains in Northern Europe, it reached Denmark and southern Sweden during the Holocene. The aurochs declined during the late Holocene due to habitat loss and hunting, and became extinct around the 17th century.

The aurochs is depicted in Paleolithic cave paintings, Neolithic petroglyphs, Ancient Egyptian reliefs and Bronze Age figurines. It symbolised power, sexual potency and prowess in religions of the ancient Near East. Its horns were used in votive offerings, as trophies and drinking horns.

Two aurochs domestication events occurred during the Neolithic Revolution. One gave rise to the domestic cattle (Bos taurus) in the Fertile Crescent in the Near East that was introduced to Europe via the Balkans and the coast of the Mediterranean Sea. Hybridisation between aurochs and early domestic cattle occurred during the early Holocene. Domestication of the Indian aurochs led to the zebu cattle (Bos indicus) that hybridised with early taurine cattle in the Near East about 4,000 years ago. Some modern cattle breeds exhibit features reminiscent of the aurochs, such as the dark colour and light eel stripe along the back of bulls, the lighter colour of cows, or an aurochs-like horn shape.

Etymology

Both "aur" and "ur" are Germanic or Celtic words meaning "wild ox".[3][4] In Old High German this word was compounded with ohso ('ox') to ūrohso, which became the early modern Aurochs.[5] The Latin word "urus" was used for wild ox from the Gallic Wars onwards.[4][6]

The use of the plural form aurochsen in English is a direct parallel of the German plural Ochsen and recreates the same distinction by analogy as English singular ox and plural oxen.[7] "Aurochs" is both the singular and the plural term used to refer to the animal.[8]

Taxonomy and evolution

The scientific name Bos taurus was introduced by Carl Linnaeus in 1758 for feral cattle in Poland.[9] The scientific name Bos primigenius was proposed for the aurochs by Ludwig Heinrich Bojanus who described the skeletal differences between the aurochs and domestic cattle in 1825, published in 1827.[2][10] The name Bos namadicus was used by Hugh Falconer in 1859 for cattle fossils found in Nerbudda deposits.[11] Bos primigenius mauritanicus was coined by Philippe Thomas in 1881 who described fossils found in deposits near Oued Seguen west of Constantine, Algeria.[12]

In 2003, the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature placed Bos primigenius on the Official List of Specific Names in Zoology and thereby recognized the validity of this name for a wild species.[13][14]

Four aurochs subspecies are recognised:

Evolution

Calibrations using fossils of 16 Bovidae species indicate that the Bovini tribe evolved about 11.7 million years ago.[18] The Bos and Bison genetic lineages are estimated to have genetically diverged from the Bovini about 2.5 to 1.65 million years ago.[19][20] The following cladogram shows the phylogenetic relationships of the aurochs based on analysis of nuclear and mitochondrial genomes in the Bovini tribe:[21][22][23][19][24]

Bovini 

Pseudoryx nghetinhensis (Asian unicorn) CR IUCN 3 1.svg

Bubalina 

Bubalus (Asian buffaloes)

Syncerus (African buffaloes)

Bovina
Bos
subgenus Bison
Bos bison (American bison) 

Template:Clade hidden

Bos bonasus (wisent) 

Template:Clade hidden

Template:Clade hidden

subgenus Poephagus
Bos mutus (wild yak) VU IUCN 3 1.svg 

Template:Clade hidden

Bos baikalensis

subgenus Bos
Bos primigenius

Template:Clade hidden

(aurochs)

Template:Clade hidden

subgenus Novibos

Bos sauveli (kouprey) CR IUCN 3 1.svg/EX IUCN 3 1.svg[lower-alpha 1]
 
 

subgenus Bibos
Bos gaurus (gaur) VU IUCN 3 1.svg 

Template:Clade hidden

Bos javanicus (banteng) EN IUCN 3 1.svg 

Template:Clade hidden

Bos palaesondaicus

(cattle)

Template:Clade hidden

  1. last seen in 1982[25]

The cold Pliocene climate caused an extension of open grassland, which enabled the evolution of large grazers.[5] Bos acutifrons is a possible ancestor of the aurochs, of which a fossil skull was excavated in the Sivalik Hills in India that dates to the Early Pleistocene about 2 million years ago.

An aurochs skull excavated in Tunisia's Kef Governorate from early Middle Pleistocene strata dating about 0.78 million years ago is the oldest known fossil specimen to date, indicating that the genus Bos might have evolved in Africa and migrated to Eurasia during the Middle Pleistocene.[26] Middle Pleistocene aurochs fossils were also excavated in a Saharan erg in the Hoggar Mountains.[27]

The earliest aurochs fossils excavated in Europe date to the Holstein interglacial 230,000 years Before Present (BP).[28] A mitochondrial DNA analysis showed that hybridisation between the aurochs and the steppe bison (Bos priscus) occurred about 120,000 years ago; the European bison (Bos bonasus) contains up to 10% aurochs ancestry.[29]

Fossils of the Indian subspecies (Bos primigenius namadicus) were excavated in alluvial deposits in South India dating to the Middle Pleistocene.[30] This lead Van Vuure to conclude that it possibly migrated west into the Middle East during the Middle or Late Pleistocene.[5]

Late Pleistocene aurochs fossils were found in Affad 23 in Sudan dating to 50,000 years ago when the climate in this region was more humid than during the African humid period.[31] Two aurochs bones found in the Romito Cave in Italy were radiocarbon dated to 20,210 and 19,351 years BP.[32] Aurochs bones found in a cave near San Teodoro, Sicily date to the Late Epigravettian 14,785–14,781 years BP.[33]

Fossils found at various locations in Denmark date to the Holocene 9,925–2,865 years BP.[34] Mesowear analysis of aurochs premolar teeth indicates that it changed from an abrasion-dominated grazer in the Danish Preboreal to a mixed feeder in the Boreal, Atlantic and Subboreal periods of the Holocene.[35]

Description

Illustration by Sigismund von Herberstein captioned: Urus sum, polonis Tur, germanis Aurox; ignari Bisontis nomen dederant; translated: "I am Urus, Tur in Polish, Aurox in German; the ignorant ones gave me the name Bison".
Aurochs skeleton from Zealand island in Denmark on display in the Natural History Museum of Denmark

According to a 16th century description by Sigismund von Herberstein, the aurochs was pitch-black with a grey streak along the back; his wood carving made in 1556 was based on a culled aurochs, which he had received in Mazovia.[36] In 1827, Charles Hamilton Smith published an image of an aurochs that was based on an oil painting that he had purchased from a merchant in Augsburg, which is thought to have been made in the early 16th century.[37] This painting is thought to have shown an aurochs,[5][38] although some authors suggested it may have shown a hybrid between an aurochs and domestic cattle, or a Polish steer.[39] Contemporary reconstructions of the aurochs are based on skeletons and the information derived from contemporaneous artistic depictions and historic descriptions of the animal.[5]

Coat colour

Remains of aurochs hair were not known until the early 1980s.[40] Depictions show that the North African aurochs may have had a light saddle marking on its back.[38] Calves were probably born with a chestnut colour, and young bulls changed to black with a white eel stripe running down the spine, while cows retained a reddish-brown colour. Both sexes had a light-coloured muzzle, but evidence for variation in coat colour does not exist. Egyptian grave paintings show cattle with a reddish-brown coat colour in both sexes, with a light saddle, but the horn shape of these suggest that they may depict domesticated cattle.[5] Many primitive cattle breeds, particularly those from Southern Europe, display similar coat colours to the aurochs, including the black colour in bulls with a light eel stripe, a pale mouth, and similar sexual dimorphism in colour.[5][38] A feature often attributed to the aurochs is blond forehead hairs. According to historical descriptions of the aurochs, it had long and curly forehead hair, but none mentions a certain colour. Although the colour is present in a variety of primitive cattle breeds, it is probably a discolouration that appeared after domestication.[5]

Body shape

Drawing based on an aurochs bull skeleton from Lund and a cow skeleton from Cambridge, with characteristic features of the aurochs
Speculative profile of an Indian aurochs

The proportions and body shape of the aurochs were strikingly different from many modern cattle breeds. For example, the legs were considerably longer and more slender, resulting in a shoulder height that nearly equalled the trunk length. The skull, carrying the large horns, was substantially larger and more elongated than in most cattle breeds. As in other wild bovines, the body shape of the aurochs was athletic, and especially in bulls, showed a strongly expressed neck and shoulder musculature. Therefore, the fore hand was larger than the rear, similar to the wisent, but unlike many domesticated cattle. Even in carrying cows, the udder was small and hardly visible from the side; this feature is equal to that of other wild bovines.[5]

Size

The aurochs was one of the largest herbivores in Holocene Europe. The size of an aurochs appears to have varied by region, with larger specimens in northern Europe than farther south. Aurochs in Denmark and Germany ranged in height at the shoulders between 155–180 cm (61–71 in) in bulls and 135–155 cm (53–61 in) in cows, while aurochs bulls in Hungary reached 160 cm (63 in).[41]

The African aurochs was similar in size to the European aurochs in the Pleistocene, but declined in size during the transition to the Holocene; it may have also varied in size geographically.[42]

The body mass of aurochs appears to have shown some variability. Some individuals reached around 700 kg (1,540 lb), whereas those from the late Middle Pleistocene are estimated to have weighed up to 1,500 kg (3,310 lb).[5] The aurochs exhibited considerable sexual dimorphism in the size of males and females.[43]

Horns

The horns were massive, reaching 80 cm (31 in) in length and between 10 and 20 cm (3.9 and 7.9 in) in diameter.[38] Its horns grew from the skull at a 60° angle to the muzzle facing forwards and were curved in three directions, namely upwards and outwards at the base, then swinging forwards and inwards, then inwards and upwards. The curvature of bull horns was more strongly expressed than horns of cows.[5] The basal circumference of horn cores reached 44.5 cm (17.5 in) in the largest Chinese specimen and 48 cm (19 in) in a French specimen.[44] Some cattle breeds still show horn shapes similar to that of the aurochs, such as the Spanish fighting bull, and occasionally also individuals of derived breeds.[5]

Genetics

A well-preserved aurochs bone yielded sufficient mitochondrial DNA for a sequence analysis, which showed that its genome consists of 16,338 base pairs.[45] Further studies using the aurochs whole genome sequence have identified candidate microRNA-regulated domestication genes.[46]

Distribution and habitat

The aurochs was widely distributed in North Africa, Mesopotamia, and throughout Europe to the Pontic–Caspian steppe, Caucasus and Western Siberia in the west and to the Gulf of Finland and Lake Ladoga in the north.[47]

Fossil horns attributed to the aurochs were found in Late Pleistocene deposits at an elevation of 3,400 m (11,200 ft) on the eastern margin of the Tibetan plateau close to the Heihe River in Zoigê County that date to about 26,620±600 years BP. Most fossils in China were found in plains below 1,000 m (3,300 ft) in Heilongjiang, Yushu, Jilin, northeastern Manchuria, Inner Mongolia, near Beijing, Yangyuan County in Hebei province, Datong and Dingcun in Shanxi province, Huan County in Gansu and in Guizhou provinces.[44] Ancient DNA in aurochs fossils found in Northeast China indicate that the aurochs survived in the region until at least 5,000 years BP.[48] Fossils were also excavated on the Korean Peninsula,[49] and in the Japanese archipelago.[50][51]

Landscapes in Europe probably consisted of dense forests throughout much of the last few thousand years. The aurochs is likely to have used riparian forests and wetlands along lakes.[43] Pollen of mostly small shrubs found in fossiliferous sediments with aurochs remains in China indicate that it preferred temperate grassy plains or grasslands bordering woodlands.[44] It may have also lived in open grasslands.[52] In the warm Atlantic period of the Holocene, it was restricted to remaining open country and forest margins, where competition with livestock and humans gradually increased leading to a successive decline of the aurochs.[35]

Extinction

The Indian aurochs (B. p. namadicus) became extinct during the Indus Valley Civilisation likely due to habitat loss, caused by expanding pastoralism and interbreeding with domestic zebu.[53][54] Its latest known remains were dated to 3,800 YBP, making it the first of the three aurochs subspecies to die out.[55]

The African aurochs (B. p. mauritanicus) may have survived until at least to the Roman period, as indicated by fossils found in Buto and Faiyum in the Nile Delta.[42]

The Eurasian aurochs (B. p. primigenius) was present in southern Sweden during the Holocene climatic optimum until at least 7,800 years BP.[56] In Denmark, the first known local extinction of the aurochs occurred after the sea level rise on the newly formed Danish islands about 8,000–7,500 years BP, and the last documented aurochs lived in southern Jutland around 3,000 years BP.[34] The latest known aurochs fossil in Great Britain dates to 3,245 years BP, and it was probably extinct by 3,000 years ago.[57]

Excessive hunting began and continued until it was nearly extinct. The gradual extinction of the aurochs in Central Europe was concurrent with the clearcutting of large forest tracts between the 9th and 12th centuries.[47]

By the 13th century, the aurochs existed only in small numbers in Eastern Europe, and hunting it became a privilege of nobles and later royals.[5] The population in Hungary declined since at least the 9th century and was extinct in the 13th century.[58][59]

Findings from subfossil records indicate that wild aurochs might have survived in northwestern Transylvania until the 14th to 16th century, in western Moldavia until probably the early 17th century,[60][61] and in northeastern Bulgaria and around Sofia until the 17th century at most.[62] An aurochs horn found at a medieval site in Sofia indicates that it survived in western Bulgaria until the second half of the 17th to the first half of the 18th century, although these records have been found to stem from domestic cattle (Bos taurus taurus).[63]

The last known aurochs herd lived in a marshy woodland in Poland's Jaktorów Forest. It decreased from around 50 individuals in the mid 16th century to four individuals by 1601. The last aurochs cow died in 1627 from natural causes.[64]

Behaviour and ecology

Aurochs formed small herds mainly in winter, but typically lived singly or in smaller groups during the summer.[47] If aurochs had social behaviour similar to their descendants, social status would have been gained through displays and fights, in which both cows and bulls engaged.[38] With its hypsodont jaw, the aurochs was probably a grazer, with a food selection very similar to domesticated cattle[5] feeding on grass, twigs and acorns.[47]

Mating season was in September, and calves were born in spring.[47] Rutting bulls had violent fights, and evidence from the Jaktorów forest shows that they were fully capable of mortally wounding one another. In autumn, aurochs fed for the winter, gaining weight and possessing a shinier coat than during the rest of the year. Calves stayed with their mothers until they were strong enough to join and keep up with the herd on the feeding grounds. Aurochs calves would have been vulnerable to predation by such animals as grey wolves (Canis lupus) and brown bears (Ursus arctos), while the immense size and strength of healthy adult aurochs meant they likely did not need to fear most predators. The lion (Panthera leo), tiger (Panthera tigris) and hyena (Crocuta crocuta) were probable predators in prehistoric times. According to historical descriptions, the aurochs was swift despite its build and could be very aggressive if provoked, but was not generally fearful of humans.[5]

Cultural significance

Seal from Mohenjo-daro
Relief on the Ishtar Gate on display at the Pergamon Museum

In Asia

Acheulean layers in Hunasagi on India's southern Deccan Plateau yielded aurochs bones with cut marks.[65] An aurochs bone with cut marks induced with flint was found in a Middle Paleolithic layer at the Nesher Ramla Homo site in Israel; it was dated to Marine Isotope Stage 5 about 120,000 years ago.[66] An archaeological excavation in Israel found traces of a feast held by the Natufian culture around 12,000 years BP, in which three aurochs were eaten. This appears to be an uncommon occurrence in the culture and was held in conjunction with the burial of an older woman, presumably of some social status.[67] Petroglyphs depicting aurochs in Gobustan Rock Art in Azerbaijan date to the Upper Paleolithic to Neolithic periods.[68] Aurochs bones and skulls found at the settlements of Mureybet, Hallan Çemi and Çayönü indicate that people stored and shared food in the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B culture.[69] Remains of an aurochs were also found in a necropolis in Sidon, Lebanon, dating to around 3,700 years BP; the aurochs was buried together with numerous animals, a few human bones and foods.[70]

Seals dating to the Indus Valley civilisation found in Harappa and Mohenjo-daro show an animal with curved horns like an aurochs.[71][72] Aurochs figurines were made by the Maykop culture in the Western Caucasus.[73]

The aurochs is denoted in the Akkadian words rīmu and rēmu, both used in the context of hunts by rulers such as Naram-Sin of Akkad, Tiglath-Pileser I and Shalmaneser III; in Mesopotamia, it symbolised power and sexual potency, was an epithet of the gods Enlil and Shamash, denoted prowess as an epithet of the king Sennacherib and the hero Gilgamesh. Wild bulls are frequently referred to in Ugaritic texts as hunted by and sacrificed to the god Baal.[74] An aurochs is depicted on Babylon's Ishtar Gate, constructed in the 6th century BC.[75]

In Africa

Petroglyphs depicting aurochs found in Qurta in the upper Nile valley were dated to the Late Pleistocene about 19–15,000 years BP using luminescence dating and are the oldest engravings found to date in Africa.[76] Aurochs are part of hunting scenes in reliefs in a tomb at Thebes, Egypt dating to the 20th century BC, and in the mortuary temple of Ramesses III at Medinet Habu dating to around 1175 BC. The latter is the youngest depiction of aurochs in Ancient Egyptian art to date.[77]

In Europe

Aurochs in a cave painting in Lascaux
A cup from Vaphio showing an aurochs hunt, 15th century BC
Coat of arms of Moldavia from 1481 at Putna Monastery

The aurochs is widely represented in Paleolithic cave paintings in the Chauvet and Lascaux caves in southern France dating to 36,000 and 21,000 years BP, respectively.[78] Two Paleolithic rock engravings in the Calabrian Romito Cave depict an aurochs.[79] Palaeolithic engravings showing aurochs were also found in the Grotta del Genovese on the Italian island of Levanzo.[80] Upper Paleolithic rock engravings and paintings depicting the aurochs were also found in caves on the Iberian Peninsula dating from the Gravettian to the Magdalenian cultures.[81][82][83] Aurochs bones with chop and cut marks were found at various Mesolithic hunting and butchering sites in France, Luxemburg, Germany, the Netherlands, England and Denmark.[84] Aurochs bones were also found in Mesolithic settlements by the Narva and Emajõgi rivers in Estonia.[85] Aurochs and human bones were uncovered from pits and burnt mounds at several Neolithic sites in England.[86] A cup found in the Greek site of Vaphio shows a hunting scene, in which people try to capture an aurochs.[87] One of the bulls throws one hunter on the ground while attacking the second with its horns. The cup seems to date to Mycenaean Greece.[88][89] Greeks and Paeonians hunted aurochs and used their huge horns as trophies, cups for wine, and offerings to the gods and heroes. The ox mentioned by Samus, Philippus of Thessalonica and Antipater as killed by Philip V of Macedon on the foothills of mountain Orvilos, was actually an aurochs; Philip offered the horns, which were 105 cm (41 in) long and the skin to a temple of Hercules.[90] The aurochs was described in Julius Caesar's Commentarii de Bello Gallico.[6] Aurochs were occasionally captured and exhibited in venatio shows in Roman amphitheatres such as the Colosseum.[91] Aurochs horns were often used by Romans as hunting horns.[5]

In the Nibelungenlied, Sigurd kills four aurochs.[92] During the Middle Ages, aurochs horns were used as drinking horns including the horn of the last bull; many aurochs horn sheaths are preserved today.[93] The aurochs drinking horn at Corpus Christi College, Cambridge was engraved with the college's coat of arms in the 17th century.[94] An aurochs head with a star between its horns and Christian iconographic elements represents the official coat of arms of Moldavia perpetuated for centuries.[95]

Aurochs were hunted with arrows, nets and hunting dogs, and its hair on the forehead was cut from the living animal; belts were made out of this hair and believed to increase the fertility of women. When the aurochs was slaughtered, the os cordis was extracted from the heart; this bone contributed to the mystique and magical powers that were attributed to it.[5] In eastern Europe, the aurochs has left traces in expressions like "behaving like an aurochs" for a drunken person behaving badly, and "a bloke like an aurochs" for big and strong people.[43]

Domestication

The earliest known domestication of the aurochs dates to the Neolithic Revolution in the Fertile Crescent, where cattle hunted and kept by Neolithic farmers gradually decreased in size between 9800 and 7500 BC. Aurochs bones found at Mureybet and Göbekli Tepe are larger in size than cattle bones from later Neolithic settlements in northern Syria like Dja'de el-Mughara and Tell Halula.[96] In Late Neolithic sites of northern Iraq and western Iran dating to the sixth millennium BC, cattle remains are also smaller but more frequent, indicating that domesticated cattle were imported during the Halaf culture from the central Fertile Crescent region.[97] Results of genetic research indicate that the modern taurine cattle (Bos taurus) arose from 80 aurochs tamed in southeastern Anatolia and northern Syria about 10,500 years ago.[15] Taurine cattle spread into the Balkans and northern Italy along the Danube River and the coast of the Mediterranean Sea.[98] Hybridisation between male aurochs and early domestic cattle occurred in central Europe between 9500 and 1000 BC.[99] Analyses of mitochondrial DNA sequences of Italian aurochs specimens dated to 17–7,000 years ago and 51 modern cattle breeds revealed some degree of introgression of aurochs genes into south European cattle, indicating that female aurochs had contact with free-ranging domestic cattle.[100] Cattle bones of various sizes found at a Chalcolithic settlement in the Kutná Hora District provide further evidence for hybridisation of aurochs and domestic cattle between 3000 and 2800 BC in the Bohemian region.[41] Whole genome sequencing of a 6,750-year-old aurochs bone found in England was compared with genome sequence data of 81 cattle and single-nucleotide polymorphism data of 1,225 cattle. Results revealed that British and Irish cattle breeds share some genetic variants with the aurochs specimen; early herders in Britain might have been responsible for the local gene flow from aurochs into the ancestors of British and Irish cattle.[101] The Murboden cattle breed also exhibits sporadic introgression of female European aurochs into domestic cattle in the Alps.[102] Domestic cattle continued to diminish in both body and horn size until the Middle Ages.[87]

The Indian aurochs is thought to have been domesticated 10–8,000 years ago.[103] Aurochs fossils found at the Neolithic site of Mehrgarh in Pakistan are dated to around 8,000 years BP and represent some of the earliest evidence for its domestication on the Indian subcontinent.[55] Female Indian aurochs contributed to the gene pool of zebu (Bos indicus) between 5,500 and 4,000 years BP during the expansion of pastoralism in northern India. The zebu initially spread eastwards to Southeast Asia.[53] Hybridisation between zebu and early taurine cattle occurred in the Near East after 4,000 years BP coinciding with the drought period during the 4.2-kiloyear event.[104] The zebu was introduced to East Africa about 3,500–2,500 years ago,[98] and reached Mongolia in the 13th and 14th centuries.[105]

A third domestication event thought to have occurred in Egypt's Western Desert is not supported by results of an analysis of genetic admixture, introgression and migration patterns of 3,196 domestic cattle representing 180 populations.[98]

Breeding of aurochs-like cattle

Heck cattle in Lainzer Tiergarten

In the early 1920s, Heinz Heck initiated a selective breeding program in Hellabrunn Zoo attempting to breed back the aurochs using several cattle breeds; the result is called Heck cattle.[106] Herds of these cattle were released to Oostvaardersplassen, a polder in the Netherlands in the 1980s as aurochs surrogates for naturalistic grazing with the aim to restore prehistorical landscapes.[107] Large numbers of them died of starvation during the cold winters of 2005 and 2010, and the project of no interference ended in 2018.[108]

Starting in 1996, Heck cattle were crossed with southern European cattle breeds such as Sayaguesa Cattle, Chianina and to a lesser extent Spanish Fighting Bulls in the hope of creating a more aurochs-like animal. The resulting crossbreeds are called Taurus cattle.[109] Other breeding-back projects are the Tauros Programme and the Uruz Project.[107] However, approaches aiming at breeding an aurochs-like phenotype do not equate to an aurochs-like genotype.[110]

See also


References

  1. Tikhonov, A. (2008). "Bos primigenius". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2008: e.T136721A4332142. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2008.RLTS.T136721A4332142.en. https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/136721/4332142. Retrieved 19 November 2021. 
  2. 2.0 2.1 Bojanus, L.H. (1827). "De Uro nostrate eiusque sceleto commentation" (in latin). Nova Acta Physico-medica Academiae Caesareae Leopoldino-Carolinae Naturae Curiosum 13 (5): 53–478. https://archive.org/details/novaactaphysicom13218kais/page/444/mode/2up. 
  3. Partridge, E. (1983). "Urus, Uri gallica". Origins: A Short Etymological Dictionary of Modern English. New York: Greenwich House. p. 523. ISBN 978-0-517-41425-5. https://archive.org/details/anetymologicald00valpgoog/page/523/mode/2up. 
  4. 4.0 4.1 Lewis, C. T.; Short, C. (1879). "ūrus". A Latin Dictionary. Oxford: Clarendon Press. p. 1936. https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.61236/page/n1945/mode/1up. 
  5. 5.00 5.01 5.02 5.03 5.04 5.05 5.06 5.07 5.08 5.09 5.10 5.11 5.12 5.13 5.14 5.15 5.16 5.17 Van Vuure, C. (2005). Retracing the Aurochs: History, Morphology and Ecology of an extinct wild Ox. Sofia: Pensoft Publishers. ISBN 954-642-235-5. 
  6. 6.0 6.1 McDevitte, W. A. (1869). "Book 6, Chapter 28". The Gallic Wars by Julius Caesar. Harper's New Classical Library (First ed.). New York: Harper & Brothers. http://classics.mit.edu/Caesar/gallic.6.6.html. 
  7. Crystal, D. (2003). The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language (Second ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-53033-4. 
  8. Campbell, D.I.; Whittle, P.M. (2017). "Three Case Studies: Aurochs, Mammoths and Passenger Pigeons". Resurrecting Extinct Species. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 29–48. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-69578-5_2. ISBN 978-3-319-69578-5. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/321290645. 
  9. Linnaeus, C. (1758). "Bos Taurus" (in la). Systema naturae per regna tria naturae: secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. 1 (Tenth reformed ed.). Holmiae: Laurentii Salvii. p. 71. https://archive.org/details/mobot31753000798865/page/70/mode/2up. 
  10. Daszkiewicz, P.; Samojlik, T. (2019). "Corrected date of the first description of aurochs Bos primigenius (Bojanus, 1827) and steppe bison Bison priscus (Bojanus, 1827)". Mammal Research 64 (2): 299–300. doi:10.1007/s13364-018-0389-6. 
  11. Falconer, H. (1859). "Notice of the various species of bovine animals". The Zoologist 17: 6414–6429. https://archive.org/details/zoologistmonthly1718unse/page/6419/mode/1up. 
  12. Thomas, P. (1881). "Recherches sur les bovidés fossiles de l'Algérie". Bulletin de la Société Zoologique de France 6 (Avril): 92–136. https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k5442632q/f146.item. 
  13. International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature (2003). "Opinion 2027 (Case 3010). Usage of 17 specific names based on wild species which are pre-dated by or contemporary with those based on domestic animals (Lepidoptera, Osteichthyes, Mammalia)". The Bulletin of Zoological Nomenclature 60 (1): 81–84. https://archive.org/stream/bulletinofzoolog602003int#page/80/mode/2up. 
  14. Gentry, A.; Clutton-Brock, J.; Groves, C.P. (2004). "The naming of wild animal species and their domestic derivatives". Journal of Archaeological Science 31 (5): 645–651. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2003.10.006. Bibcode2004JArSc..31..645G. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/222518224. 
  15. 15.0 15.1 Bollongino, R.; Burger, J.; Powell, A.; Mashkour, M.; Vigne, J.-D.; Thomas, M. G. (2012). "Modern Taurine Cattle descended from small number of Near-Eastern founders". Molecular Biology and Evolution 29 (9): 2101–2104. doi:10.1093/molbev/mss092. PMID 22422765. 
  16. Avise, J.C.; Ayala, F.J. (2009). In the Light of Evolution. 106. pp. 9933–9938. doi:10.17226/12692. ISBN 978-0-309-13986-1. 
  17. Siarabi, S.; Kostopoulos, D. S.; Bartsiokas, A.; Rozzi, R. (2023). "Insular aurochs (Mammalia, Bovidae) from the Pleistocene of Kythera Island, Greece". Quaternary Science Reviews 319: 108342. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2023.108342. Bibcode2023QSRv..31908342S. 
  18. Bibi, F. (2013). "A multi-calibrated mitochondrial phylogeny of extant Bovidae (Artiodactyla, Ruminantia) and the importance of the fossil record to systematics". BMC Evolutionary Biology 13 (1): 166. doi:10.1186/1471-2148-13-166. PMID 23927069. Bibcode2013BMCEE..13..166B. 
  19. 19.0 19.1 Wang, K.; Lenstra, J.A.; Liu, L.; Hu, Q.; Ma, T.; Qiu, Q.; Liu, J. (2018). "Incomplete lineage sorting rather than hybridization explains the inconsistent phylogeny of the wisent". Communications Biology 1 (1): 169. doi:10.1038/s42003-018-0176-6. PMID 30374461. 
  20. Zeyland, J.; Wolko, Ł.; Lipiński, D.; Woźniak, A.; Nowak, A.; Szalata, M.; Bocianowski, J.; Słomski, R. (2012). "Tracking of wisent–bison–yak mitochondrial evolution". Journal of Applied Genetics 53 (3): 317–322. doi:10.1007/s13353-012-0090-4. PMID 22415349. 
  21. Hassanin, A.; An, J.; Ropiquet, A.; Nguyen, T. T.; Couloux, A. (2013). "Combining multiple autosomal introns for studying shallow phylogeny and taxonomy of Laurasiatherian mammals: Application to the tribe Bovini (Cetartiodactyla, Bovidae)". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 66 (3): 766–775. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2012.11.003. PMID 23159894. https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ympev.2012.11.003. 
  22. Bibi, F. (2013). "A multi-calibrated mitochondrial phylogeny of extant Bovidae (Artiodactyla, Ruminantia) and the importance of the fossil record to systematics". BMC Evolutionary Biology 13 (1): 166. doi:10.1186/1471-2148-13-166. PMID 23927069. Bibcode2013BMCEE..13..166B. 
  23. Castelló, J.R. (2016). Bovids of the world : antelopes, gazelles, cattle, goats, sheep and relatives. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-16717-6. 
  24. Grange, Thierry; Brugal, Jean-Philip; Flori, Laurence; Gautier, Mathieu; Uzunidis, Antigone; Geigl, Eva-Maria (2018). "The Evolution and Population Diversity of Bison in Pleistocene and Holocene Eurasia: Sex Matters". Diversity 10 (3): 65. doi:10.3390/d10030065. 
  25. Considine, D. M.; Considine, G. D. (1995). Van Nostrand's scientific encyclopedia (8th ed.). New York: Springer Science & Business Media. p. 446. ISBN 978-1-4757-6918-0. 
  26. Martínez-Navarro, B.; Karoui-Yaakoub, N.; Oms, O.; Amri, L.; López-García, J.M.; Zerai, K.; Blain, H.A.; Mtimet, M.S. et al. (2014). "The early Middle Pleistocene archeopaleontological site of Wadi Sarrat (Tunisia) and the earliest record of Bos primigenius". Quaternary Science Reviews 90: 37–46. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2014.02.016. Bibcode2014QSRv...90...37M. 
  27. Thomas, H. (1977). Géologie et paléontologie du gisement acheuléen de l'erg Tihodaïne, Ahaggar Sahara Algérien. Paris: Memoires du centre de recherches anthlropologiques, prehistoriques et ethnographiques. 
  28. Kurten, B. (1968). "Order Artiodactyla". Pleistocene Mammals of Europe. London: Aldine Publishing Company. pp. 171–190. 
  29. Soubrier, J.; Gower, G.; Chen, K.; Richards, S.M.; Llamas, B.; Mitchell, K.J.; Ho, S.Y.W.; Kosintsev, P. et al. (2016). "Early cave art and ancient DNA record the origin of European bison". Nature Communications 7 (13158): 13158. doi:10.1038/ncomms13158. PMID 27754477. Bibcode2016NatCo...713158S. 
  30. Pilgrim, G.E. (1947). "The evolution of the buffaloes, oxen, sheep and goats". Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society 41 (279): 272–286. doi:10.1111/j.1096-3642.1940.tb02077.x. 
  31. Osypinska, M.; Osypinski, P.; Belka, Z.; Chlodnicki, M.; Wiktorowicz, P.; Ryndziewicz, R.; Kubiak, M. (2021). "Wild and Domestic Cattle in the Ancient Nile Valley: Marks of ecological change". Journal of Field Archaeology 46 (7): 429–447. doi:10.1080/00934690.2021.1924491. 
  32. Craig, O.E.; Biazzo, M.; Colonese, A.C.; Di Giuseppe, Z.; Martinez-Labarga, C.; Vetro, D.L.; Lelli, R.; Martini, F. et al. (2010). "Stable isotope analysis of Late Upper Palaeolithic human and faunal remains from Grotta del Romito (Cosenza), Italy". Journal of Archaeological Science 37 (10): 2504–2512. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2010.05.010. Bibcode2010JArSc..37.2504C. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/223753867. 
  33. Mannino, M.A.; Di Salvo, R.; Schimmenti, V.; Di Patti, C.; Incarbona, A.; Sineo, L.; Richards, M.P. (2011). "Upper Palaeolithic hunter-gatherer subsistence in Mediterranean coastal environments: an isotopic study of the diets of the earliest directly-dated humans from Sicily". Journal of Archaeological Science 38 (11): 3094–3100. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2011.07.009. Bibcode2011JArSc..38.3094M. https://iris.unipa.it/retrieve/handle/10447/61514/33696/Mannino_et_al._2011_Journal_of_Archaeolog%5b1%5d.pdf. 
  34. 34.0 34.1 Gravlund, P.; Aaris-Sørensen, K.; Hofreiter, M.; Meyer, M.; Bollback, J.P.; Noe-Nygaard, N (2012). "Ancient DNA extracted from Danish aurochs (Bos primigenius): genetic diversity and preservation". Annals of Anatomy 194 (1): 103–111. doi:10.1016/j.aanat.2011.10.011. PMID 22188739. 
  35. 35.0 35.1 Schulz, E.; Kaiser, T.M. (2007). "Feeding strategy of the Urus Bos primigenius Bojanus, 1827 from the Holocene of Denmark". Courier Forschungsinstitut Senckenberg 259: 155–164. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233781003. 
  36. Senglaub, K. (2002). "Sigmund von Herberstein (1486–1566) und die historischen Konfusionen um Ur und Wisent". Säugetierkundliche Informationen 5 (26): 253–266. https://www.zobodat.at/biografien/Herberstein_Sigmund_von_Saeugetierkdl-Inf_26_0253-0266.pdf. 
  37. Lydekker, R. (1912). "The wild Ox and its extermination". The ox and its kindred. London: Methuen &Co. Ltd.. pp. 37–67. https://archive.org/details/oxitskindred00lyde/page/50/mode/2up. 
  38. 38.0 38.1 38.2 38.3 38.4 Frisch, W. (2010). Der Auerochs: Das europäische Rind. Starnberg: Lipp Graphische Betriebe. ISBN 978-3-00-026764-2. 
  39. Pyle, C.M. (1995). "Update to: "Some late sixteenth-century depictions of the aurochs (Bos primigenius Bojanus, extinct 1627): New evidence from Vatican MS Urb. Lat. 276". Archives of Natural History 22 (3): 437–438. doi:10.3366/anh.1995.22.3.437. https://www.euppublishing.com/doi/abs/10.3366/anh.1995.22.3.437?src=recsys. 
  40. Ryder, M.L. (1984). "The first hair remains from an aurochs (Bos primigenius) and some medieval domestic cattle hair". Journal of Archaeological Science 11 (1): 99–101. doi:10.1016/0305-4403(84)90045-1. Bibcode1984JArSc..11...99R. 
  41. 41.0 41.1 Kysely, R. (2008). "Aurochs and potential crossbreeding with domestic cattle in Central Europe in the Eneolithic period. A metric analysis of bones from the archaeological site of Kutná Hora-Denemark (Czech Republic)". Anthropozoologica 43 (2): 7–37. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/285784105. 
  42. 42.0 42.1 Linseele, V. (2004). "Size and size change of the African aurochs during the Pleistocene and Holocene". Journal of African Archaeology 2 (2): 165–185. doi:10.3213/1612-1651-10026. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/269674903. 
  43. 43.0 43.1 43.2 Van Vuure, T. (2002). "History, morphology and ecology of the Aurochs (Bos primigenius)". Lutra 45 (1): 1–16. 
  44. 44.0 44.1 44.2 Zong, G. (1984). "A record of Bos primigenius from the Quaternary of the Aba Tibetan Autonomous Region". Vertebrata PalAsiatica 22 (3): 239–245. http://www.nau.edu/~qsp/will_downs/79.Bos.pdf. 
  45. Edwards, C.J.; Magee, D.A.; Park, S.D.E.; McGettigan, P.A.; Lohan, A.J. (2010). "A complete mitochondrial genome sequence from a mesolithic wild Aurochs (Bos primigenius)". PLOS ONE 5 (2): e9255. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0009255. PMID 20174668. Bibcode2010PLoSO...5.9255E. 
  46. Braud, M.; Magee, D.A.; Park, S.D.E.; Sonstegard, T.S.; Waters, S.M.; MacHugh, D.E.; Spillane, C. (2017). "Genome-wide microRNA binding site variation between extinct wild Aurochs and modern cattle identifies candidate microRNA-regulated domestication genes". Frontiers in Genetics 8: 3. doi:10.3389/fgene.2017.00003. PMID 28197171. 
  47. 47.0 47.1 47.2 47.3 47.4 Heptner, V.G.; Nasimovich, A.A.; Bannikov, A.G. (1988). "Aurochs, primitive cattle". Mlekopitajuščie Sovetskogo Soiuza. Moskva: Vysšaia Škola. ((Volume I. Artiodactyla and Perissodactyla)). Washington DC: Smithsonian Institution and the National Science Foundation. pp. 539–549. https://archive.org/details/mammalsofsovietu11988gept/page/538/mode/2up. 
  48. Cai, D.; Zhang, N.; Zhu, S.; Chen, Q.; Wang, L.; Zhao, X.; Ma, X.; Royle, T.C. et al. (2018). "Ancient DNA reveals evidence of abundant aurochs (Bos primigenius) in Neolithic Northeast China". Journal of Archaeological Science 98: 72–80. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2018.08.003. Bibcode2018JArSc..98...72C. http://bjkg.jlu.edu.cn/__local/D/E8/49/0A08A3ED3FED16810A705CC375D_1229B3A5_1C46BE.pdf. 
  49. Jo, Y.-S.; Baccus, J.T.; Koprowski, J. (2018). Mammals of Korea. Seoul: Magnolia Press. ISBN 978-89-6811-369-7. 
  50. Kurosawa Y.. "モノが語る牛と人間の文化 - ② 岩手の牛たち". LIAJ (Oshu city Cattle Museum) (109): 29–31. http://liaj.lin.gr.jp/japanese/liajnews/liaj10909.pdf. Retrieved 6 April 2016. 
  51. Hasegawa, Y.; Okumura, Y.; Tatsukawa, H. (2009). "First record of Late Pleistocene Bison from the fissure deposits of the Kuzuu Limestone, Yamasuge, Sano-shi, Tochigi Prefecture, Japan". Bulletin of Gunma Museum of Natural History (13): 47–52. http://www.gmnh.pref.gunma.jp/research/no_13/bulletin13_5.pdf. Retrieved 6 April 2016. 
  52. Beutler, A. (1996). "Die Großtierfauna Europas und ihr Einfluss auf Vegetation und Landschaft". Natur und Kulturlandschaft 1: 51–106. 
  53. 53.0 53.1 Chen, S.; Lin, B.-Z.; Baig, M.; Mitra, B.; Lopes, R. J.; Santos, A. M.; Magee, D. A.; Azevedo, M. et al. (2010). "Zebu Cattle are an exclusive legacy of the South Asia Neolithic". Molecular Biology and Evolution 27 (1): 1–6. doi:10.1093/molbev/msp213. PMID 19770222. 
  54. Rangarajan, M. (2001). India's Wildlife History. Delhi, India: Permanent Black. p. 4. ISBN 978-81-7824-140-1. 
  55. 55.0 55.1 Turvey, S.T.; Sathe, V.; Crees, J.J.; Jukar, A.M.; Chakraborty, P.; Lister, A.M. (2021). "Late Quaternary megafaunal extinctions in India: How much do we know?". Quaternary Science Reviews 252: 106740. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2020.106740. Bibcode2021QSRv..25206740T. https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/10116065/12/Turvey_India_megafauna_paper_highlights.pdf. 
  56. Magnell, O. (2017). "Climate Change at the Holocene Thermal Maximum and Its Impact on Wild Game Populations in South Scandinavia". Climate Change and Human Responses. Vertebrate Paleobiology and Paleoanthropology. Dordrecht: Springer. pp. 123–135. doi:10.1007/978-94-024-1106-5_7. ISBN 978-94-024-1105-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=e-hyDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA122. 
  57. Clutton-Brock, J. (1989). "Five thousand years of livestock in Britain". Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 38 (1): 31–37. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8312.1989.tb01560.x. 
  58. Bartosiewicz, L. (2006). "Interdisciplinary analysis of an Iron Age Aurochs horn core from Hungary: a case study". Acta Archaeologica Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae 57 (1–3): 153–163. doi:10.1556/AArch.57.2006.1-3.10. 
  59. Bartosiewicz, L. (1997). "A horn worth blowing? A stray find of Aurochs from Hungary". Antiquity 71 (274): 1007–1010. doi:10.1017/S0003598X00085902. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/289813462. 
  60. Bejenaru, L.; Stanc, S.; Popovici, M.; Balasescu, A.; Cotiuga, V. (2013). "Holocene subfossil records of the auroch (Bos primigenius) in Romania". The Holocene 23 (4): 603–614. doi:10.1177/0959683612465448. Bibcode2013Holoc..23..603B. 
  61. Németh, A.; Bárány, A.; Csorba, G.; Magyari, E.; Pazonyi, P.; Pálfy, J. (2017). "Holocene mammal extinctions in the Carpathian Basin: a review". Mammal Review 47 (1): 38–52. doi:10.1111/mam.12075. http://real.mtak.hu/47261/1/Nemeth_etal_2017_MammRev_Holocene_ext_preprint_u.pdf. 
  62. Boev, Z. (2016). "Subfossil vertebrate fauna from Forum Serdica (Sofia, Bulgaria), 16–18th Century AD". Acta Zoologica Bulgarica 68 (3): 415–424. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/308747936. 
  63. Boev, Z. (2021). "The last Bos primigenius survived in Bulgaria (Cetartiodactyla: Bovidae)". Lynx. New Series 52: 139–142. doi:10.37520/lynx.2021.010. 
  64. Rokosz, M. (1995). "History of the Aurochs (Bos taurus primigenius) in Poland". Animal Genetics Resources Information 16: 5–12. doi:10.1017/S1014233900004582. http://agtr.ilri.cgiar.org/agtrweb/Documents/Library/docs/agri16_95.pdf. 
  65. Sathe, V.; Paddayya, K. (2012). "The faunal background of the stone age cultures of Hunsgi and Baichbal Valleys, Southern Deccan". Bulletin of the Deccan College Research Institute 72: 79–97. 
  66. Prévost, M.; Groman-Yaroslavski, I.; Gershtein, K.M.C.; Tejero, J.M.; Zaidner, Y. (2021). "Early evidence for symbolic behavior in the Levantine Middle Paleolithic: A 120 ka old engraved aurochs bone shaft from the open-air site of Nesher Ramla, Israel". Quaternary International early view: 80–93. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2021.01.002. 
  67. Munro, N.D.; Grosman, L. (2010). "Early evidence (ca. 12,000 B.P.) for feasting at a burial cave in Israel". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 107 (35): 15362–15366. doi:10.1073/pnas.1001809107. PMID 20805510. Bibcode2010PNAS..10715362M. 
  68. Farajova, M. (2011). "Gobustan: Rock Art Cultural Landscape". Adoranten 11: 41–66. https://www.rockartscandinavia.com/images/articles/malahat_a11.pdf. 
  69. Bogaard, A.; Charles, M.; Twiss, K.C.; Fairbairn, A.; Yalman, N.; Filipović, D.; Demirergi, G.A.; Ertuğ, F. et al. (2009). "Private pantries and celebrated surplus: storing and sharing food at Neolithic Çatalhöyük, Central Anatolia". Antiquity 83 (321): 649–668. doi:10.1017/S0003598X00098896. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/236673285. 
  70. Makarem, M. (2012). "Et si Europe était sidonienne?". L'Orient Le Jour (Beirut). http://www.lorientlejour.com/category/À+La+Une/article/767714/Et_si_Europe_etait_sidonienne_.html. 
  71. Mackay, E.J.H. (1935). "Steatite pectoral, once mounted in metal and filled with inlay". The Indus civilization. London: Lovat Dickson & Thompson Ltd.. p. Plate J. https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.22579/page/n229/mode/2up. 
  72. Geer, A.A.E. (2008). "Bos primigenius. The Aurochs". Animals in stone: Indian mammals sculptured through time. Leiden: Brill. pp. 111–114. ISBN 978-90-04-16819-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=oQ3quxh9gsgC&pg=PA111. 
  73. Reinhold, S.; Gresky, J.; Berezina, N.; Kantorovich, A.R.; Knipper, C.; Maslov, V.E.; Petrenko, V.G.; Alt, K.W. et al. (2017). "Contextualising Innovation: Cattle Owners and Wagon Drivers in the North Caucasus and Beyond". Appropriating Innovations. Entangled Knowledge in Eurasia, 5000-150 BCE. Oxford: Oxbow Books. pp. 78–97. ISBN 9781785707247. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/321300884. 
  74. Wyatt, S.; Wyatt, N. (2013). "The longue durée in the beef business". Ritual, Religion, and Reason. Studies in the Ancient World in Honour of Paolo Xella. Münster: Ugarit-Verlag. pp. 417–450. ISBN 9783868350876. https://www.academia.edu/4038225. 
  75. Shugart, H.H. (2014). "Taming the Unicorn, Yoking the Aurochs: Animal and Plant Domestication and the Consequent Alteration of the Surface of the Earth". Foundations of the Earth. Columbia University Press. pp. 35–70. doi:10.7312/shug16908-003. ISBN 9780231537698. 
  76. Huyge, D.; Vandenberghe, D.A.; De Dapper, M.; Mees, F.; Claes, W.; Darnell, J.C. (2011). "First evidence of Pleistocene rock art in North Africa: securing the age of the Qurta petroglyphs (Egypt) through OSL dating". Antiquity 85 (330): 1184–1193. doi:10.1017/S0003598X00061998. https://www.academia.edu/1621581. 
  77. Beierkuhnlein, C. (2015). "Bos primigenius in Ancient Egyptian art – historical evidence for the continuity of occurrence and ecology of an extinct key species". Frontiers of Biogeography 7 (3): 107–118. doi:10.21425/F5FBG21527. https://epub.uni-bayreuth.de/3177/1/eScholarship%20UC%20item%202cc00316.pdf. 
  78. Geneste, J.M. (2017). "From Chauvet to Lascaux: 15,000 years of cave art". Archaeology, Ethnology & Anthropology of Eurasia 45 (3): 29–40. doi:10.17746/1563-0110.2017.45.3.029-040. https://journal.archaeology.nsc.ru/jour/article/viewFile/285/382. 
  79. Vacca, B.B. (2012). "The hunting of large mammals in the Upper Palaeolithic of southern Italy: A diachronic case study from Grotta del Romito". Quaternary International 252: 155–164. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2011.06.054. Bibcode2012QuInt.252..155V. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/251636438. 
  80. Di Maida, G.; García-Diez, M.; Pastoors, A.; Terberger, T. (2018). "Palaeolithic art at Grotta di Cala dei Genovesi, Sicily: a new chronology for mobiliary and parietal depictions". Antiquity 92 (361): 38–55. doi:10.15184/aqy.2017.209. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323045060. 
  81. Weniger, G.C. (1999). "Representations of the Aurochs in the Upper Palaeolithic and Epipalaeolithic on the Iberian Peninsula". Archäologie und Biologie des Aurochsen. Bonn: Neanderthal Museum. pp. 133–140. ISBN 9783980583961. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/271588425. 
  82. Fernandes, A.P.B. (2008). "Aesthetics, ethics, and rock art conservation: How far can we go? The case of recent conservation tests carried out in un-engraved outcrops in the Côa Valley, Portugal". Aesthetics and Rock Art III: Symposium. British Archaeological Reports. 1818. Oxford: Archaeopress. pp. 85–92. ISBN 9781407303048. http://openarchive.icomos.org/id/eprint/945/1/11_Batarda_Fernandes_offprint.pdf. 
  83. Soares De Figueiredo, S.; Botica, N.; Bueno Ramirez, P.; Tsoupra, A.; Mirao, J. (2020). "Analysis of portable rock art from Foz do Medal (Northwest Iberia): Magdalenian images of horses and aurochs". Comptes Rendus Palevol 19 (4): 63–77. doi:10.5852/cr-palevol2020v19a4. 
  84. Prummel, W.; Niekus, M.J.L.T. (2011). "Late Mesolithic hunting of a small female aurochs in the valley of the River Tjonger (the Netherlands) in the light of Mesolithic aurochs hunting in NW Europe". Journal of Archaeological Science 38 (7): 1456–1467. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2011.02.009. Bibcode2011JArSc..38.1456P. 
  85. Kriiska, A. (2000). "Settlements of coastal Estonia and maritime hunter-gatherer economy". Lietuvos Archeologija 19: 153–166. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/281345662. 
  86. Lynch, A.H.; Hamilton, J.; Hedges, R.E.M. (2008). "Where the wild things are: Aurochs and Cattle in England". Antiquity 82 (318): 1025–1039. doi:10.1017/S0003598X00097751. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/237086645. 
  87. 87.0 87.1 Ajmone-Marsan, P.; Garcia, J.F.; Lenstra, J.A. (2010). "On the origin of cattle: How Aurochs became cattle and colonized the World". Evolutionary Anthropology 19 (4): 148–157. doi:10.1002/evan.20267. 
  88. Davis, E.N. (1974). "The Vapheio Cups: One Minoan and One Mycenean?". The Art Bulletin 56 (4): 472–487. doi:10.1080/00043079.1974.10789932. 
  89. De Grummond, W.W. (1980). "Hands and Tails on the Vapheio Cups". American Journal of Archaeology 84 (3): 335–337. doi:10.2307/504710. 
  90. Douglas, N. (1927). Birds and Beasts of the Greek Anthology. Florence: B. Blom. ISBN 9780405084614. 
  91. Knight, C. (1847). "European bison, or Aurochs". The National Cyclopaedia of Useful Knowledge. (Volume III). London: Little, Brown and Co.. pp. 367–371. https://books.google.com/books?id=Sa7kjXr-SkAC&pg=PA369. 
  92. Heinzle, J., ed (2013). Das Nibelungenlied und die Klage: Nach der Handschrift 857 der Stiftsbibliothek St. Gallen. Deutscher Klassiker Verlag. p. 300. ISBN 9783618661207. 
  93. Bro-Jørgensen, M.H.; Carøe, C.; Vieira, F.G.; Nestor, S.; Hallström, A.; Gregersen, K.M.; Etting, V.; Gilbert, M.T.P. et al. (2018). "Ancient DNA analysis of Scandinavian medieval drinking horns and the horn of the last aurochs bull". Journal of Archaeological Science 99: 47–54. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2018.09.001. Bibcode2018JArSc..99...47B. 
  94. Oman, C. (1972). "Cambridge and Cornelimünster". Aachener Kunstblätter 43: 305–307. https://journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/akb/article/download/39767/33430. 
  95. Boutiuc, M.; Florescu, O.; Vasilache, V.; Sandu, I. (2020). "The comparative study of the state of conservation of two medieval documents on parchment from different historical periods". Materials 13 (21): 4766. doi:10.3390/ma13214766. PMID 33114524. Bibcode2020Mate...13.4766H. 
  96. Helmer, D.; Gourichon, L.; Monchot, H.; Peters, J.; Segui, M.S. (2005). "Identifying early domestic cattle from pre-pottery Neolithic sites on the Middle Euphrates using sexual dimorphism". The first steps of animal domestication: new archeological approaches. Oxford: Oxbow Books. pp. 86–95. ISBN 1-84217-121-6. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/235341120. 
  97. Arbuckle, B.S.; Price, M.D.; Hongo, H.; Öksüz, B. (2016). "Documenting the initial appearance of domestic cattle in the Eastern Fertile Crescent (northern Iraq and western Iran)". Journal of Archaeological Science 72: 1–9. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2016.05.008. Bibcode2016JArSc..72....1A. https://scholar.harvard.edu/files/maxprice/files/arbuckle_2016_cattle.pdf. 
  98. 98.0 98.1 98.2 Pitt, D.; Sevane, N.; Nicolazzi, E.L.; MacHugh, D.E.; Park, S.D.; Colli, L.; Martinez, R.; Bruford, M.W. et al. (2019). "Domestication of cattle: Two or three events?". Evolutionary Applications 12 (1): 123–136. doi:10.1111/eva.12674. PMID 30622640. Bibcode2019EvApp..12..123P. 
  99. Götherström, A.; Anderung, C.; Hellborg, L.; Elburg, R.; Smith, C.; Bradley, D.G.; Ellegren, H. (2005). "Cattle domestication in the Near East was followed by hybridization with aurochs bulls in Europe". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 272 (1579): 2345–2351. doi:10.1098/rspb.2005.3243. PMID 16243693. 
  100. Beja-Pereira, A.; Caramelli, D.; Lalueza-Fox, C.; Vernesi, C.; Ferrand, N.; Casoli, A.; Goyache, F.; Royo, L.J. et al. (2006). "The origin of European cattle: Evidence from modern and ancient DNA". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 103 (21): 8113–8118. doi:10.1073/pnas.0509210103. PMID 16690747. Bibcode2006PNAS..103.8113B. 
  101. Park, S.D.E.; Magee, D.A.; McGettigan, P.A.; Teasdale, M.D.; Edwards, C.J.; Lohan, A.J.; Murphy, A.; Braud, M. et al. (2015). "Genome sequencing of the extinct Eurasian wild aurochs, Bos primigenius, illuminates the phylogeography and evolution of cattle". Genome Biology 16 (1): 234. doi:10.1186/s13059-015-0790-2. PMID 26498365. 
  102. Cubric-Curik, V.; Novosel, D.; Brajkovic, V.; Rota Stabelli, O.; Krebs, S.; Sölkner, J.; Šalamon, D.; Ristov, S. et al. (2021). "Large-scale mitogenome sequencing reveals consecutive expansions of domestic taurine cattle and supports sporadic Aurochs introgression". Evolutionary Applications 15 (4): 663–678. doi:10.1111/eva.13315. PMID 35505892. 
  103. Bradley, D.G.; MacHugh, D.E.; Cunningham, P.; Loftus, R.T. (1996). "Mitochondrial diversity and the origins of African and European cattle". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 93 (10): 5131–5135. doi:10.1073/pnas.93.10.5131. PMID 8643540. Bibcode1996PNAS...93.5131B. 
  104. Verdugo, M.P.; Mullin, V.E.; Scheu, A.; Mattiangeli, V.; Daly, K.G.; Delser, P.M.; Hare, A.J.; Burger, J. et al. (2019). "Ancient cattle genomics, origins, and rapid turnover in the Fertile Crescent". Science 365 (6449): 173–176. doi:10.1126/science.aav1002. PMID 31296769. Bibcode2019Sci...365..173V. https://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/149232/1/Verdugo_Combined_for_resubmission_ACCEPTED_VERSION.pdf. 
  105. Mannen, H.; Kohno, M.; Nagata, Y.; Tsuji, S.; Bradley, D.G.; Yeo, J.S.; Nyamsamba, D.; Zagdsuren, Y. et al. (2004). [PTDC-CVT-105223-2008/PDF%20files%20of%20references_max30%20[BigBos]/Mannen%20et%20al%202004_MPE-%20Independent%20origin%20of%20Northeastern%20Asian%20cattle.pdf "Independent mitochondrial origin and historical genetic differentiation in North Eastern Asian cattle"]. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 32 (2): 539–544. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2004.01.010. PMID 15223036. http://webpages.icav.up.pt/ptdc/CVT/105223/2008/References%20for%20BigBos%20proposal%20[PTDC-CVT-105223-2008]/PDF%20files%20of%20references_max30%20[BigBos]/Mannen%20et%20al%202004_MPE-%20Independent%20origin%20of%20Northeastern%20Asian%20cattle.pdf. 
  106. Heck, H. (1951). "The breeding-back of the Aurochs". Oryx 1 (3): 117–122. doi:10.1017/S0030605300035286. 
  107. 107.0 107.1 Lorimer, J.; Driessen, C. (2016). "From "Nazi cows" to cosmopolitan "ecological engineers": specifying rewilding through a history of Heck cattle". Annals of the American Association of Geographers 106 (3): 631–652. doi:10.1080/00045608.2015.1115332. Bibcode2016AAAG..106..631L. 
  108. Theunissen, B. (2019). "The Oostvaardersplassen Fiasco". Isis 110 (2): 341–345. doi:10.1086/703338. 
  109. Bunzel-Drüke, M. (2001). "Ecological substitutes for Wild Horse (Equus ferus, Boddaert 1785 = E. przewalskii, Poljakov 1881) and Aurochs (Bos primigenius, Bojanus 1827)". Natur- und Kulturlandschaft 4: 240–252. 
  110. Sinding, M.-H.S.; Gilbert, M.T.P. (2016). "The draft genome of extinct European Aurochs and its implications for de-extinction". Open Quaternary 2. doi:10.5334/oq.25. 

External links

Wikidata ☰ Q168903 entry