Place:Tibetan Plateau

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Short description: Plateau in Central, South and East Asia
Tibetan Plateau
青藏高原 (Qīng–Zàng Gāoyuán, Qinghai–Tibet Plateau)
Himalaya composite.jpg
The Tibetan Plateau lies between the Himalaya n range to the south and the Taklamakan Desert to the north. (Composite image)
Dimensions
Length2,500 km (1,600 mi)
Width1,000 km (620 mi)
Area2,500,000 km2 (970,000 sq mi)
Geography
Tibet and surrounding areas topographic map.png
Tibetan Plateau and surrounding areas above 1600 m
Location People's Republic of China (Tibet, Qinghai, Western Sichuan, Northern Yunnan, Southern Xinjiang, Western Gansu)
 India (Ladakh, Lahaul & Spiti, Northern Arunachal Pradesh, Northern Sikkim)
 Pakistan (Baltistan)
 Afghanistan (Wakhan Corridor)
   Nepal (Northern Nepal)
 Bhutan
 Tajikistan (Eastern Tajikistan)
 Kyrgyzstan (Southern Kyrgyzstan)
Range coordinates [ ⚑ ] : 33°N 88°E / 33°N 88°E / 33; 88
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The Tibetan Plateau (Tibetan: བོད་ས་མཐོ།, Wylie: bod sa mtho), also known as the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau[1] or the Qing–Zang Plateau[2] (Burmese: တိဘက်ကုန်းပြင်မြင့်; Myaeglish: Tibak Kone Byin Myint, Chinese: 青藏高原; pinyin: Qīng–Zàng Gāoyuán) or as the Himalayan Plateau in India ,[3][4] is a vast elevated plateau located at the intersection of Central, South, and East Asia[5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12] covering most of the Tibet Autonomous Region, most of Qinghai, western half of Sichuan, Southern Gansu provinces in Western China, southern Xinjiang, Bhutan, the Indian regions of Ladakh and Lahaul and Spiti (Himachal Pradesh) as well as Gilgit-Baltistan in Pakistan , northwestern Nepal, eastern Tajikistan and southern Kyrgyzstan. It stretches approximately 1,000 kilometres (620 mi) north to south and 2,500 kilometres (1,600 mi) east to west. It is the world's highest and largest plateau above sea level, with an area of 2,500,000 square kilometres (970,000 sq mi) (about five times the size of Metropolitan France).[13] With an average elevation exceeding 4,500 metres (14,800 ft)[citation needed] and being surrounded by imposing mountain ranges that harbor the world's two highest summits, Mount Everest and K2, the Tibetan Plateau is often referred to as "the Roof of the World".

The Tibetan Plateau contains the headwaters of the drainage basins of most of the streams and rivers in surrounding regions. This includes the three longest rivers in Asia (the Yellow, Yangtze, and Mekong). Its tens of thousands of glaciers and other geographical and ecological features serve as a "water tower" storing water and maintaining flow. It is sometimes termed the Third Pole because its ice fields contain the largest reserve of fresh water outside the polar regions. The impact of climate change on the Tibetan Plateau is of ongoing scientific interest.[14][15][16][17]

Description

The Tibetan Plateau is surrounded by the massive mountain ranges[18] of high-mountain Asia. The plateau is bordered to the south by the inner Himalayan range, to the north by the Kunlun Mountains, which separate it from the Tarim Basin, and to the northeast by the Qilian Mountains, which separate the plateau from the Hexi Corridor and Gobi Desert. To the east and southeast the plateau gives way to the forested gorge and ridge geography of the mountainous headwaters of the Salween, Mekong, and Yangtze rivers in northwest Yunnan and western Sichuan (the Hengduan Mountains). In the west, the curve of the rugged Karakoram range of northern Kashmir embraces the plateau. The Indus River originates in the western Tibetan Plateau in the vicinity of Lake Manasarovar.

The Tibetan Plateau is bounded in the north by a broad escarpment where the altitude drops from around 5,000 metres (16,000 ft) to 1,500 metres (4,900 ft) over a horizontal distance of less than 150 kilometres (93 mi). Along the escarpment is a range of mountains. In the west, the Kunlun Mountains separate the plateau from the Tarim Basin. About halfway across the Tarim the bounding range becomes the Altyn-Tagh and the Kunluns, by convention, continue somewhat to the south. In the 'V' formed by this split is the western part of the Qaidam Basin. The Altyn-Tagh ends near the Dangjin pass on the Dunhuang–Golmud road. To the west are short ranges called the Danghe, Yema, Shule, and Tulai Nanshans. The easternmost range is the Qilian Mountains. The line of mountains continues east of the plateau as the Qinling, which separates the Ordos Plateau from Sichuan. North of the mountains runs the Gansu or Hexi Corridor which was the main silk-road route from China proper to the West.

The plateau is a high-altitude arid steppe interspersed with mountain ranges and large brackish lakes. Annual precipitation ranges from 100 to 300 millimetres (3.9 to 11.8 in) and falls mainly as hail. The southern and eastern edges of the steppe have grasslands that can sustainably support populations of nomadic herdsmen, although frost occurs for six months of the year. Permafrost occurs over extensive parts of the plateau. Proceeding to the north and northwest, the plateau becomes progressively higher, colder, and drier, until reaching the remote Changtang region in the northwestern part of the plateau. Here the average altitude exceeds 5,000 metres (16,000 ft) and winter temperatures can drop to −40 °C (−40 °F). As a result of this extremely inhospitable environment, the Changtang region (together with the adjoining Kekexili region) is the least populous region in Asia and the third least populous area in the world after Antarctica and northern Greenland.

Geology and geological history

Yamdrok Lake is one of the four largest lakes in Tibet. All four lakes are considered sacred pilgrimage sites in the local tradition.[19]
Main page: Earth:Geology of the Himalayas

The geological history of the Tibetan Plateau is closely related to that of the Himalayas. The Himalayas belong to the Alpine Orogeny and are therefore among the younger mountain ranges on the planet, consisting mostly of uplifted sedimentary and metamorphic rock. Their formation is a result of a continental collision or orogeny along the convergent boundary between the Indo-Australian Plate and the Eurasian Plate.

The collision began in the Upper Cretaceous period about 70 million years ago, when the north-moving Indo-Australian Plate, moving at about 15 cm (6 in) per year, collided with the Eurasian Plate. About 50 million years ago, this fast-moving Indo-Australian plate had completely closed the Tethys Ocean, the existence of which has been determined by sedimentary rocks settled on the ocean floor, and the volcanoes that fringed its edges. Since these sediments were light, they crumpled into mountain ranges rather than sinking to the floor. During this early stage of its formation in the Late Palaeogene, Tibet consisted of a deep palaeovalley bounded by multiple mountain ranges rather than the more topographically uniform elevated flatland that it is today.[20] The Tibetan Plateau's mean elevation continued to vary since its initial uplift in the Eocene; isotopic records show the plateau's altitude was around 3,000 metres above sea level around the Oligocene-Miocene boundary and that it fell by 900 metres between 25.5 and 21.6 million years ago, attributable to tectonic unroofing from east-west extension or to erosion from climatic weathering. The plateau subsequently rose by 500 to 1,000 metres between 21.6 to 20.4 million years ago.[21]

Natural-colour satellite image of the Tibetan Plateau.

Palaeobotanical evidence indicates that the Nujiang Suture Zone and the Yarlung-Zangpo Suture Zone remained tropical or subtropical lowlands until the latest Oligocene or Early Miocene, enabling biotic interchange across Tibet.[22] The age of east-west grabens in the Lhasa and Himalaya terranes suggests that the plateau's elevation was close to its modern altitude by around 14 to 8 million years ago.[23] Erosion rates in Tibet decreased significantly around 10 million years ago.[24] The Indo-Australian plate continues to be driven horizontally below the Tibetan Plateau, which forces the plateau to move upwards; the plateau is still rising at a rate of approximately 5 mm (0.2 in) per year (although erosion reduces the actual increase in height).[25]

Much of the Tibetan Plateau is of relatively low relief. The cause of this is debated among geologists. Some argue that the Tibetan Plateau is an uplifted peneplain formed at low altitude, while others argue that the low relief stems from erosion and infill of topographic depressions that occurred at already high elevations.[26] The current tectonics of the plateau are also debated. The best-regarded explanations are provided by the block model and the alternative continuum model. According to the former, the crust of the plateau is formed of several blocks with little internal deformation separated by major strike-slip faults. In the latter, the plateau is affected by distributed deformation resulting from flow within the crust.[27]

Environment

Yangbajain valley to the north of Lhasa

The Tibetan Plateau supports a variety of ecosystems, most of them classified as montane grasslands. While parts of the plateau feature an alpine tundra-like environment, other areas feature monsoon-influenced shrublands and forests. Species diversity is generally reduced on the plateau due to the elevation and low precipitation. The Tibetan Plateau hosts the Tibetan wolf,[28] and species of snow leopard, wild yak, wild donkey, cranes, vultures, hawks, geese, snakes, and water buffalo. One notable animal is the high-altitude jumping spider, that can live at elevations of over 6,500 metres (21,300 ft).[29]

Ecoregions found on the Tibetan Plateau, as defined by the World Wide Fund for Nature, are as follows:

  • The Pamir alpine desert and tundra covers the western end of the Tibetan Plateau where it transitions to the Pamir Mountains
  • The North Tibetan Plateau–Kunlun Mountains alpine desert covers the northwestern limits of the Tibetan Plateau along the Kunlun Mountains
  • The Karakoram–West Tibetan Plateau alpine steppe covers the westernmost parts of the Tibetan Plateau and Ladakh
  • The Northwestern Himalayan alpine shrub and meadows on the edges mountains bordering the extreme west of the Tibetan Plateau
  • The Central Tibetan Plateau alpine steppe covers most of the central portions of the Tibetan Plateau and the eastern Changtang
  • The Western Himalayan alpine shrub and meadows covers the southwestern plateau in the Garuda Valley region
  • The Qaidam Basin semi-desert located in the Qaidam Basin on the northern Tibetan Plateau
  • The Qilian Mountains subalpine meadows covering the Qilian Mountains in the northernmost portions of the plateau
  • The Qilian Mountains conifer forests covering parts of the mountain ranges in the northeastern Tibetan Plateau
  • The Tibetan Plateau alpine shrublands and meadows covering a swath of the central and northeastern Tibetan Plateau
  • The Yarlung Tsangpo arid steppe in the Yarlung Tsangpo river Valley, where most of the permanent human population on the Tibetan Plateau lives
  • The Eastern Himalayan alpine shrub and meadows cover the southern Tibetan Plateau on the north side of the Himalayas
Pastoral nomads camping near Namtso.
  • The Southeast Tibet shrub and meadows cover the southeastern and eastern parts of the plateau and are generally rainier than the other high-altitude Tibetan Plateau regions
  • The Northeastern Himalayan subalpine conifer forests reach up mountain valleys in the southern plateau and contain some of the highest altitude forests in the world
  • The Nujiang Lancang Gorge alpine conifer and mixed forests cover the mountain valleys that reach 500 km (310 mi) into the southeastern Tibetan Plateau
  • The Hengduan Mountains subalpine conifer forests cover the southeasternmost mountain valleys on the plateau
  • The Qionglai–Minshan conifer forests cover the eastern edges of the plateau and are the densest forests to be found anywhere on the Tibetan Plateau

Human history

Tibetan Buddhist stupa and houses outside the town of Ngawa, on the Tibetan Plateau.

Nomads on the Tibetan Plateau and in the Himalayas are the remainders of nomadic practices historically once widespread in Asia and Africa.[30] Pastoral nomads constitute about 40% of the ethnic Tibetan population.[31] The presence of nomadic peoples on the plateau is predicated on their adaptation to survival on the world's grassland by raising livestock rather than crops, which are unsuitable to the terrain. Archaeological evidence suggests that the earliest human occupation of the plateau occurred between 30,000 and 40,000 years ago.[32] Since colonization of the Tibetan Plateau, Tibetan culture has adapted and flourished in the western, southern, and eastern regions of the plateau. The northern portion, the Changtang, is generally too high and cold to support permanent population.[33] One of the most notable civilizations to have developed on the Tibetan Plateau is the Tibetan Empire from the 7th century to the 9th century AD.

Impact on other regions

NASA satellite image of the south-eastern area of Tibetan Plateau. Brahmaputra River is in the lower right.

Role in monsoons

Main page: Earth:Monsoon

Monsoons are caused by the different amplitudes of surface temperature seasonal cycles between land and oceans. This differential warming occurs because heating rates differ between land and water. Ocean heating is distributed vertically through a "mixed layer" that may be 50 meters deep through the action of wind and buoyancy-generated turbulence, whereas the land surface conducts heat slowly, with the seasonal signal penetrating only a meter or so. Additionally, the specific heat capacity of liquid water is significantly greater than that of most materials that make up land. Together, these factors mean that the heat capacity of the layer participating in the seasonal cycle is much larger over the oceans than over land, with the consequence that the land warms and cools faster than the ocean. In turn, air over the land warms faster and reaches a higher temperature than does air over the ocean.[34] The warmer air over land tends to rise, creating an area of low pressure. The pressure anomaly then causes a steady wind to blow toward the land, which brings the moist air over the ocean surface with it. Rainfall is then increased by the presence of the moist ocean air. The rainfall is stimulated by a variety of mechanisms, such as low-level air being lifted upwards by mountains, surface heating, convergence at the surface, divergence aloft, or from storm-produced outflows near the surface. When such lifting occurs, the air cools due to expansion in lower pressure, which in turn produces condensation and precipitation.

The Himalayas as seen from space looking south from over the Tibetan Plateau.

In winter, the land cools off quickly, but the ocean maintains the heat longer. The hot air over the ocean rises, creating a low-pressure area and a breeze from land to ocean while a large area of drying high pressure is formed over the land, increased by wintertime cooling.[34] Monsoons are similar to sea and land breezes, a term usually referring to the localized, diurnal cycle of circulation near coastlines everywhere, but they are much larger in scale, stronger and seasonal.[35] The seasonal monsoon wind shift and weather associated with the heating and cooling of the Tibetan plateau is the strongest such monsoon on Earth.

Glaciology: the Ice Age and at present

Midui Glacier in Nyingchi

Today, Tibet is an important heating surface of the atmosphere. However, during the Last Glacial Maximum, an approximately 2,400,000 square kilometres (930,000 sq mi) ice sheet covered the plateau.[36][37][38] Due to its great extent, this glaciation in the subtropics was an important element of radiative forcing. With a much lower latitude, the ice in Tibet reflected at least four times more radiation energy per unit area into space than ice at higher latitudes. Thus, while the modern plateau heats the overlying atmosphere, during the Last Ice Age it helped to cool it.[39]

This cooling had multiple effects on regional climate. Without the thermal low pressure caused by the heating, there was no monsoon over the Indian subcontinent. This lack of monsoon caused extensive rainfall over the Sahara, expansion of the Thar Desert, more dust deposited into the Arabian Sea, and a lowering of the biotic life zones on the Indian subcontinent. Animals responded to this shift in climate, with the Javan rusa migrating into India.[40]

In addition, the glaciers in Tibet created meltwater lakes in the Qaidam Basin, the Tarim Basin, and the Gobi Desert, despite the strong evaporation caused by the low latitude. Silt and clay from the glaciers accumulated in these lakes; when the lakes dried at the end of the ice age, the silt and clay were blown by the downslope wind off the Plateau. These airborne fine grains produced the enormous amount of loess in the Chinese lowlands.[40]

Frozen biological samples

The location where ice core was taken, and the age of the dead microorganisms found at different depths.

Ice of the plateau provides a valuable window to the past. In 2015, researchers studying the Plateau reached the top of the Guliya glacier, with ice thickness of 310 m (1,020 ft), and drilled to a depth of 50 m (160 ft) in order to recover ice core samples. Due to the extremely low biomass in those 15,000-year-old samples, it had taken around 5 years of research to extract 33 viruses, of which 28 were new to science. None had survived the extraction process. Phylogenetic analysis suggests those viruses infected plants or other microorganisms.[41][42]

Climate change

The Tibetan Plateau contains the world's third-largest store of ice. Qin Dahe, the former head of the China Meteorological Administration, issued the following assessment in 2009:

Temperatures are rising four times faster than elsewhere in China, and the Tibetan glaciers are retreating at a higher speed than in any other part of the world. In the short term, this will cause lakes to expand and bring floods and mudflows. In the long run, the glaciers are vital lifelines for Asian rivers, including the Indus and the Ganges. Once they vanish, water supplies in those regions will be in peril.[43]

The Tibetan Plateau contains the largest area of low-latitude glaciers and is particularly vulnerable to global warming. Over the past five decades, 80% of the glaciers in the Tibetan Plateau have retreated, losing 4.5% of their combined areal coverage.[44]

This region is also liable to suffer damages from permafrost thaw caused by climate change.

Detailed map of Qinghai–Tibet Plateau infrastructure at risk from permafrost thaw under the SSP2-4.5 scenario.
This section is an excerpt from Permafrost#Infrastructure[ edit ]

See also

The old town of Gyantse and surrounding fields.
  • Annexation of Tibet by the People's Republic of China
  • Bayan Har block
  • Central Tibetan Administration
  • Geography of Tibet
  • Geology of the Himalaya
  • Tibet (1912–1951)
  • Tibetan culture
  • Tibetan sovereignty debate
  • Tibetan diaspora

References

Citations

  1. ↑ Wang, Zhaoyin; Li, Zhiwei; Xu, Mengzhen; Yu, Guoan (30 March 2016). River Morphodynamics and Stream Ecology of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. CRC Press. 
  2. ↑ Jones, J.A.; Liu, Changming; Woo, Ming-Ko; Kung, Hsiang-Te (6 December 2012). Regional Hydrological Response to Climate Change. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 360. 
  3. ↑ "हिमालयी क्षेत्र में जीवन यापन पर रिसर्च करेंगे अमेरिका और भारत". https://www.amarujala.com/shimla/campus/research-by-india-and-usa-in-himalayan-region. 
  4. ↑ "In Little Tibet, a story of how displaced people rebuilt life in a distant land". 18 February 2020. https://indianexpress.com/article/facebook-stories-of-strength-2019/in-little-tibet-a-story-of-how-a-displaced-people-rebuilt-life-in-a-distant-land/. 
  5. ↑ Illustrated Atlas of the World (1986) Rand McNally & Company. ISBN:0-528-83190-9 pp. 164–65
  6. ↑ Atlas of World History (1998 ) HarperCollins. ISBN:0-7230-1025-0 p. 39
  7. ↑ "The Tibetan Empire in Central Asia (Christopher Beckwith)". http://dannyreviews.com/h/Tibetan_Empire.html. 
  8. ↑ Hopkirk 1983, p. 1
  9. ↑ Peregrine, Peter Neal; Melvin Ember, etc. (2001). Encyclopedia of Prehistory: East Asia and Oceania, Volume 3. Springer. p. 32. ISBN 978-0-306-46257-3. 
  10. ↑ Morris, Neil (2007). North and East Asia. Heinemann-Raintree Library. p. 11. ISBN 978-1-4034-9898-4. https://archive.org/details/northeastasia0000morr/page/11. 
  11. ↑ Webb, Andrew Alexander Gordon (2007). Contractional and Extensional Tectonics During the India-Asia Collision. ProQuest LLC. p. 137. ISBN 978-0-549-50627-0. 
  12. ↑ Marston, Sallie A.; Paul L. Knox, Diana M. Liverman (2002). World regions in global context: peoples, places, and environments. Prentice Hall. p. 430. ISBN 978-0-13-022484-2. https://archive.org/details/worldregionsingl0000mars/page/430. 
  13. ↑ "Natural World: Deserts". National Geographic. http://java.nationalgeographic.com/studentatlas/clickup/deserts.html. 
  14. ↑ Leslie Hook (30 August 2013). "Tibet: life on the climate front line". Financial Times. http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/2/ee1f3f80-1029-11e3-a258-00144feabdc0.html. 
  15. ↑ Liu, Xiaodong; Chen (2000). "Climatic warming in the Tibetan Plateau during recent decades". International Journal of Climatology 20 (14): 1729–1742. doi:10.1002/1097-0088(20001130)20:14<1729::aid-joc556>3.0.co;2-y. Bibcode: 2000IJCli..20.1729L. 
  16. ↑ Ni, Jian (2000). "A Simulation of Biomes on the Tibetan Plateau and Their Responses to Global Climate Change". Mountain Research and Development 20 (1): 80–89. doi:10.1659/0276-4741(2000)020[0080:ASOBOT2.0.CO;2]. 
  17. ↑ Cheng, Guodong; Wu (8 June 2007). "Responses of permafrost to climate change and their environmental significance, Qinghai-Tibet Plateau". Journal of Geophysical Research 112 (F2): F02S03. doi:10.1029/2006JF000631. Bibcode: 2007JGRF..112.2S03C. 
  18. ↑ Yang, Qinye; Zheng, Du (2004). A Unique Geographical Unit. 五洲传播出版社. p. 6. ISBN 978-7-5085-0665-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=4q_XoMACOxkC&pg=PA6. 
  19. ↑ Petra Seibert and Lorne Stockman. "The Yamdrok Tso Hydropower Plant in Tibet: A Multi-facetted and Highly Controversial Project". http://homepage.boku.ac.at/seibert/yamdrok.htm. 
  20. ↑ Su, T.; Farnsworth, A.; Spicer, R. A.; Huang, J.; Wu, F.-X.; Liu, J.; Li, S.-F.; Xing, Y.-W. et al. (6 March 2019). "No high Tibetan Plateau until the Neogene". Science Advances 5 (3): eaav2189. doi:10.1126/sciadv.aav2189. PMID 30854430. Bibcode: 2019SciA....5.2189S. 
  21. ↑ Jia, Guodong; Bai, Yang; Ma, Yongjia; Sun, Jimin; Peng, Ping'an (March 2015). "Paleoelevation of Tibetan Lunpola basin in the Oligocene–Miocene transition estimated from leaf wax lipid dual isotopes". Global and Planetary Change 126: 14–22. doi:10.1016/j.gloplacha.2014.12.007. Bibcode: 2015GPC...126...14J. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0921818115000181. Retrieved 24 December 2022. 
  22. ↑ Liu, Jia; Su, Tao; Spicer, Robert A.; Tang, He; Deng, Wei-Yu-Dong; Wu, Fei-Xiang; Srivastava, Gaurav; Spicer, Teresa et al. (15 June 2019). "Biotic interchange through lowlands of Tibetan Plateau suture zones during Paleogene". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 524: 33–40. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2019.02.022. Bibcode: 2019PPP...524...33L. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0031018219300574#!. Retrieved 6 November 2022. 
  23. ↑ Xu, Qiang; Ding, Lin; Zhang, Liyun; Cai, Fulong; Lai, Qingzhou; Yang, Di; Liu-Zeng, Jing (15 January 2013). "Paleogene high elevations in the Qiangtang Terrane, central Tibetan Plateau". Earth and Planetary Science Letters 362: 31–42. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2012.11.058. Bibcode: 2013E&PSL.362...31X. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0012821X1200684X. Retrieved 13 December 2022. 
  24. ↑ Tremblay, Marissa M.; Fox, Matthew; Schmidt, Jennifer L.; Tripathy-Lang, Alka; Wielicki, Matthew M.; Harrison, T. Mark; Zeitler, Peter K.; Shuster, David L. (14 September 2015). "Erosion in southern Tibet shut down at ~10 Ma due to enhanced rock uplift within the Himalaya". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 112 (39): 12030–12035. doi:10.1073/pnas.1515652112. PMID 26371325. Bibcode: 2015PNAS..11212030T. 
  25. ↑ Sanyal, Sanjeev (10 July 2013). Land of the seven rivers : a brief history of India's geography. Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-342093-4. OCLC 855957425. http://worldcat.org/oclc/855957425. 
  26. ↑ Lia, Jijun; Ma, Zhenhua; Li, Xiaomiao; Peng, Tingjiang; Guo, Benhong; Zhang, Jun; Song, Chunhui; Liu, Jia et al. (2017). "Late Miocene-Pliocene geomorphological evolution of the Xiaoshuizi peneplain in the Maxian Mountains and its tectonic significance for the northeastern Tibetan Plateau". Geomorphology 295: 393–405. doi:10.1016/j.geomorph.2017.07.024. Bibcode: 2017Geomo.295..393L. 
  27. ↑ Shi, F.; He, H.; Densmore, A.L.; Li, A.; Yang, X.; Xu, X. (2016). "Active tectonics of the Ganzi–Yushu fault in the southeastern Tibetan Plateau". Tectonophysics 676: 112–124. doi:10.1016/j.tecto.2016.03.036. Bibcode: 2016Tectp.676..112S. http://dro.dur.ac.uk/18222/1/18222.pdf. 
  28. ↑ Werhahn, Geraldine; Senn, Helen; Ghazali, Muhammad; Karmacharya, Dibesh; Sherchan, Adarsh Man; Joshi, Jyoti; Kusi, Naresh; López-Bao, José Vincente et al. (2018). "The unique genetic adaptation of the Himalayan wolf to high-altitudes and consequences for conservation". Global Ecology and Conservation 16: e00455. doi:10.1016/j.gecco.2018.e00455. 
  29. ↑ "Wild China: The Tibetan Plateau". Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. http://www.cbc.ca/documentaries/natureofthings/2008/wildchina/wildchina3.html. 
  30. ↑ David Miller. "Nomads of Tibet and Bhutan". asinart.com. http://www.asianart.com/exhibitions/miller/index.html. 
  31. ↑ In pictures: Tibetan nomads BBC News
  32. ↑ Zhang, X. L.; Ha, B. B.; Wang, S. J.; Chen, Z. J.; Ge, J. Y.; Long, H.; He, W.; Da, W. et al. (2018-11-30). "The earliest human occupation of the high-altitude Tibetan Plateau 40 thousand to 30 thousand years ago" (in en). Science 362 (6418): 1049–1051. doi:10.1126/science.aat8824. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 30498126. Bibcode: 2018Sci...362.1049Z. 
  33. ↑ Ryavec, Karl (2015). A Historical Atlas of Tibet. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 9780226732442. 
  34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 Oracle Thinkquest Education Foundation. monsoons: causes of monsoons. Retrieved on 22 May 2008.
  35. ↑ "The Asian Monsoon". BBC Weather. http://www.bbc.co.uk/weather/features/understanding/monsoon.shtml. 
  36. ↑ Kuhle, Matthias (1998). "Reconstruction of the 2.4 Million km2 Late Pleistocene Ice Sheet on the Tibetan Plateau and its Impact on the Global Climate". Quaternary International 45/46: 71–108. doi:10.1016/S1040-6182(97)00008-6. Bibcode: 1998QuInt..45...71K. 
  37. ↑ Kuhle, M (2004). "The High Glacial (Last Ice Age and LGM) ice cover in High and Central Asia". in Ehlers, J.; Gibbard, P.L.. Development in Quaternary Science 2c (Quaternary Glaciation – Extent and Chronology, Part III: South America, Asia, Africa, Australia, Antarctica). pp. 175–99. 
  38. ↑ Kuhle, M. (1999). "Tibet and High Asia V. Results of Investigations into High Mountain Geomorphology, Paleo-Glaciology and Climatology of the Pleistocene". GeoJournal 47 (1–2): 3–276. doi:10.1023/A:1007039510460.  See chapter entitled: "Reconstruction of an approximately complete Quaternary Tibetan Inland Glaciation between the Mt. Everest and Cho Oyu Massifs and the Aksai Chin. – A new glaciogeomorphological southeast-northwest diagonal profile through Tibet and its consequences for the glacial isostasy and Ice Age cycle".
  39. ↑ Kuhle, M. (1988). "The Pleistocene Glaciation of Tibet and the Onset of Ice Ages – An Autocycle Hypothesis". GeoJournal 17 (4): 581–96. doi:10.1007/BF00209444. Tibet and High-Asia I. Results of the Sino-German Joint Expeditions (I). 
  40. ↑ 40.0 40.1 Kuhle, Matthias (2001). "The Tibetan Ice Sheet; its Impact on the Palaeomonsoon and Relation to the Earth's Orbital Variations". Polarforschung 71 (1/2): 1–13. 
  41. ↑ Zhong, Zhi-Ping; Tian, Funing; Roux, Simon; Gazitúa, M. Consuelo; Solonenko, Natalie E.; Li, Yueh-Fen; Davis, Mary E.; Van Etten, James L. et al. (20 July 2021). "Glacier ice archives nearly 15,000-year-old microbes and phages". Microbiology 9 (1): 160. doi:10.1186/s40168-021-01106-w. PMID 34281625. 
  42. ↑ "15,000-year-old viruses discovered in Tibetan glacier ice". 20 July 2021. https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2021/07/210720120538.htm. 
  43. ↑ "Global warming benefits to Tibet: Chinese official". Agence France-Presse. 18 August 2009. https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5g1eE4Xw3njaW1MKpJRYOch4hOdLQ. 
  44. ↑ Liu, Yongqin; Ji, Mukan; Yu, Tao; Zaugg, Julian; Anesio, Alexandre M.; Zhang, Zhihao; Hu, Songnian; Hugenholtz, Philip et al. (September 2022). "A genome and gene catalog of glacier microbiomes" (in en). Nature Biotechnology 40 (9): 1341–1348. doi:10.1038/s41587-022-01367-2. ISSN 1546-1696. PMID 35760913. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41587-022-01367-2. 

Sources

  • Hopkirk, Peter (1983). Trespassers on the Roof of the World: The Secret Exploration of Tibet. J. P. Tarcher. ISBN 978-0-87477-257-9. 
  • Brantingham, P. J.; Xing, G. (2006). "Peopling of the northern Tibetan Plateau". World Archaeology 38 (3): 387–414. doi:10.1080/00438240600813301. 

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