Earth:Cromer Forest Bed

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Cromer Forest-bed Formation
Stratigraphic range: Early Pleistocene - Middle Pleistocene 2–0.5 Ma
↓
Cromer Forest-bed Formation exposed at the base of the West Runton Cliffs
TypeGeological formation
Unit ofDunwich Group
Sub-unitsSheringham Member, Runton Member, West Runton Member, and Bacton Member
UnderliesMiddle Pleistocene glacial deposits
OverliesWroxham Crag Formation or unconformity with Chalk Group
Thicknessaround 6 metres (20 ft)
Lithology
Primarysands and silts
Otherpeat, mud, silty marl
Location
Coordinates [ ⚑ ] 52°56′28″N 1°15′11″E / 52.941°N 1.253°E / 52.941; 1.253
RegionNorfolk
CountryEngland
Type section
Named forCromer
Named byClement Reid
LocationThe coast of North Norfolk from Weybourne to Happisburgh
Year defined1882
CountryEngland

The Cromer Forest-bed Formation, sometimes known as the Cromer Forest Bed, is a Pleistocene aged geological formation in Norfolk, England. It consists of river gravels, estuary and floodplain sediments predominantly silt, sand, and muds as well as peat along the coast of northern Norfolk.[1] The formation records a number of glacial cycles, with deposition occurring in both relatively cold environments during glacial periods,[2] as well during interglacial periods when the area had a temperate climate.[3] The Cromer Forest Bed itself varies in age from about 2 to 0.5 million years ago, from the Early Pleistocene to early Middle Pleistocene,[4] though the most fossiliferous strata, such as the West Runton Freshwater Bed date to towards the end of deposition during the early Middle Pleistocene. The fossiliferous West Runton Freshwater Bed is the type locality for the Cromerian Stage of the early Middle Pleistocene between 0.8 and 0.5 million years ago.[5] Some fossils from the Cromer Forest Bed likely come from Early Pleistocene layers, though many finds are found out of stratigraphic context.[6]

It is about 6 metres (20 ft) thick[1] and is exposed in cliff section near the village of West Runton.

Paleontology and paleoanthropology

For over a century this formation, named after the local town of Cromer, has been famous for its assemblage of fossil mammal remains, containing the diverse remains of numerous taxa.[7][8][5][9]

The West Runton Mammoth, a largely complete skeleton of the steppe mammoth (Mammuthus trogontherii) is one of the most best preserved finds found in the West Runton Freshwater Bed.[10] The oldest human footprints outside Africa, the Happisburgh footprints as well as handaxes and bison bones with cut marks were also found in layers considered to belong to this deposit near Happisburgh, dated to around 1 million to 780,000 years ago.[4]

Mammals

Carnivorans

Species Locality Notes Image
Panthera gombaszogensis[5] West Runon Freshwater Bed Often called the European jaguar and posited to the ancestor of the living American jaguar (Panthera onca)
Panthera fossilis[5][11] West Runon Freshwater Bed, Pakefield A close relative of the modern lion (Panthera leo), and one of the largest cats to have ever lived. Ancestor of the Late Pleistocene cave lion (Panthera spelaea). Older publications assigned remains of P. fossilis to P. leo
Felis cf. lunensis[12][5] West Runon Freshwater Bed A primitive member of the genus Felis, which includes the domestic cat and its close relatives
Ursus sp.[9] West Runon Freshwater Bed Possibly represents brown bears (Ursus arctos) or members of the cave bear lineage
Ursus deningeri[13] Bacton, Pakefield Ancestor of the later cave bear (Ursus spelaea)
File:Tautavel - Ursus deningeri 01.jpg
Skeleton on display in France
Canis mosbachensis[5] West Runon Freshwater Bed A smaller ancestor of the modern grey wolf (Canis lupus)
Lynx sp.[5] West Runon Freshwater Bed A lynx
Crocuta crocuta[5] Closely related to living African spotted hyenas, have also been attributed to cave hyenas in older works.[14]
Homotherium latidens[5] A lion-sized saber-toothed cat
Pachycrocuta brevirostris[5] Bacton, Overstrand A giant hyena, the largest ever
Lutra simplicidens[12] West Runon Freshwater Bed An extinct otter
Pannonictis pliocaenica[12] An extinct mustelid belonging to the subfamily Ictonychinae
Martes martes[12] Commonly known as the pine marten, species extant
File:Pine Marten (48173751702).jpg
Mustela nivalis[12] Commonly known as the least weasel, species extant
Mustela erminea[12] Commonly known as the stoat, species extant
File:Røyskatt (Mustela erminea erminea), Lista, Norway.jpg

Ungulates

Species Locality Notes Image
Cervus elaphus[8] Commonly known as red deer, species extant
Praemegaceros verticornis[8] A giant deer belonging to the genus Praemegaceros. Sometimes referred to in historical publications as Megaloceros verticornis
File:Megaloceros verticornis.jpg
A P. verticornis skeleton from Germany
Praemegaceros dawkinsi[8] A moderately sized deer.
Megaloceros savini[8] A reindeer-sized deer species
File:Megaloceros antler.png
A M. savini-type antler (top right), compared tp that of an Irish elk (M. giganteus)
Dama sp.[8] An early indeterminate fallow deer
Capreolus capreolus[8] Commonly known as roe deer, species extant
File:Capreolus capreolus Wien Zentralfriedhof 20221021 05.jpg
Cervus rhenanus[8] A smaller deer with three-pointed antlers
Eucladoceros ctenoides/tegulensis[8] A giant deer
File:Eucladoceros tegulensis Teylers.JPG
Antlers of Eucladoceros ctenoides/tegulensis on display in the Netherlands
Eucladoceros tetraceros[8]
Eucladoceros sedgwickii[8]
Cervalces latifrons[8] A larger ancestor of the modern moose (Alces alces), one of the largest deer ever
Cervalces latifrons antlers on display in Germany
Hippopotamus antiquus[9] A larger relative of the modern hippopotamus (Hippotamus amphibius)
Specimen on display in Italy
Bison schoetensacki[7] A primitive bison
Specimen on display in Germany
Sus scrofa[12] West Runton Freshwater Bed Commonly known as wild boar, species extant
File:Wild boar in San Rossore, Pisa, Italy.jpg
Stephanorhinus hundsheimensis[12] A rhinoceros belonging to the extinct genus Stephanorhinus
File:Stephanorhinus hundsheimensis skull.jpg
Skull on display in Germany
Equus cf. suessenbornensis[12] A stenonine equine
Equus cf. altidens[12]

Proboscidea

Species Locality Notes Image
Mammuthus trogontherii[10] West Runton Freshwater Bed Commonly known as the steppe mammoth, known from a mostly complete skeleton, the West Runton Mammoth collected from the West Runton Freshwater bed in 1990.
Mammuthus meridionalis[10] A more primitive mammoth chronologically earlier than M. trogontherii
Specimen on display in France
Palaeoloxodon antiquus[10] Commonly known as the straight-tusked elephant, a larger relative of African elephants
File:Reproducción de Palaeoloxodon antiquus.jpg

Eulipotyphla

Species Locality Notes Image
Sorex runtonensis[12] West Runton Freshwater Bed An extinct shrew belonging the genus Sorex
Sorex savini[12]
Sorex cf. minutus[12] Remains closely resembling and possibly conspecific with the living pygmy shrew (Sorex minutus)
Macroneomys brachygnathus[12] A large extinct shrew
Neomys newtoni[12] An extinct water shrew belonging to the genus Neomys
Desmana sp. [12] A desman related to the living Russian desman (Desmana moschata)
Talpa minor[12] An extinct mole belonging to the genus Talpa
Talpa europaea[12] Commonly known as the European mole, species extant
Erinaceus sp.[12] A hedgehog, closely related to the living European hedgehog (Erinaceus europaeus)

Primates

Species Locality Notes Image
Macaca sylvanus[12] West Runton Freshwater Bed Commonly known as the Barbary macaque. Though extinct in Europe (with the exception of Gibraltar), it remains extant in North Africa
File:Macaca sylvanus, Ouzoud Falls, Morocco, 20250126 1128 7323.jpg

Bats

Species Locality Notes Image
Nyctalus noctula[12] West Runton Freshwater Bed Known as the common noctule, species extant

Glires

Species Locality Notes Image
Lepus sp.[12] West Runton Freshwater Bed A hare
Sciurus whitei[12] An extinct squirrel belonging to the genus Sciurus, closely related to the living red squirrel (Sciurus vulgaris)
Castor fiber[12] Commonly known as the Eurasian beaver, species extant
Trogontherium cuvieri[12] An extinct member of the beaver family Castoridae somewhat larger than living beavers
Cricetus runtonensis[12] An extinct hamster belonging to the genus Cricetus, related to the living European hamster (Cricetus cricetus)
Cricetulus migratorius[12] Commonly known as the grey dwarf hamster, species extant though no longer living in Britain
File:Nothocricetulus migratorius.png
Pliomys episcopalis[12] A vole belonging to the extinct genus Pliomys
Clethrionomys hintonianus[12] An extinct vole belonging to the genus Clethrionomys
Mimomys savini[12] A vole belonging to the extinct genus Mimomys, related to living water voles (Arvicola)
Microtus gregaloides[12] An extinct vole belonging to the genus Microtus
Microtus arvalidens[12]
Microtus ratticepoides[12]
Apodemus sylvaticus[12] Commonly known as the wood mouse, species extant

Birds

A variety of birds are known from the Cromer Forest Bed.[15]

Species Locality Notes Image
Phalacrocorax cf. carbo[12] West Runton Freshwater Bed Remains closely resembling and possibly conspecific with the living great cormorant (Phalacrocorax carbo)
File:2021-05-05 Phalacrocorax carbo carbo, Killingworth Lake, Northumberland 1-1.jpg
Cygnus sp.[12] A swan
Anser sp.[12] A goose
Anatinae spp.[12] Remains of several species of ducks
Grus cf. Grus grus'[12] Remains closely resembling and possibly conspecific with the living common crane (Grus grus)
cf. Gallinula chloropus[12] Remains closely resembling and possibly conspecific with the living common moorhen (Gallinula chloropus)
File:Common Moorhen 2023 11 11 03.jpg
Turdus sp.[12] A thrush
Sturnus sp. [12] A starling
Corvidae indet[12] A small bird belonging to the crow family
Gallus europaeus[16] Remains closely resembling Gallus gallus, dated to the middle Pleistocene
Aythya ferina[17] The Common Pochard
Netta rufina[17] Red Crested Pochard
Melanitta nigra[17] Common Scoter
Passeriformes indet[12] A perching bird

Amphibians

Species Locality Notes Image
Triturus vulgaris[12] West Runton Freshwater Bed Commonly known as the smooth newt, species extant
Triturus sp. nov [12] An extinct salamander belonging to the genus Triturus
Bufo bufo[12] Known as the common toad, species extant
Hyla arborea[12] Commonly known as the European tree frog, species extant
File:European tree frog (Hyla arborea) on hemp-agrimony (Eupatorium cannabinum).jpg
Rana arvalis[12] Commonly known as the Moor frog, species extant
File:Остромордый лягушонок, Дубининский ручей.jpg
Pelophylax cf. ridibundus'[12] Remains closely related to the living marsh frog (Pelophylax ridibundus), recorded under the synonymous name Rana (ridibunda) sp.
Rana temporaria[12] Known as the common frog, species extant
Rana cf. dalmatina'[12] Remains closely resembling and possibly conspecific with the living agile frog (Rana dalmatina)
File:Agile frog (Rana dalmatina) (17024220509).jpg

Reptiles

Species Locality Notes Image
Anguis fragilis[12] West Runton Freshwater Bed Commonly known as the slow worm, species extant
Natrix natrix[12] Commonly known as the grass snake, species extant
File:Grass snake (Natrix natrix) Pieniny.jpg
Vipera berus[12] Commonly known as the adder, species extant
File:Common European viper (Vipera berus) female Pieniny.jpg

Fish

Species Locality Notes Image
Esox lucius[12] Commonly known as the Northern pike, species extant
Perca fluviatilis[12] Commonly known as the European perch, species extant
File:Perca fluviatilis - Perche commune - European perch Cropped.jpg
Tinca tinca[12] Commonly known as the tench, species extant
Abramis bjoerkna[12] Commonly known as the white bream, species extant
File:Blicca bjoerkna transparent bg.png
Scardinius erythrophthalmus[12] Known as the common rudd, species extant
Rutilus rutilus[12] Known as the common roach, species extant
Leuciscus idus[12] Commonly known as the ide, species extant
Squalius cephalus[17] Known as the common chub, species extant
File:Alet (Leuciscus cephalus).jpg
Anguilla anguilla[12] Commonly known as the European eel, species extant
Gasterosteus aculeatus[12] Commonly known as the three-spined stickleback, species extant
File:Dreistachliger Stichling.jpg

Insects

A variety of beetles are known from the Cromer Forest Bed, including the West Runton Freshwater Bed, representing a temperate climate,[18] and from Sidestrand, representing a cold glacial climate.[2]

Flora

Pollen and macrofossils from the West Runton Freshwater Bed indicates the presence of a variety of plants at the time of deposition, representing a forest and wetland environment with a temperate climate near to the North Sea coast.[3]

Species Locality Notes Image
Alnus glutinosa West Runton Freshwater Bed Commonly known as European alder, species extant
Betula Commonly known as birch
Plantago major Commonly known as broadleaf plantain, species extant
Urtica dioica Commonly known as stinging nettles, species extant
Picea sp. Commonly known as spruce
File:GemeineFichte.jpg
Heracleum sphondylium Commonly known as hogweed, species extant
Stellaria media Commonly known as chickweed, species extant
File:Stellaria media stem hairs.jpg
Schoenoplectus lacustris Known as the common club-rush, species extant
Sparganium erectum Known as the simplestem bur-reed, species extant
Typha sp. Commonly known as bullrush or cattail
Bidens tripartita Known as the three-lobe beggarticks, species extant
File:Bidens tripartita 02.JPG
Epilobium cf. hirsutum Commonly known as the great or hairy willowherb, species extant
Eupatorium cannabinum Commonly known as the hemp-agrimony, species extant
Ajuga reptans Commonly known as the bugleherb, species extant
Thalictrum flavum Commonly known as the yellow meadow-rue, species extant
Cyperus fuscus Commonly known as the brown galingale, species extant
File:Cyperus fuscus Elbe.JPG
Eleocharis palustris Known as the common spike-rush, species extant
Juncus sp. Indeterminate rushes
Persicaria lapathifolia Known by several common names including pale persicaria and pale smartweed, species extant
Potentilla sp. Commonly known as cinquefoils
Ranunculus Includes indeterminate members of the subgenera Ranunculus subgenus Ranunculus and Batrachium
Azolla filiculoides An aquatic fern. Became extinct in Europe during the Pleistocene, but was reintroduced to the region in historic times
Hydrocharis morsus-ranae Commonly known as the European frog-bit, species extant
Nuphar lutea Commonly known as the yellow water-lily, species extant
File:Nuphar lutea (Detail) 24072005-1.jpg
Nymphaea alba Commonly known as the white water-lily, species extant
Stratiotes aloides Commonly known as the water soldier, species extant
Ceratophyllum demersum Commonly known as hornwort, species extant
Groenlandia densa An aquatic plant, species extant
Chara sp. An alga
Rubus idaeus Commonly known as the red raspberry, species extant
Rabelera holostea Commonly known as the greater stitchwort, species extant. Labelled in study under previous name Stellaria holostea
Oxybasis cf. rubra Commonly known as the red goosefoot, species extant. Labelled in study under previous name Chenopodium rubrum
File:Red Goosefoot (Chenopodium rubrum) - geograph.org.uk - 5499294.jpg
Salix sp. Commonly known as willow, represented by pollen
Corylus Commonly known as hazel represented by pollen
Pinus Commonly known as pine, represented by pollen
Quercus Commonly known as oak, represented by pollen
Ulmus Commonly known as elm, represented by pollen
Polypodium vulgare Known as the common polypody, species extant, represented by spores
File:Tüpfelfarn (Polypodium vulgare).jpg
Pteridium aquilinum Commonly known as bracken, species extant, represented by spores
Anemone Commonly known as windflowers, represented by pollen
Mercurialis perennis Commonly known as dogs mercury, species extant
Aster Represented by pollen
Centaurea scabiosa Commonly known as greater knapweed, represented by pollen
File:Atlas roslin pl Chaber driakiewnik 2298 6645.jpg
Cirsium/Carduus Commonly known as thistles, represented by pollen
File:Cirsium heterophyllum 5 RF.jpg
Anthemis Commonly known as camomile, represented by pollen
Taraxacum Commonly known as dandelions, represented by pollen
Hypericum perforatum Commonly known as St. John's wort, represented by pollen
File:(MHNT) Hypericum perforatum flower and buttons.jpg
Plantago lanceolata Commonly known as ribwort, represented by pollen
Rumex acetosa Commonly known as sorrel, represented by pollen
Vicia/Lathyrus Pollen representing either vetches, peavines, or both
Capsella Commonly known as sherpard's purse, represented by pollen
Sinapis Commonly known as mustard, represented by pollen
Rumex crispus Commonly known as curly dock, represented by pollen
Persicaria maculosa Commonly known as lady's thumb, represented by pollen
Plantago maritima Commonly known as sea plantain, represented by pollen
Armeria Commonly known as thrifts, represented by pollen
File:Sea Pinks.png
Ballota nigra Commonly known as black horehound, species extant
Poaceae Unidentified grass pollen

See also

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 "Cromer Forest-bed Formation". British Geological Survey. https://www.bgs.ac.uk/lexicon/lexicon.cfm?pub=CRF. 
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Larkin, Nigel R.; Coope, G. Russell; Lee, Jonathan R.; Silva, Barbara (August 2014). "Early Middle Pleistocene sediments at Sidestrand, northeast Norfolk, yield the most extensive preglacial cold stage beetle assemblage from Britain" (in en). Quaternary International 341: 46–58. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2014.03.036. https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1040618214001736. 
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Field, Michael H.; Peglar, Sylvia M. (December 2010). "A palaeobotanical investigation of the sediments from the West Runton Mammoth site" (in en). Quaternary International 228 (1-2): 38–45. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2010.05.013. https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1040618210002089. 
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Ashton, Nick; Lewis, Simon G.; De Groote, Isabelle; Duffy, Sarah M.; Bates, Martin; Bates, Richard; Hoare, Peter; Lewis, Mark et al. (2014-02-07). Petraglia, Michael D.. ed. "Hominin Footprints from Early Pleistocene Deposits at Happisburgh, UK". PLOS ONE 9 (2). doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0088329. ISSN 1932-6203. PMID 24516637. Bibcode: 2014PLoSO...988329A. 
  5. ↑ 5.00 5.01 5.02 5.03 5.04 5.05 5.06 5.07 5.08 5.09 Lewis, Mark; Pacher, Martina; Turner, Alan (December 2010). "The larger Carnivora of the West Runton Freshwater Bed". Quaternary International 228 (1–2): 116–135. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2010.06.022. Bibcode: 2010QuInt.228..116L. 
  6. ↑ Bynoe, Rachel; Ashton, Nick M.; Grimmer, Tim; Hoare, Peter; Leonard, Joanne; Lewis, Simon G.; Nicholas, Darren; Parfitt, Simon (February 2021). "Coastal curios? An analysis of ex situ beach finds for mapping new Palaeolithic sites at Happisburgh, UK" (in en). Journal of Quaternary Science 36 (2): 191–210. doi:10.1002/jqs.3270. ISSN 0267-8179. Bibcode: 2021JQS....36..191B. 
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Sorbelli, Leonardo; Alba, David M.; Cherin, Marco; Moullé, Pierre-Élie; Brugal, Jean-Philip; Madurell-Malapeira, Joan (June 2021). "A review on Bison schoetensacki and its closest relatives through the early-Middle Pleistocene transition: Insights from the Vallparadís Section (NE Iberian Peninsula) and other European localities" (in en). Quaternary Science Reviews 261. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2021.106933. Bibcode: 2021QSRv..26106933S. https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0277379121001402. 
  8. ↑ 8.00 8.01 8.02 8.03 8.04 8.05 8.06 8.07 8.08 8.09 8.10 8.11 Lister, Adrian M. (1993). "The stratigraphical significance of deer species in the cromer forest-bed formation". Journal of Quaternary Science 8 (2): 95–108. doi:10.1002/jqs.3390080202. Bibcode: 1993JQS.....8...95L. 
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 Adams, Neil F.; Candy, Ian; Schreve, Danielle C. (January 2022). "An Early Pleistocene hippopotamus from Westbury Cave, Somerset, England: support for a previously unrecognized temperate interval in the British Quaternary record" (in en). Journal of Quaternary Science 37 (1): 28–41. doi:10.1002/jqs.3375. ISSN 0267-8179. Bibcode: 2022JQS....37...28A. 
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3 Stuart, Anthony J.; Lister, Adrian M. (December 2010). "Introduction: The West Runton Freshwater Bed and the West Runton Mammoth". Quaternary International 228 (1–2): 1–7. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2010.07.035. Bibcode: 2010QuInt.228....1S. 
  11. ↑ Sotnikova, Marina V.; Foronova, Irina V. (August 2014). "First Asian record of Panthera (Leo) fossilis (Mammalia, Carnivora, Felidae) in the Early Pleistocene of Western Siberia, Russia" (in en). Integrative Zoology 9 (4): 517–530. doi:10.1111/1749-4877.12082. ISSN 1749-4877. PMID 24382145. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1749-4877.12082. 
  12. ↑ 12.00 12.01 12.02 12.03 12.04 12.05 12.06 12.07 12.08 12.09 12.10 12.11 12.12 12.13 12.14 12.15 12.16 12.17 12.18 12.19 12.20 12.21 12.22 12.23 12.24 12.25 12.26 12.27 12.28 12.29 12.30 12.31 12.32 12.33 12.34 12.35 12.36 12.37 12.38 12.39 12.40 12.41 12.42 12.43 12.44 12.45 12.46 12.47 12.48 12.49 12.50 12.51 12.52 12.53 12.54 12.55 12.56 12.57 12.58 12.59 12.60 12.61 12.62 12.63 Stuart, A.J.; Lister, A.M. (December 2010). "The West Runton Freshwater Bed and the West Runton Mammoth: Summary and conclusions" (in en). Quaternary International 228 (1–2): 241–248. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2010.07.033. Bibcode: 2010QuInt.228..241S. https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1040618210003150. 
  13. ↑ van Heteren, Anneke H.; Arlegi, Mikel; Santos, Elena; Arsuaga, Juan-Luis; Gómez-Olivencia, Asier (2019-04-21). "Cranial and mandibular morphology of Middle Pleistocene cave bears ( Ursus deningeri ): implications for diet and evolution" (in en). Historical Biology 31 (4): 485–499. doi:10.1080/08912963.2018.1487965. ISSN 0891-2963. Bibcode: 2019HBio...31..485V. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/08912963.2018.1487965. 
  14. ↑ E.T. Newton On the occurrence of the cave hyaena in the "Forest Bed" at Corton Cliff, Suffolk The Geological Magazine, 10 (1883), pp. 433-435
  15. ↑ Harrison, C. J. O. (May 1979). "Birds of the Cromer Forest Bed Series of the East Anglian Pleistocene". Transactions of the Norfolk & Norwich Naturalists' Society 24: 277–287. http://norfolknaturalists.org.uk/wp/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/Transactions-1979-transactionsofno24norf_page_311-370.pdf#page=19. 
  16. ↑ Harrison, C.J.O. (December 1978). "A new Jungle-fowl from the Pleistocene of Europe". Journal of Archaeological Science 5 (4): 373-376. doi:10.1016/0305-4403(78)90056-0. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0305440378900560. Retrieved 4 December 2025. 
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 17.3 "Ostend (Pleistocene of the United Kingdom)". https://paleobiodb.org/classic/basicCollectionSearch?collection_no=78015&is_real_user=. 
  18. ↑ Coope, G. Russell (December 2010). "Coleoptera from the Cromerian Type Site at West Runton, Norfolk, England" (in en). Quaternary International 228 (1-2): 46–52. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2010.05.031. https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1040618210002284. 

Further reading

  • Bowen, D.Q., 1978, Quaternary geology: a stratigraphic framework for multidisciplinary work. Pergamon Press, Oxford, United Kingdom. 221 pp. ISBN 978-0-08-020409-3
  • West, R.G., 1980, The pre-glacial Pleistocene of the Norfolk and Suffolk Coasts Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-21962-0
  • Ehlers, J., P. L. Gibbard, and J. Rose, eds., 1991, Glacial deposits in Great Britain and Ireland Balkema, Rotterdam. 580 pp ISBN 978-90-6191-875-2
  • Mangerud, J., J. Ehlers, and P. Gibbard, 2004, Quaternary Glaciations: Extent and Chronology 1: Part I Europe, Elsevier, Amsterdam. ISBN 0-444-51462-7
  • Sibrava, V., Bowen, D.Q, and Richmond, G.M., 1986, Quaternary Glaciations in the Northern Hemisphere, Quaternary Science Reviews, vol. 5, pp. 1–514.

Gibbard, P.L., S. Boreham, K.M. Cohen and A. Moscariello, 2007, Global correlation tables for the Quaternary, Subcommission on Quaternary Stratigraphy, Department of Geography, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, England.



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