Religion:*Perkʷūnos

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Short description: Weather-god in Proto-Indo-European mythology
*Perkʷūnos
Other names*(S)tenh₂ros
Abode*Perkʷūnyós
Weapons*ml̥dʰnis, *h₂éḱmō, *wóǵros
SymbolsOak
Equivalents
Greek equivalentZeus and Heracles
Roman equivalentJupiter and Hercules
Norse equivalentThor
Etruscan equivalentTinia and Hercle
Slavic equivalentPerun
Hinduism equivalentParjanya
Baltic equivalentPerkunas
Celtic equivalentTaranis

*Perkʷūnos (Proto-Indo-European: 'the Striker' or 'the Lord of Oaks') is the reconstructed name of the weather god in Proto-Indo-European mythology. The deity was connected with fructifying rains, and his name was probably invoked in times of drought. In a widespread Indo-European myth, the thunder-deity fights a multi-headed water-serpent during an epic battle in order to release torrents of water that had previously been pent up. The name of his weapon, *ml̥dʰnis, which denoted both "lightning" and "hammer", can be reconstructed from the attested traditions.

*Perkʷūnos was often associated with oaks, probably because such tall trees are frequently struck by lightning, and his realm was located in the wooded mountains, *Perkʷūnyós. A term for the sky, *h₂éḱmō, apparently denoted a "heavenly vault of stone", but also "thunderbolt" or "stone-made weapon", in which case it was sometimes also used to refer to the thunder-god's weapon.

Contrary to other deities of the Proto-Indo-European pantheon, such as *Dyēus (the sky-god), or *H2éwsōs (the dawn-goddess), widely accepted cognates stemming from the theonym *Perkʷūnos are only attested in Western Indo-European traditions. The linguistic evidence for the worship of a thunder god under the name *Perkʷūnos as far back as Proto-Indo-European times (4500–2500 BC) is therefore less secured.[1]

Name

Etymology

The name *Perkwunos is generally regarded as stemming from the Proto-Indo-European (PIE) verbal root *per- ('to strike').[1][2] An alternative etymology is the PIE noun *pérkʷus ('the oak'),[3] attached to the divine nomenclature *-nos ('master of').[4] Various cognates can be found in the Latin oak-nymphs Querquetulanae (from quercus 'oak-tree'),[2][5] the Germanic *ferhwaz ('oak'),[6] the Gaulish erc- ('oak') and Quaquerni (a tribal name),[7][5] the Punjabi pargāi ('sacred oak'),[8] and perhaps in the Greek spring-nymph Herkyna.[9][10]

The theonym *Perkwunos thus either meant "the Striker" or "the Lord of Oaks".[11][12] A theory uniting those two etymologies has been proposed in the mythological association of oaks with thunder, suggested by the frequency with which such tall trees are struck by lightning.[13][3][7]

The existence of a female consort is suggested by gendered doublet-forms such as those found in South Slavic Perun–Perperuna, Old Norse Fjörgyn–Fjörgynn, and Lithuanian Perkūnas–Perkūnija.[14][15]

The noun *perkwunos also gave birth to a group of cognates for the ordinary word "thunder", including Old Prussian percunis, Polish piorun ("thunderbolt"), Latvian pērkauns ("thunderbolt"), or Lithuanian perkūnas ("thunder") and perkūnija ("thunderstorm").[3][16]

Epithets

Other Indo-European theonyms related to 'thunder', through another root *(s)tenh₂-, are found in the Germanic Þunraz (Thor), the Celtic Taranis (from an earlier *Tonaros), and the Latin epithet Tonans (attached to Jupiter).[17][18] According to scholar Peter Jackson, "they may have arisen as the result of fossilization of an original epithet or epiclesis" of Perkwunos, since the Vedic weather-god Parjanya is also called stanayitnú- ("Thunderer").[19]

Another possible epithet was *tr̥h₂wónts "conquering", from *térh₂uti "to overcome", with its descendants being Hittite god Tarḫunna, Luwian Tarḫunz, and Sanskrit तूर्वत् (tūrvat), epithet of a storm-god Indra.[20][21]

George E. Dunkel regarded Perkwunos as an original epithet of Dyēus, the Sky-God.[22] It has also been postulated that Perkwunos was referred to as *Diwós Putlós ('son of Dyēus'), although this is based on the Vedic poetic tradition alone.[11]

Depiction

Weapon

Perkwunos is usually depicted as holding a weapon, named *meld-n- in the Baltic and Old Norse traditions, which personifies lightning and is generally conceived as a club, mace, or hammer made of stone or metal.[23][24] In the Latvian poetic expression Pērkōns met savu milnu ("Pērkōn throws his mace"), the mace (milna) is cognate with the Old Norse mjölnir, the hammer thrown by the thunder god Thor, and also with the word for 'lightning' in the Old Prussian mealde, the Old Church Slavonic *mlъni, or the Welsh mellt.[3][24][25]

Fructifying rains

While his thunder and lightning had a destructive connotation, they could also be seen as a regenerative force since they were often accompanied by fructifying rains.[26] Parjanya is depicted as a rain god in the Vedas, and Latvian prayers included a call for Pērkōns to bring rain in times of drought.[1][27] The Balkan Slavs worshipped Perun along with his female counterpart Perperuna, the name of a ritual prayer calling for fructifying rains and centred on the dance of a naked virgin who had not yet had her first monthly period.[14] The earth is likewise referred to as "menstruating" in a Vedic hymn to Parjanya, a possible cognate of Perperuna.[15] The alternative name of Perperuna, Dodola, also recalls Perkūnas' pseudonym Dundulis, and Zeus' oak oracle located at Dodona.[14][28]

Perëndi is especially invoked by Albanians in incantations and songs praying for rain.[29] Rituals were performed in times of summer drought to make it rain, usually in June and July, but sometimes also in the spring months when there was severe drought. In different Albanian regions, for rainmaking purposes, people threw water upwards to make it subsequently fall to the ground in the form of rain. This was an imitative type of magic practice with ritual songs.[30]

A mythical multi-headed water-serpent is connected with the thunder-deity in an epic battle. The monstrous foe is a "blocker of waters", and his heads are eventually smashed by the thunder-deity to release the pent-up torrents of rain.[31] The myth has numerous reflexes in mythical stories of battles between a serpent and a god or mythical hero, who is not necessarily etymologically related to *Perkwunos, but always associated with thunder. For example, the Vedic Indra and Vṛtra (the personification of drought), the Iranian Tištry/Sirius and Apaoša (a demon of drought), the Albanian Drangue and Kulshedra (an amphibious serpent who causes streams to dry up), the Armenian Vahagn and Vishap, the Greek Zeus and Typhoeus as well as Heracles and the Hydra, Heracles and Ladon and Apollo and Python, or the Norse Thor and Miðgarðsormr.[31]

Striker and god of oaks

The association of Perkwunos with the oak is attested in various formulaic expressions from the Balto-Slavic languages: Lithuanian Perkūno ąžuolas (Perkūnas's oak), Latvian Pērkōna uōzuōls ('Pērkōn's oak'), or Old Russian Perunovŭ dubŭ ('Perun's oak'). In the Albanian language, a word to refer to the lightning—considered in folk beliefs as the "fire of the sky"—is shkreptimë, a formation of shkrep meaning "to flash, tone, to strike (till sparks fly off)".[32] An association between strike, stones and fire, can be related to the observation that one can kindle fire by striking stones against each other. The act of producing fire through a strike—reflected also in the belief that fire is residual within the oak trees after the thunder-god strikes them—indicates the potential of lightning in the myth of creation.[3] The Slavic thunder-god Perūn is said to frequently strike oaks to put fire within them, and the Norse thunder-god Thor to strike his foes the giants when they hide under an oak.[3][33] According to Belarusian folklore, Piarun made the first fire ever by striking a tree in which the Demon was hiding.[34]

The striking of devils, demons, or evildoers by Perkwunos is another motif in the myths surrounding the Baltic Perkūnas and the Vedic Parjanya.[35][3] In Lithuanian and Latvian folkloric material, Perkunas/Perkons is invoked to protect against snakes and illness.[36]

Wooded mountains

Perkwunos is often portrayed in connection with stone and (wooded) mountains; mountainous forests were considered to be his realm.[37] A cognate relationship has been noted between the Germanic *fergunja ('[mountainous] forest') and the Gaulish (h)ercunia ('[oaks] forests').[38][6][7] The Rus' chronicle describes wooden idols of Perūn on hills overlooking Kyiv and Novgorod, and both the Belarusian Piarun and the Lithuanian Perkūnas were said to dwell on lofty mountaintops. Such places are called perkūnkalnis in Lithuanian, meaning the "summit of Perkūnas", while the Slavic word perynja designated the hill over Novgorod where the sanctuary of Perun was located. Prince Vladimir the Great had an idol of Perūn cast down into the Dnepr river during the Christianization of Kievan Rus'.[39]

In Germanic mythology, Fjörgynn was used as a poetic synonym for 'the land, the earth', and she could have originally been the mistress of the wooded mountains, the personification of what appears in Gothic as fairguni ('wooded mountain').[37] Additionally, the Baltic tradition mentions a perpetual sacred fire dedicated to Perkūnas and fuelled by oakwood in the forests or on hilltops. Pagans believed that Perkūnas would freeze if Christians extinguished those fires.[34][40]

Words from a stem *pér-ur- are also attested in the Hittite pēru ('rock, cliff, boulder'),[41] the Avestan pauruuatā ('mountains'),[42] as well as in the Sanskrit goddess Parvati and the epithet Parvateshwara ('lord of mountains'), attached to her father Himavat.[43][44]

Stony skies

A term for the sky, *h₂ekmōn, denoted both 'stone' and 'heaven', possibly a 'heavenly vault of stone' akin to the biblical firmament.[45][46] The motif of the stony skies can be found in the story of the Greek Akmon ('anvil'), the father of Ouranos and the personified Heaven.[47] The term akmon was also used with the meaning 'thunderbolt' in Homeric and Hesiodic diction.[48] Other cognates appear in the Vedic áśman ('stone'), the Iranian deity Asman ('stone, heaven'), the Lithuanian god Akmo (mentioned alongside Perkūnas himself), and also in the Germanic *hemina (German: Himmel, English: heaven) and *hamara (cf. Old Norse: hamarr, which could mean 'rock, boulder, cliff' or 'hammer').[48][24][45][49] Akmo is described in a 16th-century treatise as a saxum grandius, 'a sizeable stone', which was still worshipped in Samogitia.[50][51]

Albanians believed in the supreme powers of thunder-stones (kokrra e rrufesë or guri i rejës), which were believed to be formed during lightning strikes and to be fallen from the sky. Thunder-stones were preserved in family life as important cult objects. It was believed that bringing them inside the house could bring good fortune, prosperity and progress in people, in livestock and in agriculture, or that rifle bullets would not hit the owners of the thunder-stones.[52] A common practice was to hang a thunder-stone pendant on the body of the cattle or on the pregnant woman for good luck and to counteract the evil eye.[53]

The mythological association can be explained by the observation (e.g., meteorites) or the belief that thunderstones (polished ones for axes in particular) had fallen from the sky.[54] Indeed, the Vedic word áśman is the name of the weapon thrown by Indra, Thor's weapon is also called hamarr, and the thunder-stone can be named Perkūno akmuõ ('Perkuna's stone') in the Lithuanian tradition.[55][47][56] Scholars have also noted that Perkūnas and Piarun are said to strike rocks instead of oaks in some themes of the Lithuanian and Belarusian folklores,[57] and that the Slavic Perūn sends his axe or arrow from a mountain or the sky.[40] The original meaning of *h₂ekmōn could thus have been 'stone-made weapon', then 'sky' or 'lightning'.[58]

Evidence

Theonyms

The Hand of Perkūnas by Mikalojus Konstantinas Čiurlionis (1909). Note that Perkwunos should be represented with a thunderstone, as the depiction of the hand holding the thunderbolt is of Near Eastern origin.[59]

The following deities are cognates stemming from *Perkwunos or related names in Western Indo-European mythologies:

  • PIE: *per-, 'to strike' (or *pérkʷus, the 'oak'),[1][12]
    • PIE: *per-kwun-os, the weather god,[1]
    • PIE: *per-uh₁n-os, the 'one with the thunder stone',[3][11]
    • PIE: *per-kwun-iyo (feminine *per-kwun-iyā, the 'realm of Perkwunos', i.e. the [wooded] mountains),[77][37][7][5]
      • Celtic: *ferkunyā,[78][7]
        • Gaulish: the Hercynian (Hercynia) forest or mountains, ancient name of the Ardennes and the Black Forest,[79] which was also known as Arkunia by the time of Aristotle;[80] Hercuniates (’Ερκουνιατες; attached to the suffix -atis 'belonging to'), the name of a Celtic tribe from Pannonia, as described by Pliny and Ptolemy.[81][82]
      • Germanic: *fergunja, meaning 'mountain', perhaps 'mountainous forest' (or the feminine equivalent of *ferga, 'god'),[6]
        • Old Norse: Fjörgyn, the mother of the thunder-god Thor, the goddess of the wooded landscape and a poetic synonym for 'land' or 'the earth',[3][83]
        • Gothic: fairguni (𐍆𐌰𐌹𐍂𐌲𐌿𐌽𐌹), '(wooded) mountain', and fairhus, 'world', Old English: firgen, 'mountain', 'wooded hill',[6][5]
        • Old High German: Firgunnea, the Ore Mountains, and Virgundia Waldus, Virgunnia, 'oaks forest',[6][5]
      • Slavic: *per(g)ynja, 'wooded hills' (perhaps an early borrowing from Germanic),[11][37]

Thunder-god's weapon

The name of Perkwunos' weapon *meld-n- is attested by a group of cognates alternatively denoting 'hammer' or 'lightning' in the following traditions:

Another PIE term derived from the verbal root *melh₂- ('to grind'), *molh₁-tlo- ('grinding device'), also served as a common word for 'hammer', as in Old Church Slavonic mlatъ, Latin malleus, and Hittite malatt ('sledgehammer, bludgeon').[85]

19th-century scholar Francis Hindes Groome cited the existence of the "Gypsy" (Romani) word malúna as a loanword from Slavic molnija.[96] The Komi word molńi or molńij ('lightning') has also been borrowed from Slavic.[97]

Heavenly vault of stone

A metathesized stem *ḱ(e)h₂-m-(r)- can also be reconstructed from Slavic *kamy ('stone'), Germanic *hamaraz ('hammer'), and Greek kamára ('vault').[98]

Other possible cognates

  • Indo-Iranian:
    • Vedic: Parjanya, the god of rain, thunder and lightning (although Sanskrit sound laws rather predict a parkūn(y)a form; an intermediate form *pergwenyo- has therefore been postulated, possibly descending from *per-kwun-(y)o-).[1][100][11]
    • Nuristani: Pärun (or Pērūneî), a war god worshipped in Kafiristan (present-day Nuristan Province, Afghanistan),[3][11]
    • Persian: Piran (Viseh), a heroic figure present in the Shahnameh, the national epic of Greater Iran; it has been suggested his name might be related to the Slavic deity Perun,[101]
    • Scythian: in the 19th century, Russian folklorist Alexander Afanasyev and French philologist Frédéric-Guillaume Bergmann (fr) mentioned the existence of a Scythian deity named Pirkunas or Pirchunas, an epithet attached to the "Scythian Divus" and meaning 'rainy'.[102][103]
  • Celtic *(h)erku- ('oak'),[7]
    • Hispano-Celtic: Erguena (ERGVENA), a personal name thought to mean 'oak-born' (*pérkʷu-genā) or to derive from *pérkʷu-niya 'wooded mountain'.[104][105]
    • Celtiberian: berkunetakam ('Perkunetaka'), a word attested in the Botorrita Plate I and interpreted as a sacred oak grove,[106][107][108]
    • Pyrenees: the theonym Expercennius, attested in an inscription found in Cathervielle and possibly referring to an oak god. His name might mean 'six oaks'.[109]
    • Gaulish: ercos ('oak'),[7]
      • Gallo-Roman: references to 'Deus Ercus' (in Aquitania), 'Nymphae Percernae' (Narbonensis), and a deity named 'Hercura' (or Erecura) which appears throughout the provinces of the Roman Empire.[81][110] Patrizia de Bernardo Stempel argues that Aerecura/Hercura derives from a Celtic *perk(w)ura.[111]
    • Irish: Erc (mac Cairpri), mentioned at the end of Táin Bó Cúailnge, and placed on the throne of Tara by Conchobar mac Nessa in Cath Ruis na Ríg for Bóinn;[112] although an alternative etymology from PIE *perk- ('color') > *perk-no ('[spotted] fish') has been proposed by Hamp and Matasović.[113]
  • Greek: keraunos (κεραυνός), the name of Zeus’s thunderbolt, which was sometimes also deified (by metathesis of *per(k)aunos; although the root *ḱerh₂-, 'shatter, smash' has also been proposed),[10][114] and the Herkyna spring-nymph, associated with a river of the same name and identified with Demeter (the name could be a borrowing as it rather follows Celtic sound laws),[9][10]
  • Hittite: the words perunas and peruni are attested in a Hittite text of The Song of Ullikummi, and refer to a female being made of 'Rock' or 'Stone' who gives birth to a rocky creature.[115][116]
  • Italic:
    • Italian: porca, a word meaning 'fir tree' in the Trentino dialect. Mallory and Adams suppose it is a loanword from Raetic.[38]
  • Slavic
    • Pomeranian: Porenut, latinized as Porenutius in the work of Saxo Grammaticus. The name is believed to refer to a deity worshipped in the port city of Rügen in ancient times as a possible son of Perun.[117][73]
  • Romano-Germanic: inscriptions to the Matronae 'Ala-ferhuiae' found in Bonn, Altdorf, or Dormagen.[5][118]
  • Paleo-Balkanic:
    • Illyrian: Perëndi, a sky and thunder god (from per-en-, an extension of PIE *per, 'to strike', attached to -di, the sky-god Dyēus, thus related to *per-uhₓn-os (see above); although the Albanian perëndoj, 'to set (of the sun)', from Latin parentare, 'a sacrifice (to the dead), to satisfy', has also been proposed as the origin of the deity,[119][120]
    • Thracian: Perkos/Perkon (Περκος/Περκων),[121] a horseman hero depicted as facing a tree surrounded by a snake.[11][10][8] His name is also attested as Ήρω Περκω and Περκώνει "in Odessos and the vicinities".[122][123]
  • Caucasus: it has been suggested that the characters Пиръон (Piryon) and Пиръа (Pirya) may attest the presence of the thunder god's name in the Caucasus.[124]

Legacy

Louis Léger stated that the Polabians adopted Perun as their name for Thursday (Perendan or Peräunedån), which is likely a calque of German Donnersdag.[125]

Some scholars argue that the functions of the Luwian and Hittite weather gods Tarḫunz and Tarḫunna ultimately stem from those of Perkwunos. Anatolians may have dropped the old name in order to adopt the epithet *Tṛḫu-ent- ('conquering', from PIE *terh2-, 'to cross over, pass through, overcome'),[19][126] which sounded closer to the name of the Hattian Storm-god Taru.[127] According to scholarship, the name Tarhunt- is also cognate to the Vedic present participle tū́rvant- ('vanquishing, conquering'), an epithet of the weather-god Indra.[128][129][130]

Toponyms

Scholarship indicates the existence of a holdover of the theonym in European toponymy, specially in Eastern European and Slavic-speaking regions.

In the territory that encompasses the modern day city of Kaštela existed the ancient Dalmatian city of Salona. Near Salona, in Late Antiquity, there was a hill named Perun.[131] Likewise, the ancient oronym Borun (monte Borun) has been interpreted as a deformation of the theonym Perun. Their possible connection is further reinforced by the proximity of a mountain named Dobrava, a widespread word in Slavic-speaking regions that means 'oak grove'.[132][133]

Places in South-Slavic-speaking lands are considered to be reflexes of Slavic god Perun, such as Perunac, Perunovac, Perunika, Perunićka Glava, Peruni Vrh, Perunja Ves, Peruna Dubrava, Perunuša, Perušice, Perudina, and Perutovac.[134] Scholar Marija Gimbutas cited the existence of the place names Perunowa gora (Poland), Perun Gora (Serbia), Gora Perun (Romania), and Porun hill (Istria).[135] Patrice Lajoye associates place names in the Balkans with the Slavic god Perun: the city of Pernik and the mountain range Pirin (in Bulgaria), as well as a location named Përrenjas in South Albania. He also proposes that the German city of Pronstorf is also related to Perun, since it is located near Segeberg, whose former name was Perone in 1199.[136]

The name of the Baltic deity Perkunas is also attested in Baltic toponyms and hydronyms: a village called Perkūniškės in Žemaitija, north-west of Kaunas, and the place name Perkunlauken ('Perkuns Fields') near modern Gusev.[137][138]

See also

Footnotes

  1. ↑ According to Louis Léger, Kott's German-Czech dictionary cited Slovak alternate forms Baram and Param, as well as verb peruntati "frapper de la foudre" and adjective perunský "qui a rapport à la foudre".[72]

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 Mallory & Adams 2006, p. 410, 433.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 de Vaan 2008, pp. 506–507.
  3. ↑ 3.00 3.01 3.02 3.03 3.04 3.05 3.06 3.07 3.08 3.09 3.10 3.11 3.12 3.13 3.14 Mallory & Adams 1997, p. 582–583.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 West 2007, p. 240.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 Lajoye & Oudaer 2014, p. 52.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 Kroonen 2013, p. 136.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 Delamarre 2003, pp. 165–166.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 Lajoye & Oudaer 2014, p. 51.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 York 1993, p. 240.
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3 West 2007, p. 243.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 11.5 11.6 Jackson 2002, p. 75–76.
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 West 2007, p. 137.
  13. ↑ Nagy 1974, p. 123.
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 14.3 Puhvel 1987, p. 235.
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 Jackson 2002, p. 70.
  16. ↑ West 2007, p. 239, 242, 244.
  17. ↑ Matasović 2009, p. 384.
  18. ↑ Delamarre 2003, p. 290.
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 Jackson 2002, p. 77.
  20. ↑ Witczak, Krzysztof Tomasz; Kaczor, Idaliana (1995). "Linguistic evidence for Proto-Indo-European pantheon". Collectanea Philologica (Łódź, Poland). doi:10.18778/1733-0319. ISSN 1733-0319. https://bazhum.muzhp.pl/media/files/Collectanea_Philologica/Collectanea_Philologica-r1995-t2/Collectanea_Philologica-r1995-t2-s265-278/Collectanea_Philologica-r1995-t2-s265-278.pdf. 
  21. ↑ Kloekhorst 2008, pp. 835–839.
  22. ↑ Jackson 2002, p. 66.
  23. ↑ West 2007, p. 251.
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 24.2 24.3 24.4 24.5 24.6 Watkins 1995, p. 429.
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 25.2 25.3 25.4 25.5 25.6 Derksen 2008, p. 333.
  26. ↑ Fortson 2004, p. 23.
  27. ↑ West 2007, p. 239, 245.
  28. ↑ Zolotnikova, Olga. A. "The sanctuary of Zeus in Dodona: Evolution of the religious concept". In: Journal Of Hellenic Religion, 2019, Vol. 12. pp. 85-132. ISSN 1748-782X
  29. ↑ Gamkrelidze 1995, p. 528.
  30. ↑ Tirta 2004, p. 310.
  31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 West 2007, p. 255–257.
  32. ↑ Demiraj 1997, pp. 363-364.
  33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 West 2007, p. 242.
  34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 Nagy 1974, pp. 113–115.
  35. ↑ West 2007, p. 240, 244–245.
  36. ↑ Vaitkevičienė, Daiva. "Baltic and East Slavic Charms". In: The Power of Words: Studies on Charms and Charming in Europe. Edited by Kapaló James, Pócs Éva, and Ryan William. Central European University Press, 2013. pp. 227-228. Accessed April 27, 2021. http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7829/j.ctt2tt29w.12.
  37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 37.2 37.3 37.4 West 2007, p. 241.
  38. ↑ 38.0 38.1 Mallory & Adams 1997, p. 407.
  39. ↑ Nagy 1974, pp. 113–117.
  40. ↑ 40.0 40.1 West 2007, p. 239, 242.
  41. ↑ Güterbock, Hans G; Hoffner, Harry A, eds (1997). The Hittite Dictionary of The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. P. The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. pp. 313–315. ISBN 1-885923-08-2. https://oi.uchicago.edu/sites/oi.uchicago.edu/files/uploads/shared/docs/CHDP.pdf#page=345. 
  42. ↑ Weeks, David Michael (1985). "1.44 — Stone, Rock" (PDF). Hittite Vocabulary: An Anatolian Appendix to Buck's Dictionary of Selected Synonyms in the Principal Indo-European Languages (PhD dissertation). Los Angeles: University of California. p. 14. Archived (PDF) from the original on June 13, 2020.
  43. ↑ Dehejia, Harsha V. (1999) (in en). Parvati: Goddess of Love. Mapin Publishing. pp. 11. ISBN 978-81-85822-59-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=Njk0OSw_VYQC. 
  44. ↑ 44.0 44.1 44.2 44.3 Lubotsky, Alexander. "Indo-Aryan Inherited Lexicon". Indo-European Etymological Dictionary Project. Leiden University. s.v. asman- and párvata-.
  45. ↑ 45.0 45.1 West 2007, p. 342.
  46. ↑ 46.0 46.1 46.2 46.3 46.4 46.5 Orel 2003, p. 169.
  47. ↑ 47.0 47.1 Mallory & Adams 1997, p. 547.
  48. ↑ 48.0 48.1 48.2 Nagy 1974, p. 120.
  49. ↑ Kroonen 2013, pp. 206–207.
  50. ↑ Dowden, Ken. European paganism: the realities of cult from antiquity to the Middle Ages. New York: Routledge. 2000. pp. 64 and 222. ISBN:0-415-12034-9
  51. ↑ Nagy, Gregory. Greek Mythology and Poetics. Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press. 1992 (2nd printing). p. 192. ISBN:0-8014-8048-5
  52. ↑ Tirta 2004, pp. 82, 406.
  53. ↑ Tirta 2004, p. 101.
  54. ↑ West 2007, p. 343.
  55. ↑ Le Quellec 1996, pp. 291–292.
  56. ↑ West 2007, pp. 343, 353.
  57. ↑ Nagy 1974, pp. 119–120.
  58. ↑ 58.0 58.1 Le Quellec 1996, p. 292.
  59. ↑ West 2007, p. 253: "When represented in art, the thunderbolt is shown held in Zeus’ fist, typically with three spiky flames shooting out at each end. However, this iconography derives from Near Eastern art and does not reflect Indo-European tradition."
  60. ↑ Zaroff, Roman. (2019). "Some aspects of pre-Christian Baltic religion". In: New researches on the religion and mythology of the Pagan Slavs. Edited by Patrice Lajoye. France: Éditions Lingva. 2019. pp. 183-219.
  61. ↑ Sinkevicius, Rokas. "Perkūno nutrenkto medžio motyvas: sąsajos su vestuviniais papročiais". In: Tautosakos darbai 56, 2018. pp. 84-109. ISSN 1392-2831
  62. ↑ Schmalstieg, William R. "Baltø religijos ir mitologijos ðaltiniai 2. XVI amþius". In: Archivum Lithuanicum 5, 2003. pp. 363-368. ISSN 1392-737X, ISBN:3-447-09312-9
  63. ↑ Kregždys, Rolandas. "Teonimų, minimų „Sūduvių knygelėje“, etimologinė analizė – dievybių funkcijos, hierarchija: Bardoayts, Gardoayts, Perdoyts". In: Res humanitariae IV. 2008. Klaipėda: Klaipėdos universiteto leidykla,. pp. 79–106. ISSN 1822-7708 [1]
  64. ↑ Cole, Jeffrey E. (ed.). Ethnic Groups of Europe: An Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. 2011. p. 231. ISBN:978-1-59884-302-6
  65. ↑ Hapgood, Isabel Florence. A Survey of Russian Literature, with Selections. New York: Chautauqua Press. 1902. pp. 15-16.
  66. ↑ Ralston, William Ralston Shedden. The songs of the Russian people, as illustrative of Slavonic mythology and Russian social life. London: Ellis & Green. 1872. p. 91.
  67. ↑ Łuczyński, Michał. “Kognitywna Definicja Peruna: Etnolingwistyczna próba Rekonstrukcji Fragmentu słowiańskiego Tradycyjnego Mitologicznego Obrazu świata" [Cognitive Definition of Perun: An Attempt at Reconstruction of a Fragment of the Traditional Mythological Appearance of the Slavic World]. In: Studia Mythologica Slavica 14 (October). 2011. Ljubljana, Slovenija. 222-223. https://doi.org/10.3986/sms.v14i0.1611.
  68. ↑ West 2007, p. 242–244.
  69. ↑ Фатюшина, Н. [Fatyushyna, N]. "ОБРАЗ БОГА-ГРОМОВЕРЖЦЯ ПЕРУНА В ЯЗИЧНИЦЬКОМУ СВІТОГЛЯДІ ДАВНЬОЇ РУСІ" [The image of the thunder god Perun in the pagan outlook of ancient Russia]. In: Ukrainian Religious Studies. n. 10. 1999. p. 64. DOI: https://doi.org/10.32420/1999.10.842 (in Ukrainian)
  70. ↑ Leū Horoško, Archim. "A Guide to Byelorussian Mythology". In: Journal of Belarusian Studies 1, 2 (1966): 73. DOI: https://doi.org/10.30965/20526512-00102002
  71. ↑ Ralston, William Ralston Shedden. The songs of the Russian people, as illustrative of Slavonic mythology and Russian social life. London: Ellis & Green. 1872. p. 88.
  72. ↑ Léger, Louis. La mythologie slave. Paris, E. Leroux. 1901. p. 61.
  73. ↑ 73.0 73.1 Jakobson, Roman (1955). "While Reading Vasmer's Dictionary" In: WORD, 11:4: p. 616. [DOI: 10.1080/00437956.1955.11659581]
  74. ↑ Dixon-Kennedy, Mike. Encyclopedia of Russian and Slavic myth and legend. ABC-CLIO. 1998. p. 217. ISBN:978-1-57607-130-4.
  75. ↑ Léger, Louis. La mythologie slave. Paris, E. Leroux. 1901. p. 64.
  76. ↑ Jakobson, Roman (1955). "While Reading Vasmer's Dictionary" In: WORD, 11:4: p. 615. [DOI: 10.1080/00437956.1955.11659581]
  77. ↑ Nagy 1974, p. 116.
  78. ↑ Matasović 2009, p. 178.
  79. ↑ Mallory & Adams 1997, p. 407; West 2007, p. 178; Matasović 2009, p. 178; Delamarre 2003, pp. 165–166.
  80. ↑ Koch, John T. Celtic Culture: G-L. Volume 3. Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia. ABC/CLIO. 2006. p. 907. ISBN:1851094407
  81. ↑ 81.0 81.1 Lajoye & Oudaer 2014, p. 53.
  82. ↑ Koch, John T. Celtic Culture: G-L. Volume 3. Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia. ABC/CLIO. 2006. p. 907. ISBN:1851094407
  83. ↑ West 2007, p. 241, 243.
  84. ↑ Jakobson 1985, p. 21.
  85. ↑ 85.0 85.1 85.2 85.3 85.4 85.5 Koch 2020, pp. 142–144.
  86. ↑ 86.0 86.1 86.2 Derksen 2015, p. 544.
  87. ↑ 87.0 87.1 87.2 West 2007, p. 253–254.
  88. ↑ 88.0 88.1 Rhys, John. Lectures on the origin and growth of religion as illustrated by Celtic heathendom. London, Edinburgh [etc.]: Williams and Norgate. 1892. p. 59.
  89. ↑ Australian National University. Routledge Macedonian-English Dictionary. Routledge. 1998. p. 263. ISBN:0-415-16046-4
  90. ↑ Raede, John W. "The Linguistic Importance of Lusatian." Canadian Slavonic Papers / Revue Canadienne Des Slavistes 9, no. 2 (1967): 231-44. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40866134.
  91. ↑ Афанасьев, А.Н. Поэтические воззрения славян на природу: Опыт сравнительного изучения славянских преданий и верований в связи с мифическими сказаниями других родственных народов. Том 1. Moskva: Izd. K. Soldatenkova 1865. p. 253. (In Russian) [2]
  92. ↑ Raede, John W. "Upper Lusatian Synonyms, A Language-Building Element." Canadian Slavonic Papers / Revue Canadienne Des Slavistes 11, no. 2 (1969): 221-35. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40866229.
  93. ↑ Koch, John T. (2006). Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. p. 1209. ISBN 1851094407. 
  94. ↑ Rolland, Henri (1944). "Inscriptions antiques de Glanum [Saint- Rémy-de-Provence (Bouches-du-Rhône)"]. Gallia 2 (1): 167–223. doi:10.3406/galia.1944.1989. https://www.persee.fr/doc/galia_0016-4119_1944_num_2_1_1989. 
  95. ↑ 95.0 95.1 Le Quellec 1996, p. 291.
  96. ↑ Groome, Francis Hindes. In Gipsy tents. Edinburgh: W. P. Nimmo & co.. 1890. p. 12. [3]
  97. ↑ Alves, Victor Hugo Sampaio. "As Direções em que Thor Arremessou sua Arma: Apontamentos Sobre a Etimologia e os Paralelos Mitológicos de Mjölnir". In: NEARCO (Núcleo de Estudos da Antiguidade-NEA da Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro): Revista Eletrônica de Antiguidade 2020, Volume XII, Número I. p. 190. ISSN 1982-8713 (in Portuguese)
  98. ↑ 98.0 98.1 98.2 98.3 98.4 98.5 98.6 Kroonen 2013, p. 220.
  99. ↑ 99.0 99.1 99.2 99.3 Derksen 2015, p. 47.
  100. ↑ West 2007, p. 245.
  101. ↑ Lajoye, Patrice (2012). "There is no "Perun in the Caucasus"... But Maybe an Ancient Iranian Thunder Demon" (in en). Studia Mythologica Slavica 15: 179–184. doi:10.3986/sms.v15i1.1582. ISSN 1581-128X. 
  102. ↑ Bergmann, Frederic Guillaume. Les Scythes. Halle: W. H. Schmidt. 1858. pp. 173-175.
  103. ↑ Афанасьев, А.Н. Поэтические воззрения славян на природу: Опыт сравнительного изучения славянских преданий и верований в связи с мифическими сказаниями других родственных народов. Том 1. Moskva: Izd. K. Soldatenkova 1865. p. 183. (In Russian) [4]
  104. ↑ Prósper, Blanca Maria. Lenguas y religiones prerromanas del occidente de la Península Ibérica. Ediciones Universidad Salamanca. 2002. p. 422. ISBN:84-7800-818-7
  105. ↑ Faria, A. Marques de. "Crónica de onomástica paleo-hispânica (23)". In: Revista Portuguesa de Arqueologia n. 19, 2016. p. 160.
  106. ↑ De Bernardo 2009, pp. 11–12.
  107. ↑ Adrados, Francisco R. (1995). "Propuestas para la interpretación de Botorrita 1" (in es). Emerita 63 (1): 1–16. doi:10.3989/emerita.1995.v63.i1.348. ISSN 1988-8384. 
  108. ↑ Adrados, Francisco R. (2002). "Sobre Botorrita IV" (in es). Emerita 70 (1): 1–8. doi:10.3989/emerita.2002.v70.i1.118. ISSN 1988-8384. 
  109. ↑ Lajoye, Patrice. L'arbre du monde: La cosmologie celte. Paris: CNRS Éditions. 2016. p. 35.
  110. ↑ De Bernardo 2009, p. 694 n. 45.
  111. ↑ Bernardo Stempel, Patrizia de; Hainzmann, Manfred, and Mathieu, Nicolas. “Celtic and Other Indigenous Divine Names Found in the Italian Peninsula.” In: Théonymie Celtique, Cultes, Interpretatio - Keltische Theonymie, Kulte, Interpretatio. Edited by Patrizia de Bernardo Stempel and Andreas Hofeneder, 1st ed. Austrian Academy of Sciences Press, 2013. pp. 80-81. http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv8mdn28.8.
  112. ↑ Lajoye & Oudaer 2014, pp. 40–41.
  113. ↑ Lajoye & Oudaer 2014, pp. 50–51.
  114. ↑ Beekes 2009, p. 677.
  115. ↑ Güterbock, Hans Gustav. "The Song of Ullikummi Revised Text of the Hittite Version of a Hurrian Myth". In: Journal of Cuneiform Studies 5, no. 4 (1951): 135-61. Accessed August 22, 2020. doi:10.2307/1359008.
  116. ↑ Zaroff, Roman. "Organized pagan cult in Kievan Rus: The invention of foreign elite or evolution of local tradition? [Organizirani poganski kult v kijevski drzavi: Iznajdba tuje elite ali razvoj krajevnega izrocila?]". In: Studia mythologica Slavica. 2 (1999): 56. 10.3986/sms.v2i0.1844.
  117. ↑ Jakobson 1985, p. 153.
  118. ↑ Vennemann, Theo. (2008). Lombards and consonant shift: A Unified Account of the High Germanic Consonant Shift. In: 18th International Conference on Historical Linguistics/Workshop Origins, Volume 33. pp. 213-256.
  119. ↑ West 2007, pp. 242–244; Mallory & Adams 1997, pp. 582–583; Jakobson 1985, pp. 6, 19–21; Treimer 1971, pp. 31–33.
  120. ↑ Orel 1998, pp. 315–316.
  121. ↑ Georgiev, Vladimir I.. "Thrakisch und Dakisch". Band 29/2. Teilband Sprache und Literatur (Sprachen und Schriften [Forts.]), edited by Wolfgang Haase, Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter, 1983. p. 1209. doi:10.1515/9783110847031-016
  122. ↑ Beševliev, Veselin. "Vorthrakisch?". In: Balkan Studies Vol 31, No 1 (1990): 48.
  123. ↑ Popov, Dimitar [bg]. "Le Dieu Supreme des Thraces. Incarnations et Identifications, Traductions - Notations et Noms - Appellations" [The Supreme God of Thracians. Incarnations and Identifications, Translations - Remarks and Names - Appelations]. In Thracia 18 (2009): 28-30.
  124. ↑ Łuczyński, Michał. “Kognitywna Definicja Peruna: Etnolingwistyczna próba Rekonstrukcji Fragmentu słowiańskiego Tradycyjnego Mitologicznego Obrazu świata" [Cognitive Definition of Perun: An Attempt at Reconstruction of a Fragment of the Traditional Mythological Appearance of the Slavic World]. In: Studia Mythologica Slavica 14 (October). 2011. Ljubljana, Slovenija. p. 220. https://doi.org/10.3986/sms.v14i0.1611.
  125. ↑ Léger, Louis. La mythologie slave. Paris, E. Leroux. 1901. p. 62.
  126. ↑ Kloekhorst 2008, p. 835.
  127. ↑ Hutter, Manfred (2003). "Aspects of Luwian Religion". in H. Craig Melchert. The Luwians. Handbuch der Orientalistik. 1.68Leiden. Brill. pp. 221. ISBN 90-04-13009-8. 
  128. ↑ Watkins 1995, p. 344.
  129. ↑ Kloekhorst 2008, pp. 836.
  130. ↑ Sims-Williams, Nicholas. “A Bactrian God.” In: Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 60, no. 2 (1997): 338. doi:10.1017/S0041977X00036430.
  131. ↑ Katić, Miroslav. "Castella qui sunt super civitatem Salonitanam". Vjesnik za arheologiju i historiju dalmatinsku 111, br. 1 (2018): 247-248. https://hrcak.srce.hr/217259
  132. ↑ Burić, Tonči. "Perunovo brdo (monte Borun) – prilog poznavanju poganske slavenske toponimije u Kaštelima" [Perun's mountain (monte Borun) – a contribution to understanding the pagan Slavic toponymy of Kaštela]. Starohrvatska prosvjeta III, br. 38 (2011): 59-82. https://hrcak.srce.hr/81101
  133. ↑ Annali: Sezione slava. Volume 9. Naples, Italy: Istituto universitario orientale, 1966. p. 34.
  134. ↑ Zaroff, Roman. “Organized Pagan Cult in Kievan Rus’. The Invention of Foreign Elite or Evolution of Local Tradition? [Organizirani Poganski Kult V Kijevski državi. Iznajdba Tuje Elite Ali Razvoj Krajevnega izročila?]”. In: Studia Mythologica Slavica 2 (May). Ljubljana, Slovenija. 1999. p. 57. https://doi.org/10.3986/sms.v2i0.1844.
  135. ↑ Gimbutas, Marija. "Ancient Slavic Religion: A Synopsis". In: To honor Roman Jakobson: essays on the occasion of his 70. birthday, 11. October 1966. Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter Mouton, 2018. p. 742. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783111604763-064
  136. ↑ Lajoye 2015, pp. 44–46.
  137. ↑ Zaroff, Roman. "Some aspects of pre-Christian Baltic religion". In: New researches on the religion and mythology of the Pagan Slavs. Edited by Patrice Lajoye. Paris: Lingva, 2019. p. 198.
  138. ↑ Balode-Anelauskaitė, Laimutė. "Baltic names of deities in the hydronyms of Latvia and Lithuania". In: Perspectives of Baltic philology. 1 / ed. by Jowita Niewulis-Grablunas, Justyna Prusinowska, Ewa Stryczyńska-Hodyl. Poznań: Wydawnictwo Rys, 2008. pp. 21-40. ISBN:9788360517321.

Bibliography

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  • De Bernardo, Patrizia (2009). "La gramática celtibérica del Primer Bronce de Botorrita: nuevos resultados". Palaeohispanica. Revista sobre lenguas y culturas de la Hispania Antigua (9): 683–699. ISSN 1578-5386. 
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  • Lajoye, Patrice; Oudaer, Guillaume (2014). "*Percos/*Ercos: An Unknown Celtic Theonym". The Journal of Indo-European Studies 42 (1–2): 40–100. ISSN 0092-2323. 
  • Lajoye, Patrice (2015). Perun, dieu slave de l'orage: Archéologie, histoire, folklore. Lingva. 
  • Le Quellec, Jean-Loïc (1996). "Mégalithes et traditions populaires. La hache et le marteau de vie et de mort". Bulletin de la Société préhistorique française 93 (3): 287–297. doi:10.3406/bspf.1996.10169. 
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Further reading

General studies
  • Blinkenberg, Christian. The Thunderweapon In Religion And Folklore: a Study In Comparative Archaeology. Cambridge [Eng.]: The University press, 1911.
  • Chadwick, H. Munro (1900). "The Oak and the Thunder-God". The Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland 30: 22–44. doi:10.2307/2842615. https://zenodo.org/record/2014020. 
  • Cotton, Gérard (1931). "Orientalia I: Parjányah, le dieu qui <<frappe>> de la foudre". Revue belge de philologie et d'histoire 10 (3): 579–585. doi:10.3406/rbph.1931.6798. ISSN 0035-0818. 
  • Haffter, P. (1972). "The Designations of the Oak in Romance Languages". Acta Classica 15: 95–112. ISSN 0065-1141. 
  • Ivanov, Viatcheslav; Toporov, Vladimir (1970). "Le Mythe Indo-européen du Dieu de l’Orage Poursuivant le Serpent: Reconstruction du Schéma". Échanges et communications, II: Mélanges offerts à Claude Lévi-Strauss à l'occasion de son 60ème anniversaire. De Gruyter Mouton. pp. 1180–1206. doi:10.1515/9783111698281. ISBN 978-3-11-169828-1. 
  • Lajoye, Patrice (2010). "Quirinus, un ancien dieu tonnant? Nouvelles hypothèses sur son étymologie et sa nature primitive". Revue de l'histoire des religions 227 (2): 175–194. doi:10.4000/rhr.7573. ISSN 0035-1423.  and Mythologie et religion des Slaves païens. Les Belles Lettres. 2022. ISBN 978-2251453-12-5. 
  • Laurinkiene, Nijole (1996). Senovés Lietuviu Dievas Perkunas. Vilnius, Lithuania: Lietuvu Literaturos Tautosakos Institutas. ISBN 9986-513-14-6. 
For the etymology of the Indo-European weather-god, see
For the association with "stones", "mountains" and "heaven", see
  • Beckwith, Miles C. (1998). "The 'Hanging of Hera' and the Meaning of Greek ἄκμων". Harvard Studies in Classical Philology 98: 91–102. doi:10.2307/311338. 
  • Hamp, Eric P. (1967). "On the Notions of 'Stone' and 'Mountain' in Indo-European". Journal of Linguistics 3 (1): 83–90. doi:10.1017/S0022226700012962. ISSN 0022-2267. 
  • Mitchell, Stephen A. (1985). "The Whetstone as Symbol of Authority in Old English and Old Norse". Scandinavian Studies 57 (1): 1–31. ISSN 0036-5637. 



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