Software:Araucaria

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Araucaria ( /ærɔːˈkɛəriə/; original pronunciation: [a.ɾawˈka. ɾja])[1] is a genus of evergreen coniferous trees in the family Araucariaceae. While today they are largely confined to the Southern Hemisphere, during the Jurassic and Cretaceous they were globally distributed. There are 20 extant species in New Caledonia (where 14 species are endemic, see New Caledonian Araucaria), eastern Australia (including Norfolk Island), New Guinea, Argentina, Brazil, Chile and Uruguay.

The genus is familiar to many people as the genus of the distinctive Chilean pine or monkey-puzzle tree (Araucaria araucana). No distinct vernacular name exists for the genus. Many are called "pine", although they are only distantly related to true pines, in the genus Pinus.

Description

Araucaria are mainly large trees with a massive erect stem, reaching a height of 5–80 metres (16–262 ft). The horizontal, spreading branches grow in whorls and are covered with leathery or needle-like leaves. In some species, the leaves are narrow, awl-shaped and lanceolate, barely overlapping each other; in others they are broad and flat, and overlap broadly.[2]

The two South American species A. angustifolia and A. araucana are mostly dioecious, with male and female cones found on separate trees. The other species in the genus are monoecious.[3][4] The female cones, on the top of the tree, are globose, and vary in size among species from 7 to 25 centimetres (3 to 10 in) in diameter. They contain 80–200 large edible seeds, similar to pine nuts, though larger. The male cones are smaller, 4–10 cm (1 1⁄2–4 in) long, narrow to broad cylindrical, and 1.5–5 cm (1⁄2–2 in) broad.

Taxonomy

The genus is named after the Spanish exonym Araucano ("from Arauco") applied to the Mapuche of south-central Chile and south-west Argentina, whose territory incorporates natural stands of a species in this genus identified as A. araucana; the Mapuche people call it pewen, and consider it sacred.[2] Some Mapuche living in the Andes name themselves Pewenche ("people of the pewen") as they traditionally harvested the seeds extensively for food.[5][6]

There are four extant sections and two extinct sections in the genus, sometimes treated as separate genera.[2][7][8]

Phylogeny of Araucaria[9][10]
 
 
 
section

A. hunsteinii Schum.

Intermedia
 
 
section

A. bidwillii Hooker

Bunya
section
 

A. angustifolia (Bertoloni) Kuntze

 
 

A. araucana (Molina) Koch

 
Araucaria
 
 
 
section
 

A. cunninghamii Aiton ex A.Cunn.

 
 
 

A. heterophylla (Salisbury) Franco

 
 
 

A. muelleri (Carrière) Brongniart & Gris

 
 
 

A. bernieri Buchholz

 
 
 

A. subulata Vieillard

 
 
 

A. biramulata Buchholz

 
 
 

A. schmidii de Laubenfels

 
 
 

A. montana Brongniart & Gris

 
 
 

A. scopulorum de Laubenfels

 
 
 

A. laubenfelsii Corbasson

 
 
 

A. humboldtensis Buchholz

 
 
 

A. rulei von Mueller

 
 
 

A. luxurians (Brongniart & Gris) de Laubenfels

 
 
 

A. nemorosa de Laubenfels

 
 

A. columnaris (Forster) Hooker

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Eutacta
 
 

Extant species

Section Image Leaves Name Distribution
Section Araucaria Wilde and Eames, 1952 120px 120px Araucaria angustifolia – Paraná pine or candelabra tree southern and southeastern Brazil, northeastern Argentina.
120px 120px Araucaria araucana – monkey-puzzle or pehuén central Chile & western Argentina.
Section Bunya Wilde and Eames, 1952[11] 120px 120px Araucaria bidwillii – bunya-bunya Eastern Australia
Section Intermedia White, 1947 120px 120px Araucaria hunsteinii – klinki New Guinea
Section Eutacta Endl. 1847
120px Araucaria bernieri New Caledonia
120px 120px Araucaria biramulata New Caledonia
120px 120px Araucaria columnaris - Cook pine New Caledonia
120px 120px Araucaria cunninghamii - Moreton Bay pine, hoop pine Eastern Australia, New Guinea
Araucaria goroensis New Caledonia
120px 120px Araucaria heterophylla – Norfolk Island pine Norfolk Island
120px 120px Araucaria humboldtensis New Caledonia
120px Araucaria laubenfelsii New Caledonia
120px 120px Araucaria luxurians New Caledonia
120px 120px Araucaria montana New Caledonia
120px 120px Araucaria muelleri New Caledonia
120px 120px Araucaria nemorosa New Caledonia
120px 120px Araucaria rulei New Caledonia
Araucaria schmidii New Caledonia
120px 120px Araucaria scopulorum New Caledonia
120px 120px Araucaria subulata New Caledonia

Genetic studies

Petrified cone of Araucaria mirabilis from Patagonia, Argentina dating from the Jurassic Period (approx. 157 mya)

Genetic studies indicate that the extant members of the genus can be subdivided into two large clades – the first consisting of the sections Araucaria, Bunya, and Intermedia; and the second of the strongly monophyletic section Eutacta. Sections Eutacta and Bunya are both the oldest taxa of the genus, with Eutacta possibly older.[12]

Taxa marked with † are extinct.

Araucaria bindrabunensis (previously classified under section Bunya) has been transferred to the genus Araucarites.

Distribution and paleoecology

Three members of the genus growing together – left to right, A. columnaris, A. cunninghamii and A. bidwillii

Members of Araucaria are found in Argentina, Brazil, New Caledonia, Norfolk Island, Australia, New Guinea, Chile and Papua (Indonesia).[23] Many if not all current populations are relicts, and of restricted distribution. They are found in forest and maquis shrubland, with an affinity for exposed sites. The earliest records of the genus date to the Middle Jurassic, represented by Araucaria mirabilis of Argentina, and Araucaria sphaerocarpa from England. Fossil records show that the genus also formerly occurred in the northern hemisphere until the end of the Cretaceous period.[16] A possible species of Araucaria may have existed in New Zealand as recently as 350,000 years ago.[24] However, it is also possible that this fossil actually represents a specimen of Agathis.[24]

By far the greatest diversity exists in New Caledonia, likely due to a relatively recent adaptive radiation, as all New Caledonian species are more closely related to each other than they are to other Araucaria.[16][2] Much of New Caledonia is composed of ultramafic rock with serpentine soils, with low levels of nutrients, but high levels of metals such as nickel.[25] Consequently, its endemic Araucaria species are adapted to these conditions, and many species have been severely affected by nickel mining in New Caledonia and are now considered threatened or endangered, due to their habitat lying in prime areas for nickel mining activities.

Some evidence suggests that the long necks of sauropod dinosaurs may have evolved specifically to browse the foliage of tall trees, including those of Araucaria. An analysis of modern Araucaria leaves found that they have a high energy content but are slow fermenting, making their ancestors a likely attractive target.[26]


Uses

Some of the species are relatively common in cultivation because of their distinctive, formal symmetrical growth habit. Several species are economically important for timber production.

Food

For broader coverage of this topic, see Conifer nuts.

The edible large seeds of A. araucana, A. angustifolia and A. bidwillii — also known as Araucaria nuts,[27] and often called, although improperly, pine nuts — are eaten as food, particularly among the Mapuche people of Chile and southwest Argentina, the Kaingang people in Southern Brazil and among Indigenous Australians.[2] In South America Araucaria nuts or seeds are called piñas or piñones in Spanish and pinhões in Portuguese, like pine nuts in Europe.

Pharmacological activity

Pharmacological reports on the genus Araucaria are anti-ulcer, antiviral, neuro-protective, anti-depressant and anti-coagulant.[28]

See also

References

  1. ↑ araucaria (3rd ed.), Oxford University Press, September 2005, http://oed.com/search?searchType=dictionary&q=araucaria  (Subscription or UK public library membership required.)
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 Christopher J. Earle (12 December 2010). "Araucaria Jussieu 1789". The Gymnosperm Database. http://www.conifers.org/ar/Araucaria.php. 
  3. ↑ Genome sizes of all 19 Araucaria species are correlated with their geographical distribution
  4. ↑ The Gymnosperm Database - Araucaria
  5. ↑ "Araucaria columnaris". National Tropical Botanical Garden. http://ntbg.org/plants/plant_details.php?plantid=867. 
  6. ↑ Francisco P. Moreno (November 2004). "Pehuenches: "The people from the Araucarias forests"". Museo de la Patagonia. http://www.bariloche.com.ar/museo/MAPUING.HTM. 
  7. ↑ Michael Black; H. W. Pritchard (2002). Desiccation and survival in plants: Drying without dying. CAB International. p. 246. ISBN 978-0-85199-534-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=8bMEVRRBWjsC&pg=PA245. 
  8. ↑ James E. Eckenwalder (2009). Conifers of the World: the Complete Reference. Timber Press. p. 149. ISBN 978-0-88192-974-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=QGmO_CtTPAEC&pg=PA149. 
  9. ↑ Stull, Gregory W.Expression error: Unrecognized word "et". (2021). "Gene duplications and phylogenomic conflict underlie major pulses of phenotypic evolution in gymnosperms". Nature Plants 7 (8): 1015–1025. doi:10.1038/s41477-021-00964-4. PMID 34282286. Bibcode: 2021NatPl...7.1015S. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41477-021-00964-4. 
  10. ↑ Stull, Gregory W. (2021). "main.dated.supermatrix.tree.T9.tre". Figshare. doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.14547354.v1. https://figshare.com/articles/dataset/Gene_duplications_and_genomic_conflict_underlie_major_pulses_of_phenotypic_evolution_in_gymnosperms/14547354. 
  11. ↑ Wilde, Mary Hitchcock; Eames, Arthur J. (1955). "The Ovule and 'Seed' of Araucaria Bidwillii with Discussion of the Taxonomy of the Genus: III. Anatomy of Multi-ovulate Gone Scales". Annals of Botany (Oxford University Press) 19 (75): 343–349. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.aob.a083433. ISSN 0305-7364. http://www.jstor.org/stable/42907286. Retrieved 2022-11-13. 
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 Hiroaki Setoguchi; Takeshi Asakawa Osawa; Jean-Cristophe Pintaud; Tanguy Jaffré; Jean-Marie Veillon (1998). "Phylogenetic relationships within Araucariaceae based on rbcL gene sequences". American Journal of Botany 85 (11): 1507–1516. doi:10.2307/2446478. PMID 21680310. 
  13. ↑ Mary E. Dettmann; H. Trevor Clifford (2005). "Biogeography of Araucariaceae". in J. Dargavel. Australia and New Zealand Forest Histories. Araucaria Forests. Occasional Publication 2. Australian Forest History Society. pp. 1–9. http://fennerschool-associated.anu.edu.au/environhist/links/publications/anzfh/anzfh2dettmann%26clifford.pdf. 
  14. ↑ Erich Götz (1980). Pteridophytes and Gymnosperms. Springer. p. 295. ISBN 978-3-540-51794-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=8_FxJfTifF4C&pg=PA295. 
  15. ↑ Cookson, Isabel C.; Duigan, Suzanne L. (1951). "Tertiary Araucariaceae From South-Eastern Australia, With Notes on Living Species". Australian Journal of Biological Sciences 4 (4): 415–49. doi:10.1071/BI9510415. 
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 Stockey, Ruth A.; Rothwell, Gar W. (July 2020). "Diversification of crown group Araucaria : the role of Araucaria famii sp. nov. in the Late Cretaceous (Campanian) radiation of Araucariaceae in the Northern Hemisphere" (in en). American Journal of Botany 107 (7): 1072–1093. doi:10.1002/ajb2.1505. ISSN 0002-9122. PMID 32705687. 
  17. ↑ Césari, S. N.; Marenssi, S. A.; Santillana, S. N. (2001-06-01). "Conifers from the Upper Cretaceous of Cape Lamb, Vega Island, Antarctica". Cretaceous Research 22 (3): 309–319. doi:10.1006/cres.2001.0260. ISSN 0195-6671. Bibcode: 2001CrRes..22..309C. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0195667101902605. 
  18. ↑ Araucaria marensii at Fossilworks.org
  19. ↑ Vizcaíno, Sergio F.; Kay, Richard F.; Bargo, M. Susana (2012). "Araucaria+marensii"&pg=PA112 Early Miocene Paleobiology in Patagonia: High-Latitude Paleocommunities of the Santa Cruz Formation (Late Eocene - Early Miocene). Cambridge University Press. p. 112. ISBN 9781139576413. https://books.google.com/books?id=lFEgAwAAQBAJ&q="Araucaria+marensii"&pg=PA112. Retrieved 2017-10-21. 
  20. ↑ Pole, Mike (2008). "The record of Araucariaceae macrofossils in New Zealand". Alcheringa 32 (4): 405–26. doi:10.1080/03115510802417935. Bibcode: 2008Alch...32..405P. 
  21. ↑ Del Fueyo, G. M. (2002). Archangelsky, A. ed. "Araucaria grandifolia Feruglio from the Lower Cretaceous of Patagonia, Argentina". Cretaceous Research 23 (2): 265–277. doi:10.1006/cres.2002.1001. Bibcode: 2002CrRes..23..265D. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0195667102910013. 
  22. ↑ "†Araucaria jeffreyi Berry 1908". https://paleobiodb.org/classic/basicTaxonInfo?taxon_no=424177. 
  23. ↑ The Pine Trees of Lanai
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 Pole, Mike (2019). "A survey of Pliocene to Mid-Quaternary leaf cuticle from the North Island, New Zealand". Palaeontologia Electronica 22 (1). doi:10.26879/862. ISSN 1094-8074. https://doi.org/10.26879/862. 
  25. ↑ "Maquis plants". October 13, 2013. https://newcaledoniaplants.com/plant-catalog/maquis-shrubland-plants/. 
  26. ↑ Jürgen Hummel; Carole T. Gee; Karl-Heinz Südekum; P. Martin Sander; Gunther Nogge; Marcus Clauss (2008). "In vitro digestibility of fern and gymnosperm foliage: implications for sauropod feeding ecology and diet selection". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 275 (1638): 1015–1021. doi:10.1098/rspb.2007.1728. PMID 18252667. 
  27. ↑ Québec Amerique, ed (1996). "Pine nut". The Visual Food Encyclopedia. p. 280. ISBN 9782764408988. https://books.google.com/books?id=TOG-ItIHp_kC&q=araucaria+nuts&pg=PA280. 
  28. ↑ Aslam, M.S.; Ijaz, A.S. (2013). "Phytochemical and ethno-pharmacological review of the genus Araucaria". Journal of Tropical Pharmaceutical Research. Review Article 12 (4): 651–659. doi:10.4314/tjpr.v12i4.31. 

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