Chemistry:Chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine during the COVID-19 pandemic

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Short description: Early experimental treatment efforts during the start of COVID-19 pandemic


A World Health Organization infographic that states that hydroxychloroquine does not prevent illness or death from COVID-19.

Chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine are anti-malarial medications also used against some auto-immune diseases.[1] Chloroquine, along with hydroxychloroquine, was an early experimental treatment for COVID-19.[2] Neither drug prevents SARS-CoV-2 infection.[3][4][5][6][7]

Cleavage of the SARS-CoV-2 S2 spike protein required for viral entry into cells can be accomplished by proteases TMPRSS2 located on the cell membrane, or by cathepsins (primarily cathepsin L) in endolysosomes.[8] Hydroxychloroquine inhibits the action of cathepsin L in endolysosomes, but because cathepsin L cleavage is minor compared to TMPRSS2 cleavage, hydroxychloroquine does little to inhibit SARS-CoV-2 infection.[8]

Several countries initially used chloroquine or hydroxychloroquine for treatment of persons hospitalized with COVID-19 (as of March 2020), though the drug was not formally approved through clinical trials.[9][10] From April to June 2020, there was an emergency use authorization for their use in the United States,[11] and was used off label for potential treatment of the disease.[12] On 24 April 2020, citing the risk of "serious heart rhythm problems", the FDA posted a caution against using the drug for COVID-19 "outside of the hospital setting or a clinical trial".[13]

Their use was withdrawn as a possible treatment for COVID-19 infection when it proved to have no benefit for hospitalized patients with severe COVID-19 illness in the international Solidarity trial and UK RECOVERY Trial.[14][15] On 15 June 2020, the FDA revoked its emergency use authorization, stating that it was "no longer reasonable to believe" that the drug was effective against COVID-19 or that its benefits outweighed "known and potential risks".[16][17][18] In fall of 2020, the National Institutes of Health issued treatment guidelines recommending against the use of hydroxychloroquine for COVID-19 except as part of a clinical trial.[1]

In 2021, hydroxychloroquine was part of the recommended treatment for mild cases in India.[19]

In 2020, the speculative use of hydroxychloroquine for COVID-19 threatened its availability for people with established indications (malaria and auto-immune diseases).[5]

Researchers estimate that off-label use of hydroxychloroquine in hospitals during the first phase of the pandemic caused 17,000 deaths worldwide.[20]

Background

Chloroquine is an anti-malarial medication that is also used against some auto-immune diseases. Hydroxychloroquine is more commonly available than chloroquine in the United States.[9] Hydroxychloroquine is used as a prophylactic in India.[21][22]

Hydroxychloroquine and chloroquine have numerous, potentially serious, side effects, such as retinopathy, hypoglycemia, or life-threatening arrhythmia and cardiomyopathy.[23] Both drugs have extensive interactions with prescription drugs, affecting the therapeutic dose and disease mitigation.[23][24] Some people have allergic reactions to these drugs.[23][24] The NIH recommended against the use of a combination of hydroxychloroquine and azithromycin because of the resulting increased risk of sudden cardiac death.[25]

In October 2021 a large network of companies selling hydroxychloroquine and ivermectin has been disclosed in the US, targeting primarily right-wing and vaccine hesitant groups through social media and conspiracy videos by anti-vaccine activists such as Simone Gold. The network had 72,000 customers who collectively paid $15 million for consultations and medications.[26]

Timeline

Chloroquine was initially recommended by Indian, Chinese, South Korean and Italian health authorities for the treatment of COVID-19,[27] although these agencies and the US CDC noted contraindications for people with heart disease or diabetes.[9][28] In February 2020, both drugs were shown to effectively reduce COVID-19 illness, but a further study concluded that hydroxychloroquine was more potent than chloroquine and had a more tolerable safety profile.[29][30]

On 18 March 2020, the World Health Organization (WHO) announced that chloroquine and the related hydroxychloroquine would be among the four drugs studied as part of the multinational Solidarity clinical trial.[31]

On 19 March 2020, US president Donald Trump encouraged the use of chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine during a national press conference. These endorsements led to massive increases in public demand for the drugs in the United States.[32] Beginning in March 2020, Trump began promoting hydroxychloroquine to prevent or treat COVID-19, citing small numbers of anecdotal reports.[33] Trump stated in June that he was taking the drug as a preventive measure,[17] stimulating unprecedented worldwide demand and causing shortages of hydroxychloroquine for its prescribed purpose of preventing malaria.[33]

New York governor Andrew Cuomo announced that New York State trials of chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine would begin on 24 March.[34] On 28 March, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) authorized the use of hydroxychloroquine sulfate and chloroquine phosphate under an Emergency Use Authorization (EUA), which was later revoked due to the risk of cardiac adverse events.[2][35] The drug was authorized under the EUA as an experimental treatment for emergency use in hospitalized patients.[2][35][36]

In late March 2020, an Arizona man died of cardiac arrest and his wife was hospitalized after the couple ingested a version of chloroquine used as a parasite treatment for aquarium fish. The couple had incorrectly believed that the parasite treatment would have the same effects as the medication form of chloroquine. The surviving wife stated that the couple self-administered the chemical after listening to speeches by President Donald Trump that touted chloroquine as an effective treatment against COVID-19.[37][38]

Beginning in March 2020, New Jersey state senator Joe Pennacchio began publicly calling for the use of hydroxychloroquine to combat the spread of COVID-19 based on a French study which showed a decrease in "viral shedding."[39] He received support from over 60 doctors and advocacy groups across the United States, including Sheila Page and Marilyn Singleton from the Association of American Physicians and Surgeons, Niran Al-Agba from Physicians for Patient Protection and Frank Alario of the American College of Physicians.[39]

On 28 March 2020, the FDA authorized the use of hydroxychloroquine and chloroquine under an emergency use authorization (EUA).[2] The experimental treatment was first authorized only for emergency use for people hospitalized but unable to receive treatment in a clinical trial.[36]

On 1 April 2020, the European Medicines Agency (EMA) issued guidance that chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine are only to be used in clinical trials or emergency use programs.[40]

On 9 April 2020, the National Institutes of Health began the first clinical trial to assess whether hydroxychloroquine is safe and effective to treat COVID-19.[41][42] A Veterans Affairs study released results on 21 April suggesting COVID-19-hospitalized patients treated with hydroxychloroquine were more likely to die than those who received no drug treatment at all, after correcting for clinical characteristics.[43][44]

On 24 April 2020, the FDA cautioned against using the drug outside a hospital setting or clinical trial after reviewing case reports of adverse effects including ventricular tachycardia, ventricular fibrillation and in some cases death.[13] According to Johns Hopkins' ABX Guide for COVID-19, "Hydroxychloroquine may cause prolonged QT, and caution should be used in critically ill COVID-19 patients who may have cardiac dysfunction or if combined with other drugs that cause QT prolongation".[45] Caution was also recommended as to the combination of chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine with treatments which might inhibit the CYP3A4 enzyme (by which these drugs are metabolized). As such, combination might indirectly result in higher plasma levels of chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine, and thus enhance the risk for significant QT prolongation. CYP3A4 inhibitors include Azithromycin, ritonavir, and lopinavir.[46]

On 27 April 2020 the Association of American Physicians and Surgeons wrote a letter, signed by Jane Orient and Michael Robb, to Arizona governor Doug Ducey asking to rescind his executive order forbidding the use of hydrochloroquine as a treatment for COVID-19.[47] The executive order was signed on 2 April 2020.[48]

On 5 June 2020, use of hydroxychloroquine in the UK RECOVERY Trial was discontinued when an interim analysis of 1,542 treatments showed it provided no mortality benefit to people hospitalized with severe COVID-19 infection over 28 days of observation.[15]

On 15 June 2020, the FDA revoked the emergency use authorization for hydroxychloroquine and chloroquine, stating that although the evaluation of both these drugs under clinical trials continues, the FDA (after interagency consultation with the Biomedical Advanced Research and Development Authority (BARDA)) concluded that, based on new information and other information discussed "... it is no longer reasonable to believe that oral formulations of hydroxychloroquine (HCQ) and chloroquine (CQ) may be effective in treating COVID-19, nor is it reasonable to believe that the known and potential benefits of these products outweigh their known and potential risks".[16][49][50][18]

On 23 July 2020, results were published from a multicenter, randomized, open-label, three-group, controlled trial of 667 participants in Brazil which found no benefit from using hydroxychloroquine, alone or with azithromycin, to treat mild-to-moderate COVID-19.[51] In July, the U.S. President Donald Trump once again promoted the use of the drug contradicting various public health officials, including National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases director Dr. Anthony Fauci.[52]

In November 2020, a U.S. National Institutes of Health clinical trial evaluating the safety and effectiveness of hydroxychloroquine for the treatment of adults with COVID-19 formally concluded that the drug provided no clinical benefit for COVID-19 treatment and recommended against its use.[53][54][1]

A Cochrane review from February 2021 came to the conclusion, that hydroxychloroquine has little or no effect on the risk of death. Besides, adverse events are tripled compared to placebo. The authors came to the conclusion that no further trials of hydroxychloroquine or chloroquine for treatment of COVID-19 should be carried out.[55]

On 26 April 2021, in its amended clinical management protocol for COVID-19, the Indian Ministry of Health lists hydroxychloroquine for use in patients during the early course of the disease.[19]

A French study published in 2024 found that the use of hydroxychloroquine may have been associated with 17,000 deaths.[56][57]

Combined with zinc and another antibiotic

Due to the properties of zinc as a cofactor in the immune response for producing antibodies during viral infections,[58] as of May 2020 it was being included among multiple-agent "cocktails" for investigating potential treatment of people hospitalized with COVID-19 infection.[59] One such cocktail – hydroxychloroquine combined with a high dose of zinc (as a sulfate, 220 mg (50 mg elemental Zn) per day for five days, a zinc dose ~4 times higher than the reference daily intake level)[58] and an approved antibiotic, either azithromycin or doxycycline – began in May as a Phase IV trial in New York State.[60] However, caution was recommended about the combination of chloroquine or hydroxychloroquine with CYP3A4 inhibitors, such as azithromycin,[46] a treatment combination found to be ineffective for preventing death in hospitalized people with COVID-19.[61] There is preliminary evidence that combining hydroxychloroquine and azithromycin for treating non-hospitalized ("outpatient") people with COVID-19 infection with multiple comorbidities was effective, but remains under preliminary research.[62]

Zinc deficiency – which decreases immune capacity to defend against pathogens – is common among elderly people, and may be a susceptibility factor in viral infections.[58] The mechanism for any potential benefit of including zinc in a cocktail treatment for recovery from severe COVID-19 or any viral infection is unknown.[58][59]

Prophylaxis

Drugs used for treatment of infectious diseases may also be considered for use for post-exposure prophylaxis. On 22 May, The Lancet published a response to criticism of the Indian government's decision to allow chemoprophylaxis with hydroxychloroquine for some high risk persons who may have had exposure to COVID. Researchers supporting prophylactic administration of hydroxychloquine note that results from human trials have suggested that hydroxychloroquine may decrease the duration of both viral shedding and symptoms if the drug is administered early.[63]

On 3 June, results were published from a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of 821 participants which found that hydroxychloroquine did not prevent symptomatic COVID-19 illness when used for post-exposure prophylaxis.[64][65][66] A randomized, multicenter, placebo-controlled trial amongst healthcare workers found that oral hydroxychloroquine did not help prevent COVID-19 infections when used as pre-exposure prophylaxis.[67]

British researchers are studying whether the drug is effective when used for prevention. 10,000 National Health Service (NHS) workers, along with 30,000 additional volunteers from Asia, South America, Africa, and other parts of Europe are participating in the global study. Results are expected by 2021.[68][69][needs update]

WHO trial

Due to safety concerns and evidence of heart arrhythmias leading to higher death rates, the WHO suspended the hydroxychloroquine arm of the multinational Solidarity trial in May 2020.[70][71][72] The WHO had enrolled 3,500 patients from 17 countries in the Solidarity trial.[70] The research surrounding this suspension, provided by a company called Surgisphere based in Chicago , came into question due to errors in the underlying data set.[73][74][75] The authors of the study corrected errors in the data later but initially remained firm on their conclusions.[73] Subsequently, a retraction of the study by three of its authors was published by The Lancet on 4 June 2020.[76] The authors stated that their reason behind the retraction was because Surgisphere had failed to cooperate with an independent review of the data used for the study by not allowing any such review to take place.[77][78]

The WHO decided to resume the trial on 3 June, after reviewing the safety concerns which had been raised. Speaking at a press briefing, WHO's director-general, Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus stated that the board had reviewed the available mortality data and had found "no reasons to modify the trial".[79][80]

On 4 July, the WHO discontinued the hydroxychloroquine trial based on evidence presented at the July WHO Summit on COVID-19 research and innovation. The WHO stated that "These interim trial results show that hydroxychloroquine and lopinavir/ritonavir produce little or no reduction in the mortality of hospitalized COVID-19 patients when compared to standard of care."[81]

See also

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 "Chloroquine or Hydroxychloroquine". National Institutes of Health. https://www.covid19treatmentguidelines.nih.gov/antiviral-therapy/chloroquine-or-hydroxychloroquine-with-or-without-azithromycin/. 
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 "Coronavirus (COVID-19) Update: Daily Roundup March 30, 2020". 30 March 2020. https://www.fda.gov/news-events/press-announcements/coronavirus-covid-19-update-daily-roundup-march-30-2020. 
  3. ↑ "Prophylaxis for COVID-19: a systematic review". Clinical Microbiology and Infection 27 (4): 532–537. April 2021. doi:10.1016/j.cmi.2021.01.013. PMID 33476807. 
  4. ↑ "Rethinking the role of hydroxychloroquine in the treatment of COVID-19". FASEB Journal 34 (5): 6027–6037. May 2020. doi:10.1096/fj.202000919. PMID 32350928. 
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 "Safety considerations with chloroquine, hydroxychloroquine and azithromycin in the management of SARS-CoV-2 infection". CMAJ 192 (17): E450–E453. April 2020. doi:10.1503/cmaj.200528. PMID 32269021. 
  6. ↑ "Assessment of Evidence for COVID-19-Related Treatments: Updated 4/3/2020". American Society of Health-System Pharmacists. https://www.ashp.org/-/media/assets/pharmacy-practice/resource-centers/Coronavirus/docs/ASHP-COVID-19-Evidence-Table.ashx. 
  7. ↑ "Use of Hydroxychloroquine and Chloroquine During the COVID-19 Pandemic: What Every Clinician Should Know". Annals of Internal Medicine 172 (11): 754–755. June 2020. doi:10.7326/M20-1334. PMID 32232419. 
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 "Mechanisms of SARS-CoV-2 entry into cells". Nature Reviews. Molecular Cell Biology 23 (1): 3–20. January 2022. doi:10.1038/s41580-021-00418-x. PMID 34611326. 
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 "Information for clinicians on therapeutic options for COVID-19 patients". US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 21 March 2020. https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/hcp/therapeutic-options.html. 
  10. ↑ "Request for Emergency Use Authorization For Use of Chloroquine Phosphate or Hydroxychloroquine Sulfate Supplied From the Strategic National Stockpile for Treatment of 2019 Coronavirus Disease" (PDF). U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). 28 March 2020. https://www.fda.gov/media/136534/download. 
  11. ↑ "Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19)". 11 February 2020. https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/hcp/therapeutic-options.html. 
  12. ↑ "Treating COVID-19-Off-Label Drug Use, Compassionate Use, and Randomized Clinical Trials During Pandemics". JAMA 323 (19): 1897–1898. May 2020. doi:10.1001/jama.2020.4742. PMID 32208486. 
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  14. ↑ "Hydroxychloroquine halted in WHO-sponsored COVID-19 trials". Bloomberg. 17 June 2020. https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-06-17/hydroxychloroquine-testing-halted-in-who-sponsored-covid-trial. 
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 "No clinical benefit from use of hydroxychloroquine in hospitalised patients with COVID-19". Recovery Trial, Nuffield Department of Population Health, University of Oxford, UK. 5 June 2020. https://www.recoverytrial.net/news/statement-from-the-chief-investigators-of-the-randomised-evaluation-of-covid-19-therapy-recovery-trial-on-hydroxychloroquine-5-june-2020-no-clinical-benefit-from-use-of-hydroxychloroquine-in-hospitalised-patients-with-covid-19. 
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 "Coronavirus (COVID-19) Update: FDA Revokes Emergency Use Authorization for Chloroquine and Hydroxychloroquine". U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) (Press release). 15 June 2020. Retrieved 15 June 2020.
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  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 "Frequently Asked Questions on the Revocation of the Emergency Use Authorization for Hydroxychloroquine Sulfate and Chloroquine Phosphate" (PDF). 15 June 2020. https://www.fda.gov/media/138946/download. 
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 "Clinical Management Protocol for Covid-19 (in Adults)". 24 May 2021. https://www.mohfw.gov.in/pdf/UpdatedDetailedClinicalManagementProtocolforCOVID19adultsdated24052021.pdf.  "Health ministry issues revised clinical management protocols for Covid-19 amid spurt in cases". Press Trust of India. 13 June 2021. https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/health-ministry-issues-revised-clinical-management-protocols-for-covid-19-amid-spurt-in-cases/articleshow/76362512.cms. 
  20. ↑ PRADELLE, Alexiane; MAINBOURG, Sabine; PROVENCHER, Steeve; MASSY, Emmanuel; GRENET, Guillaume; LEGA, Jean-Christophe (February 2024). "Deaths induced by compassionate use of hydroxychloroquine during the first COVID-19 wave: an estimate". Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy 171. doi:10.1016/j.biopha.2023.116055. PMID 38171239. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S075333222301853X. 
  21. ↑ "Revised advisory on the use of Hydroxychloroquine(HCQ) as prophylaxis for SARS-CoV-2 infection(in supersession of previous advisory dated 23rd March, 2020)". Indian Council of Medical Research. 22 May 2020. https://www.icmr.gov.in/pdf/covid/techdoc/V5_Revised_advisory_on_the_use_of_HCQ_SARS_CoV2_infection.pdf. 
  22. ↑ "Coronavirus and hydroxychloroquine: What do we know?". BBC. 1 July 2020. https://www.bbc.com/news/51980731. 
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 23.2 "Hydroxychloroquine sulfate". Drugs.com. 31 March 2020. https://www.drugs.com/monograph/hydroxychloroquine-sulfate.html. 
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 "Chloroquine phosphate". Drugs.com. 31 March 2020. https://www.drugs.com/monograph/chloroquine-phosphate.html. 
  25. ↑ "NIH Panel Recommends Against Drug Combination Promoted By Trump For COVID-19". NPR. 21 April 2020. https://www.npr.org/sections/coronavirus-live-updates/2020/04/21/840341224/nih-panel-recommends-against-drug-combination-trump-has-promoted-for-covid-19. 
  26. ↑ "Network of Right-Wing Health Care Providers Is Making Millions Off Hydroxychloroquine and Ivermectin, Hacked Data Reveals". 28 September 2021. https://theintercept.com/2021/09/28/covid-telehealth-hydroxychloroquine-ivermectin-hacked/. 
  27. ↑ "Physicians work out treatment guidelines for coronavirus". 13 February 2020. http://www.koreabiomed.com/news/articleView.html?idxno=7428. 
  28. ↑ "Plaquenil (hydroxychloroquine sulfate) dose, indications, adverse effects, interactions... from PDR.net". https://www.pdr.net/drug-summary/Plaquenil-hydroxychloroquine-sulfate-1911. 
  29. ↑ "A systematic review on the efficacy and safety of chloroquine for the treatment of COVID-19". Journal of Critical Care 57: 279–283. June 2020. doi:10.1016/j.jcrc.2020.03.005. PMID 32173110. 
  30. ↑ "In Vitro Antiviral Activity and Projection of Optimized Dosing Design of Hydroxychloroquine for the Treatment of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2)". Clinical Infectious Diseases 71 (15): 732–739. July 2020. doi:10.1093/cid/ciaa237. PMID 32150618. 
  31. ↑ "What are the prospects for a COVID-19 treatment?". The Guardian. 19 March 2020. https://www.theguardian.com/science/2020/mar/19/prospects-treatment-coronavirus-drugs-vaccines. 
  32. ↑ "Internet Searches for Unproven COVID-19 Therapies in the United States". JAMA Internal Medicine 180 (8): 1116–1118. August 2020. doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2020.1764. PMID 32347895. 
  33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 "'This is insane!' Many scientists lament Trump's embrace of risky malaria drugs for coronavirus". Science. 26 March 2020. doi:10.1126/science.abb9021. https://www.science.org/content/article/insane-many-scientists-lament-trump-s-embrace-risky-malaria-drugs-coronavirus. Retrieved 4 August 2020. 
  34. ↑ "NY COVID-19 cases surge; Javits Center to house temporary hospitals". Fox 5. 23 March 2020. https://www.fox5ny.com/news/ny-covid-19-cases-surge-javits-center-to-house-temporary-hospitals. 
  35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 "Chloroquine phosphate and hydroxychloroquine sulfate for treatment of COVID-19 Emergency Use Authorization" (PDF). U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). 28 March 2020. https://www.fda.gov/media/136534/download.  This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
  36. ↑ 36.0 36.1 "Fact Sheet for Patients and Parent/Caregivers Emergency Use Authorization (EUA) of Chloroquine Phosphate for Treatment of COVID-19 in Certain Hospitalized Patients" (PDF). U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). https://www.fda.gov/media/136536/download. 
  37. ↑ "Man dies after taking chloroquine in an attempt to prevent coronavirus". NBC News (NBCUniversal Media, LLC). 23 March 2020. https://www.nbcnews.com/health/health-news/man-dies-after-ingesting-chloroquine-attempt-prevent-coronavirus-n1167166. 
  38. ↑ "Fearing coronavirus, Arizona man dies after taking a form of chloroquine used to treat aquariums". CNN (WarnerMedia, LLC). 25 March 2020. https://www.cnn.com/2020/03/23/health/arizona-coronavirus-chloroquine-death/index.html. 
  39. ↑ 39.0 39.1 "Doctors Join Pennacchio's Call to Use Hydroxychloroquine to Combat Spread of COVID-19". 23 March 2020. https://www.senatenj.com/index.php/pennacchio/top-doctors-join-pennacchios-call-to-use-hydroxychloroquine-to-combat-spread-of-covid-19/47005. 
  40. ↑ "COVID-19: chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine only to be used in clinical trials or emergency use programmes". 1 April 2020. https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/news/covid-19-chloroquine-hydroxychloroquine-only-be-used-clinical-trials-emergency-use-programmes. 
  41. ↑ "As CDC drops guidance on chloroquine as COVID-19 therapy, doctors ask for research". Miami Herald. 9 April 2020. https://www.miamiherald.com/news/coronavirus/article241886271.html. 
  42. ↑ "Outcomes Related to COVID-19 Treated With Hydroxychloroquine Among In-patients With Symptomatic Disease (ORCHID)". https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04332991. 
  43. ↑ "Anti-malarial drug Trump touted is linked to higher rates of death in VA coronavirus patients, study says". The Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/2020/04/21/anti-malarial-drug-trump-touted-is-linked-higher-rates-death-va-coronavirus-patients-study-says/. 
  44. ↑ "Outcomes of Hydroxychloroquine Usage in United States Veterans Hospitalized with COVID-19". Med 1 (1): 114–127.e3. December 2020. doi:10.1016/j.medj.2020.06.001. PMID 32838355. 
  45. ↑ "Coronavirus COVID-19 (SARS-CoV-2): Treatment". Johns Hopkins ABX Guide. https://www.hopkinsguides.com/hopkins/view/Johns_Hopkins_ABX_Guide/540747/all/Coronavirus_COVID_19__SARS_CoV_2_#4.1. 
  46. ↑ 46.0 46.1 "SARS-CoV-2, COVID-19, and inherited arrhythmia syndromes". Heart Rhythm 17 (9): 1456–1462. September 2020. doi:10.1016/j.hrthm.2020.03.024. PMID 32244059. 
  47. ↑ "AAPS Letter Asking Gov. Ducey to Rescind Executive Order concerning hydroxychloroquine in COVID-19". 27 April 2020. https://aapsonline.org/aaps-letter-asking-gov-ducey-to-rescind-executive-order-concerning-hydroxychloroquine-in-covid-19/. 
  48. ↑ Howard Fischer Capitol Media Services (3 April 2020). "Gov. Ducey limits availability of malaria drugs to prevent shortages". https://tucson.com/news/arizona_news/gov-ducey-limits-availability-of-malaria-drugs-to-prevent-shortages/article_6ecbadea-a96e-5ebb-8855-84b8b4930060.html. 
  49. ↑ "EUA Archive". 15 June 2020. https://www.fda.gov/emergency-preparedness-and-response/mcm-legal-regulatory-and-policy-framework/emergency-use-authorization-archived-information. "On June 15, 2020, based on FDA's continued review of the scientific evidence available for hydroxychloroquine sulfate (HCQ) and chloroquine phosphate (CQ) to treat COVID-19, FDA has determined that the statutory criteria for EUA as outlined in Section 564(c)(2) of the Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act are no longer met. Specifically, FDA has determined that CQ and HCQ are unlikely to be effective in treating COVID-19 for the authorized uses in the EUA. Additionally, in light of ongoing serious cardiac adverse events and other serious side effects, the known and potential benefits of CQ and HCQ no longer outweigh the known and potential risks for the authorized use. This warrants revocation of the EUA for HCQ and CQ for the treatment of COVID-19."  This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
  50. ↑ "HCQ and CQ revocation letter" (PDF). 15 June 2020. https://www.fda.gov/media/138945/download.  This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
  51. ↑ "Hydroxychloroquine with or without Azithromycin in Mild-to-Moderate Covid-19". The New England Journal of Medicine 383 (21): 2041–2052. November 2020. doi:10.1056/nejmoa2019014. PMID 32706953. 
  52. ↑ "Coronavirus: Hydroxychloroquine ineffective says Fauci". BBC. 29 July 2020. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-53575964. 
  53. ↑ "Hydroxychloroquine does not benefit adults hospitalized with COVID-19". National Institutes of Health (NIH) (Press release). 9 November 2020. Retrieved 9 November 2020. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
  54. ↑ "Effect of Hydroxychloroquine on Clinical Status at 14 Days in Hospitalized Patients With COVID-19: A Randomized Clinical Trial". JAMA 324 (21): 2165–2176. December 2020. doi:10.1001/jama.2020.22240. PMID 33165621. 
  55. ↑ "Chloroquine or hydroxychloroquine for prevention and treatment of COVID-19". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2021 (2): CD013587. February 2021. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD013587.pub2. PMID 33624299. 
  56. ↑ Eccles, Mari (4 January 2024). "Hydroxychloroquine could have caused 17,000 deaths during Covid, study finds". Politico. https://www.politico.eu/article/hydroxychloroquine-could-have-caused-17000-deaths-during-covid-study-finds/. 
  57. ↑ "Deaths induced by compassionate use of hydroxychloroquine during the first COVID-19 wave: an estimate". Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy 171. 2024. doi:10.1016/j.biopha.2023.116055. PMID 38171239. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S075333222301853X. Retrieved 5 January 2024. 
  58. ↑ 58.0 58.1 58.2 58.3 "Zinc". Micronutrient Information Center, Linus Pauling Institute, Oregon State University. 1 May 2019. https://lpi.oregonstate.edu/mic/minerals/zinc. 
  59. ↑ 59.0 59.1 "Zinc might boost effectiveness of malaria drug against COVID-19, experts say". United Press International. 13 May 2020. https://www.upi.com/Health_News/2020/05/13/Zinc-might-boost-effectiveness-of-malaria-drug-against-COVID-19-experts-say/2801589374701/. 
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  61. ↑ "Association of Treatment With Hydroxychloroquine or Azithromycin With In-Hospital Mortality in Patients With COVID-19 in New York State". JAMA 323 (24): 2493–2502. June 2020. doi:10.1001/jama.2020.8630. PMID 32392282. 
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  63. ↑ "Hydroxychloroquine prophylaxis for high-risk COVID-19 contacts in India: a prudent approach". The Lancet. Infectious Diseases 20 (10): 1119–1120. October 2020. doi:10.1016/S1473-3099(20)30430-8. PMID 32450054. 
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  66. ↑ "Hydroxychloroquine, a drug promoted by Trump, failed to prevent healthy people from getting covid-19 in trial". The Washington Post. 3 June 2020. https://www.washingtonpost.com/health/2020/06/03/hydroxychloroquine-clinical-trial-results/. 
  67. ↑ Naggie, Susanna; Milstone, Aaron; Castro, Mario; Collins, Sean P.; Lakshmi, Seetha; Anderson, Deverick J.; Cahuayme-Zuniga, Lizbeth; Turner, Kisha Batey et al. (April 2023). "Hydroxychloroquine for pre-exposure prophylaxis of COVID-19 in health care workers: a randomized, multicenter, placebo-controlled trial Healthcare Worker Exposure Response and Outcomes of Hydroxychloroquine (HERO-HCQ)" (in en). International Journal of Infectious Diseases 129: 40–48. doi:10.1016/j.ijid.2023.01.019. PMID 36682681. 
  68. ↑ "Hydroxychloroquine: NHS staff to take drug as part of global trial". The Guardian. 21 May 2020. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/may/21/hydroxychloroquine-nhs-staff-take-drug-part-global-trial-coronavirus. 
  69. ↑ Chloroquine/ Hydroxychloroquine Prevention of Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19) in the Healthcare Setting; a Randomised, Placebo-controlled Prophylaxis Study (COPCOV). 1 October 2020. https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/record/NCT04303507. 
  70. ↑ 70.0 70.1 "WHO Director-General's opening remarks at the media briefing on COVID-19 – 25 May 2020". World Health Organization. 25 May 2020. https://www.who.int/dg/speeches/detail/who-director-general-s-opening-remarks-at-the-media-briefing-on-covid-19---25-may-2020. 
  71. ↑ "WHO pauses hydroxychloroquine coronavirus trial over safety concerns". Global News (The Associated Press). 25 May 2020. https://globalnews.ca/news/6983283/who-hydroxychloroquine-trial/. 
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  77. ↑ "Coronavirus: Influential study on hydroxychloroquine withdrawn". 5 June 2020. https://www.bbc.com/news/health-52929916. 
  78. ↑ "Covid-19: Lancet retracts paper that halted hydroxychloroquine trials". 4 June 2020. http://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/jun/04/covid-19-lancet-retracts-paper-that-halted-hydroxychloroquine-trials. 
  79. ↑ "WHO resumes hydroxychloroquine study for Covid-19, after reviewing safety concerns". 3 June 2020. https://www.statnews.com/2020/06/03/who-resuming-hydroxychloroquine-study-for-covid-19/. 
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