Biography:Edward Jenner

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Edward Jenner

FRS FRCPE
Born17 May 1749 (1749-05-17)
Berkeley, Gloucestershire, England
Died26 January 1823(1823-01-26) (aged 73)
Berkeley, Gloucestershire, England
Alma mater
Known for
Spouse(s)
Catherine Kingscote
(m. 1788; died 1815)
Children3
Scientific career
FieldsMedicine/surgery, natural history
Academic advisorsJohn Hunter

Edward Jenner (17 May 1749 – 26 January 1823) was an English physician and scientist who pioneered the concept of vaccines and created the smallpox vaccine, the world's first vaccine.[1][2] The terms vaccine and vaccination are derived from Variolae vaccinae ('pustules of the cow'), the term devised by Jenner to denote cowpox. He used it in 1798 in the title of his Inquiry into the Variolae vaccinae known as the Cow Pox, in which he described the protective effect of cowpox against smallpox.[3]

Jenner is often called "the father of immunology",[4] and his work is said to have saved "more lives than any other man".[5]: 100 [6] In Jenner's time, smallpox killed around 10% of the global population, with the number as high as 20% in towns and cities where infection spread more easily.[6] In 1821, he was appointed physician to King George IV, and was also made mayor of Berkeley and justice of the peace. He was a member of the Royal Society. In the field of zoology, he was among the first modern scholars to describe the brood parasitism of the cuckoo (Aristotle also noted this behaviour in his History of Animals). In 2002, Jenner was named in the BBC's list of the 100 Greatest Britons.

Early life

Edward Jenner was born on 17 May 1749[7] in Berkeley, Gloucestershire, England as the eighth of nine children.[8] His father, the Reverend Stephen Jenner, was the vicar of Berkeley, so Jenner received a strong basic education.[7]

Education and training

Jenner's handwritten draft describing the first vaccination is held at the Royal College of Surgeons in London

When Jenner was young, he went to school in Wotton-under-Edge at Katherine Lady Berkeley's School and in Cirencester.[7] During this time, Jenner was inoculated (by variolation) for smallpox, which had a lifelong effect upon his general health.[7] At age 14, he was apprenticed for seven years to Daniel Ludlow, a surgeon of Chipping Sodbury, South Gloucestershire, gaining most of the experience needed to become a surgeon himself.[7]

In 1770, at age 21, Jenner became apprenticed in surgery and anatomy under surgeon John Hunter and others at St George's Hospital, London.[9] William Osler records that Hunter gave Jenner William Harvey's advice, well known in medical circles (and characteristic of the Age of Enlightenment), "Don't think; try."[10] Hunter remained in correspondence with Jenner over natural history and proposed him for the Royal Society. Returning to his native countryside by 1773, Jenner became a successful family doctor and surgeon, practising on dedicated premises at Berkeley. In 1792, "with twenty years' experience of general practice and surgery, Jenner obtained the degree of MD from the University of St Andrews".[2]

Later life

Jenner and others formed the Fleece Medical Society or Gloucestershire Medical Society, so called because it met in the parlour of the Fleece Inn, Rodborough, Gloucestershire. Members dined together and read papers on medical subjects. Jenner contributed papers on angina pectoris, ophthalmia, and cardiac valvular disease and commented on cowpox. He also belonged to a similar society which met in Alveston, near Bristol.[11]

Jenner's 1802 testimonial to the efficacy of vaccination, signed by 112 members of the Physical Society, London

Jenner became a master mason on 30 December 1802, in Lodge of Faith and Friendship #449. From 1812 to 1813, he served as worshipful master of Royal Berkeley Lodge of Faith and Friendship.[12]

Zoology

Common cuckoo

Jenner was elected fellow of the Royal Society in 1788, following his publication of a careful study of the previously misunderstood life of the nested cuckoo, a study that combined observation, experiment, and dissection.

Jenner described how the newly hatched cuckoo pushed its host's eggs and fledgling chicks out of the nest (contrary to existing belief that the adult cuckoo did it).[13] Having observed this behaviour, Jenner demonstrated an anatomical adaptation for it – the baby cuckoo has a depression in its back, not present after 12 days of life, that enables it to cup eggs and other chicks. The adult does not remain long enough in the area to perform this task. Jenner's findings were published in Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society in 1788.[14][15]

"The singularity of its shape is well adapted to these purposes; for, different from other newly hatched birds, its back from the scapula downwards is very broad, with a considerable depression in the middle. This depression seems formed by nature for the design of giving a more secure lodgement to the egg of the Hedge-sparrow, or its young one, when the young Cuckoo is employed in removing either of them from the nest. When it is about twelve days old, this cavity is quite filled up, and then the back assumes the shape of nestling birds in general."[16] Jenner's nephew assisted in the study. He was born on 30 June 1737.

Jenner's understanding of the cuckoo's behaviour was not entirely believed until the artist Jemima Blackburn, a keen observer of birdlife, saw a blind nestling pushing out a host's egg. Blackburn's description and illustration were enough to convince Charles Darwin to revise a later edition of On the Origin of Species.[17]

Jenner's interest in zoology played a large role in his first experiment with inoculation. Not only did he have a profound understanding of human anatomy due to his medical training, but he also understood animal biology and its role in human-animal trans-species boundaries in disease transmission. At the time, there was no way of knowing how important this connection would be to the history and discovery of vaccinations. We see this connection now; many present-day vaccinations include animal parts from cows, rabbits, and chicken eggs, which can be attributed to the work of Jenner and his cowpox/smallpox vaccination.[18]

Marriage and human medicine

A lecturer's certificate of attendance given to Jenner. He attended many lectures on chemistry, medicine and physics.

Jenner married Catherine Kingscote (who died in 1815 from tuberculosis) in March 1788. He might have met her while he and other fellows were experimenting with balloons. Jenner's trial balloon descended into Kingscote Park, Gloucestershire, owned by Catherine's father Anthony Kingscote.[19] They had three children together: Edward Robert (1789–1810), Robert Fitzharding (1792–1854) and Catherine (1794–1833).[8]

Jenner earned his MD from the University of St Andrews in 1792.[20] He is credited with advancing the understanding of angina pectoris.[21] In his correspondence with Heberden, Jenner wrote: "How much the heart must suffer from the coronary arteries not being able to perform their functions".[22]

Invention of the vaccine

Jenner's Hypothesis:
The initial source of infection was a disease of horses, called "the grease", which was transferred to cattle by farm workers, transformed, and then manifested as cowpox.

Inoculation was already a standard practice in Asian and African medicine but involved serious risks, including the possibility that those inoculated would become contagious and spread the disease to others.[23] In 1721, Lady Mary Wortley Montagu had imported variolation to Britain after having observed it in Constantinople. While Johnnie Notions had great success with his self-devised inoculation[24] (and was reputed not to have lost a single patient),[25] his method's practice was limited to the Shetland Islands. Voltaire wrote that at this time 60% of the population caught smallpox and 20% of the population died from it.[26] He also stated that the Circassians used the inoculation from times immemorial, and that the Turks may have borrowed the custom from them.[27] In 1766, Daniel Bernoulli analysed smallpox morbidity and mortality data to demonstrate the efficacy of inoculation.[28]

By 1768, English physician John Fewster had realised that prior infection with cowpox rendered a person immune to smallpox.[29][30] In the years following 1770, at least five investigators in England and Germany (Sevel, Jensen, Jesty 1774, Rendell, Plett 1791) successfully tested a cowpox vaccine against smallpox in humans.[31] For example, Dorset farmer Benjamin Jesty[32] successfully vaccinated with cowpox and presumably induced immunity in his wife and two children during the 1774 smallpox epidemic, though it was not until Jenner's work that the procedure became widely understood. Jenner may have been aware of Jesty's procedures and success.[33] In 1780, Jacques Antoine Rabaut-Pommier made similar observations in France.[34]

Jenner postulated that the pus in blisters from sufferers of cowpox (a disease similar to smallpox but much less virulent) protected them from smallpox. On May 14,1796, Jenner tested his hypothesis by inoculating James Phipps, the eight-year-old son of Jenner's gardener. He scraped pus from cowpox blisters on the hands of Sarah Nelmes, a milkmaid who had caught cowpox from a cow called Blossom[35] (whose hide now hangs on the wall of the St. George's Medical School library, now in Tooting, London). Phipps was the 17th case described in Jenner's first paper on vaccination.[36]

Jenner inoculated Phipps in both arms that day; this led to a fever and some uneasiness but no full-blown infection. Later, Jenner injected Phipps with variolous material, the routine method of immunization at that time and again no disease followed. The boy was later challenged with variolous material and again showed no sign of infection. There were no unexpected side effects, and neither Phipps nor any other recipients underwent any future 'breakthrough' cases.

Jenner's biographer John Baron later speculated that it was Jenner's observation of the unblemished complexion of milkmaids that led to his understanding that it was possible to be inoculated against smallpox by being exposed to cowpox, that is he did not build on the work of his predecessors. The milkmaid story is still widely repeated even though it appears to be a myth.[37][38]

Known:
Smallpox is more dangerous than variolation and cowpox less dangerous than variolation.
Hypothesis:
If target is infected with cowpox, then target is immune to smallpox.
Test:
If variolation after infection with cowpox fails to produce a smallpox infection, immunity to smallpox has been achieved.
Consequence:
Immunity to smallpox can be induced much more safely than by variolation.

US physician Donald Hopkins has written, "Jenner's unique contribution was not that he inoculated a few persons with cowpox, but that he then proved [by subsequent challenges] that they were immune to smallpox. Moreover, he demonstrated that the protective cowpox pus could be effectively inoculated from person to person, not just directly from cattle."[39] Jenner successfully tested his hypothesis on 23 additional subjects.

Jenner continued his research and reported it to the Royal Society, though the initial paper was not published. After revisions and further investigations, he published his findings on the 23 cases, including his 11-month-old son Robert.[40] Some of his conclusions were correct, some erroneous; modern microbiological and microscopic methods would make his studies easier to reproduce. The medical establishment deliberated at length over his findings before accepting them. Eventually, vaccination was accepted, and in 1840, the British government banned variolation – the use of smallpox to induce immunity – and provided vaccination using cowpox free of charge (see Vaccination Act).

The success of Jenner's discovery soon spread around Europe and was used en masse in the Spanish Balmis Expedition (1803–1806), a three-year-long mission to the Americas, the Philippines, Macao and China led by Francisco Javier de Balmis with the aim of giving the smallpox vaccine to thousands.[41] The expedition was successful, and Jenner wrote: "I don't imagine the annals of history furnish an example of philanthropy so noble, so extensive as this".[42] Napoleon, who at the time was at war with Britain, had all his French troops vaccinated, awarded Jenner a medal, and at Jenner's request, released two English prisoners of war, allowing them to return home.[43][44] Napoleon remarked he could not "refuse anything to one of the greatest benefactors of mankind".[43]

Jenner's continuing work on vaccination prevented him from continuing his ordinary medical practice. He was supported by his colleagues and King George III in petitioning Parliament,[45] and was granted £10,000 for his work on vaccination in 1802.[46] In 1807, Jenner was granted another £20,000 after the Royal College of Physicians confirmed the widespread efficacy of vaccination.[2]

The steps taken by Edward Jenner to create vaccination, the first vaccine for smallpox. Jenner did this by inoculating James Phipps with cowpox, a virus similar to smallpox, to create immunity, unlike variolation, which used smallpox to create an immunity to itself.
The steps taken by Edward Jenner to create vaccination, the first vaccine for smallpox. Jenner did this by inoculating James Phipps with cowpox, a virus similar to smallpox, to create immunity, unlike variolation, which used smallpox to create an immunity to itself.
  • Edward Jenner advising a farmer to vaccinate his family. Oil painting by an English painter, c. 1910
    Edward Jenner advising a farmer to vaccinate his family. Oil painting by an English painter, c. 1910
  • Jenner's discovery of the link between cowpox pus and smallpox in humans helped him to create the smallpox vaccine.
    Jenner's discovery of the link between cowpox pus and smallpox in humans helped him to create the smallpox vaccine.
  • Jenner performing his first vaccination on James Phipps, a boy of age 8, on 14 May 1796
    Jenner performing his first vaccination on James Phipps, a boy of age 8, on 14 May 1796
  • James Gillray's 1802 caricature of Jenner vaccinating patients who feared it would make them sprout cowlike appendages.
    James Gillray's 1802 caricature of Jenner vaccinating patients who feared it would make them sprout cowlike appendages.
  • 1808 cartoon showing Jenner, Thomas Dimsdale and George Rose seeing off anti-vaccination opponents
    1808 cartoon showing Jenner, Thomas Dimsdale and George Rose seeing off anti-vaccination opponents
  • 1873 sculpture of Jenner Vaccinating His Own Son Against Smallpox by Italian sculptor Giulio Monteverde, Galleria Nazionale d'Arte Moderna, Rome
    1873 sculpture of Jenner Vaccinating His Own Son Against Smallpox by Italian sculptor Giulio Monteverde, Galleria Nazionale d'Arte Moderna, Rome

Later life

Certificate of the Freedom of the City of London awarded to Jenner, 1803

Jenner was later elected a foreign honorary member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1802, a member of the American Philosophical Society in 1804,[47] and a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences in 1806.[48] In 1803, he became president of the Jennerian Society in London, concerned with promoting vaccination to eradicate smallpox. The Jennerian ceased operations in 1809. Jenner became a member of the Medical and Chirurgical Society on its founding in 1805 (now the Royal Society of Medicine) and presented several papers there. In 1808, with government aid, the National Vaccine Establishment was founded, but Jenner felt dishonoured by the men selected to run it and resigned his directorship.[5]: 122–125 

Returning to London in 1811, Jenner observed a significant number of cases of smallpox after vaccination. He found that in these cases the severity of the illness was notably diminished by previous vaccination. In 1821, Jenner was appointed physician extraordinary to King George IV and was also made mayor of Berkeley[2] and magistrate[5]: 303  (justice of the peace). Jenner continued to investigate natural history, and in 1823, the last year of his life, he presented his "Observations on the Migration of Birds" to the Royal Society.[46]

Jenner was a Freemason.[49][50]

Death

Jenner was found in a state of apoplexy on 25 January 1823, with his right side paralysed.[5]: 314  He did not recover and died the next day of an apparent stroke, his second.[5] Jenner was 73 years old. He was buried in the family vault at the Church of St Mary, Berkeley.[51]

Religious views

1825 memorial to Jenner by Robert William Sievier, in Gloucester Cathedral

Neither fanatic nor lax,[52] Jenner was a Christian who in his personal correspondence showed himself quite spiritual.[5]: 141  Some days before his death, Jenner stated to a friend: "I am not surprised that men are not grateful to me; but I wonder that they are not grateful to God for the good which He has made me the instrument of conveying to my fellow creatures".[5]: 295 

Legacy

In 1980, the World Health Organization declared smallpox an eradicated disease.[53] This was the result of coordinated public health efforts, but vaccination was an essential component. Although the disease was declared eradicated, some pus samples still remain in laboratories in Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in Atlanta in the US, and in State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology VECTOR in Koltsovo, Novosibirsk Oblast, Russia.[54]

Jenner's vaccine laid the foundation for contemporary discoveries in immunology.[55] In 2002, Jenner was named in the BBC's list of the 100 Greatest Britons following a UK-wide vote.[56] Commemorated on postage stamps issued by the Royal Mail, he featured in their World Changers issue along with Charles Darwin, Michael Faraday and Alan Turing in 1999.[57] The lunar crater Jenner is named in his honour.[58]

In 2025 POX, a new play by Janet Bolam, was performed by the Cotswold Players in the garden of Dr Jenner's House.[59]

Monuments and buildings

  • Jenner's house in the village of Berkeley, Gloucestershire, is now a small museum,[2] housing, among other things, the horns of the cow, Blossom.
  • A statue of Jenner by Robert William Sievier was erected in the nave of Gloucester Cathedral.[60]
  • Another statue of Jenner was erected in Trafalgar Square and later moved to Kensington Gardens.[61]
  • Near the Gloucestershire village of Uley, Downham Hill is locally known as "Smallpox Hill" for its possible role in Jenner's studies of the disease.[62]
  • London's St. George's Hospital Medical School has a Jenner Pavilion, where his bust may be found.[63]
  • A group of villages in Somerset County, Pennsylvania, United States, was named in Jenner's honour by early 19th-century English settlers, including Jenners, Jenner Township, Jenner Crossroads, and Jennerstown, Pennsylvania.[64]
  • Jennersville, Pennsylvania, is located in Chester County.[65]
  • The Edward Jenner Institute for Vaccine Research is an infectious disease vaccine research centre, also the Jenner Institute part of the University of Oxford.
  • A section at Gloucestershire Royal Hospital is known as the Edward Jenner Unit; it is where blood is drawn.[66]
  • A ward at Northwick Park Hospital is called Jenner Ward.[67]
  • Jenner Gardens at Cheltenham, Gloucestershire, opposite one of the scientist's former offices, is a small garden and cemetery.[68]
  • A statue of Jenner was erected at the Tokyo National Museum in 1896 to commemorate the centenary of Jenner's discovery of vaccination.[69]
  • A monument outside the walls of the upper town of Boulogne sur Mer, France.[70]
  • A street in Stoke Newington, north London: Jenner Road, N16 [ ⚑ ] 51°33′31″N 0°04′03″W / 51.55867°N 0.06761°W / 51.55867; -0.06761 (Jenner Road)
  • Built around 1970, The Jenner Health Centre, 201 Stanstead Road, Forest Hill, London, SE23 1HU[71]
  • Jenner's name is featured on the Frieze of the London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine. Twenty-three names of public health and tropical medicine pioneers were chosen to feature on the Keppel Street building when it was constructed in 1926.[72]
  • Minor planet 5168 Jenner is named in Jenner's honour.[73]
  • Jenner's House, The Chantry, Church Lane, Berkeley, Gloucestershire, England
    Jenner's House, The Chantry, Church Lane, Berkeley, Gloucestershire, England
  • Bronze statue of Jenner in Kensington Gardens, London
    Bronze statue of Jenner in Kensington Gardens, London
  • Edward Jenner's name as it appears on the Frieze of the LSHTM Keppel Street building
    Edward Jenner's name as it appears on the Frieze of the LSHTM Keppel Street building

Publications

  • 1798 An Inquiry Into the Causes and Effects of the Variolæ Vaccinæ
  • 1799 Further Observations on the Variolæ Vaccinæ, or Cow-Pox[74]
  • 1800 A Continuation of Facts and Observations relative to the Variolæ Vaccinæ 40pp.[75]
  • 1801 The Origin of the Vaccine Inoculation[76]

See also

References

  1. ↑ Riedel, Stefan (January 2005). "Edward Jenner and the history of smallpox and vaccination". Proceedings (Baylor University. Medical Center) (Baylor University Medical Center) 18 (1): 21–25. doi:10.1080/08998280.2005.11928028. PMID 16200144. 
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 Baxby, Derrick (2009) [2004]. "Jenner, Edward (1749–1823)". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/14749. http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/14749. Retrieved 2 December 2022. 
  3. ↑ Baxby, Derrick (1999). "Edward Jenner's Inquiry; a bicentenary analysis". Vaccine 17 (4): 301–307. doi:10.1016/s0264-410x(98)00207-2. PMID 9987167. 
  4. ↑ "History – Edward Jenner (1749–1823)". BBC. 1 November 2006. https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/jenner_edward.shtml. 
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 Baron, John (1838) (in en). The Life of Edward Jenner M.D. LL.D. F.R.S.. 2. London: Henry Colburn. p. 310. https://hdl.handle.net/2027/nc01.ark:/13960/t2t523s95?urlappend=%3Bseq=332. 
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 "How did Edward Jenner test his smallpox vaccine?". The Telegraph (Telegraph Media Group). 13 May 2016. https://www.telegraph.co.uk/only-in-britain/edward-jenner-discovers-the-smallpox-vaccine/. 
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 "About Edward Jenner". The Jenner Institute. https://www.jenner.ac.uk/about/edward-jenner. 
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 The Journal of Genealogy and Family History, Vol. 2, No. 1, page 23 Figure 2 (2018)
  9. ↑ "Young Edward Jenner, Born in Berkeley". Edward Jenner Museum. http://www.jennermuseum.com/Jenner/youngedward.html. 
  10. ↑ Loncarek K (April 2009). "Revolution or reformation". Croatian Medical Journal 50 (2): 195–197. doi:10.3325/cmj.2009.50.195. PMID 19399955. 
  11. ↑ "Papers at the Royal College of Physicians summarised" .
  12. ↑ "Edward Jenner biography". Grand Lodge of British Columbia and Yukon A.F. & A. M. Retrieved 22 August 2016
  13. ↑ Jenner Museum: Cuckoo
  14. ↑ "Observations on the Natural History of the Cuckoo". By Mr. Edward Jenner. In a Letter to John Hunter, Esq. F.R.S. Jenner, E Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London (1776–1886). 1788. 78:219–237 (Archived Text)
  15. ↑ Sealy Spencer G (2011). "Cuckoo chicks evicting their nest mates: coincidental observations by Edward Jenner in England and Antoine Joseph Lottinger in France". Archives of Natural History 38 (2): 220–228. doi:10.3366/anh.2011.0030. 
  16. ↑ (Letter to Hunter at the Royal Society, as above)
  17. ↑ The Biographical Dictionary of Scottish Women. 2006. 
  18. ↑ Stern, Alexandra Minna; Markel, Howard (2005). "The History of Vaccines and Immunization: Familiar Patterns, New Challenges". Health Affairs 24 (3): 611–621. doi:10.1377/hlthaff.24.3.611. PMID 15886151. 
  19. ↑ Richard B. Fisher, Edward Jenner (Andre Deutsch, 1991) pp. 40–42 ISBN 978-023398681-4
  20. ↑ "A brief history of the University". https://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/about/history/brief/. "Through the centuries many great minds have been attracted to St Andrews:...Edward Jenner, pioneer of the smallpox vaccine (MD, 1792)" 
  21. ↑ Beasley AW (2011). "A story of heartache: the understanding of angina pectoris in the pre-surgical period". The Journal of the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh 41 (4): 361–365. doi:10.4997/JRCPE.2011.416. PMID 22184576. 
  22. ↑ Valentin Fuster, Eric J. Topol, Elizabeth G. Nabel (2005). "Atherothrombosis and Coronary Artery Disease". p. 8. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins ISBN 978-078173583-4
  23. ↑ "Lady Montagu and the Introduction of Smallpox Inoculation to England | Muslim Heritage" (in en). 16 February 2010. http://www.muslimheritage.com/article/lady-montagu-and-introduction-smallpox-inoculation-england. 
  24. ↑ Smith, Brian (July 1998). "Camphor, Cabbage Leaves and Vaccination: the Career of Johnie 'Notions' Williamson of Hamnavoe, Eshaness, Shetland". Proceedings of the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh (Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh) 28 (3): 402. PMID 11620446. https://www.rcpe.ac.uk/sites/default/files/vol28_3.1_10.pdf. Retrieved 12 October 2019. 
  25. ↑ Dishington, Andrew (1999). Sinclair, Sir John. ed. "United Parishes of Mid and South Yell". The Statistical Account of Scotland Drawn up from the Communications of the Ministers of the Different Parishes (University of Edinburgh, University of Glasgow: Edinburgh: William Creech) 2 (50): 571. OCLC 1045293275. https://stataccscot.edina.ac.uk/link/osa-vol2-p569-parish-shetland-yellmid_and_south. Retrieved 10 October 2019. 
  26. ↑ François Marie Arouet de Voltaire (1778). "Letters on the English or Lettres Philosophiques". http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1778voltaire-lettres.asp#Letter%20XI. 
  27. ↑ "Voltaire on Circassian Medicine: Inoculation". Circassian World. http://www.circassianworld.com/new/history/miscelleneous/1202-circassian-medicine.html.  from Voltaire (1733). The Works of Voltaire. XIX (Philosophical Letters). 
  28. ↑ reprinted in Blower, S; Bernoulli, D (2004). "An attempt at a new analysis of the mortality caused by smallpox and of the advantages of inoculation to prevent it". Reviews in Medical Virology 14 (5): 275–288. doi:10.1002/rmv.443. PMID 15334536. http://www.semel.ucla.edu/biomedicalmodeling/pdf/Bernoulli&Blower.pdf. 
  29. ↑ Pearson, George (1798). An Inquiry Concerning the History of the Cowpox, Principally with a View to Supersede and Extinguish the Smallpox. London: J. Johnson. pp. 102–104. https://books.google.com/books?id=osdEAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA102. 
  30. ↑ Thurston, L.; Williams, G. (2015). "An examination of John Fewster's role in the discovery of smallpox vaccination". Journal of the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh 45 (2): 173–179. doi:10.4997/JRCPE.2015.217. PMID 26181536. https://www.rcpe.ac.uk/sites/default/files/thurston.pdf. 
  31. ↑ Plett PC (2006). "Peter Plett and other discoverers of cowpox vaccination before Edward Jenner" (in de). Sudhoffs Archiv 90 (2): 219–232. PMID 17338405. 
  32. ↑ Hammarsten J. F.; Tattersall, W; Hammarsten, JE (1979). "Who discovered smallpox vaccination? Edward Jenner or Benjamin Jesty?". Transactions of the American Clinical and Climatological Association 90: 44–55. PMID 390826. 
  33. ↑ Grant, John (2007). Corrupted Science: Fraud, Ideology and Politics in Science. London: Facts, Figures & Fun. p. 24. ISBN 978-1-904332-73-2. https://archive.org/details/corruptedscience0000gran/page/24. 
  34. ↑ Théodoridès J (1979). "Rabaut-Pommier, a neglected precursor of Jenner". Med Hist 23 (4): 479–480. doi:10.1017/s0025727300052121. PMID 390274. 
  35. ↑ "Edward Jenner & Smallpox". The Edward Jenner Museum. http://www.jennermuseum.com/sv/smallpox2.shtml. 
  36. ↑ An Inquiry into the Causes and Effects of the Variolae Vaccinae, Edward Jenner. Retrieved 17 November 2012
  37. ↑ Boylston, Arthur (2013). "The origins of vaccination: myths and reality". Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine 106 (9): 351–354. doi:10.1177/0141076813499292. PMID 23995824. 
  38. ↑ Jarry, Jonathan (9 June 2023). "The White Lie at the Heart of Vaccine History". https://www.mcgill.ca/oss/article/medical-critical-thinking-history/white-lie-heart-vaccine-history. 
  39. ↑ Hopkins, Donald R. (2002). The greatest killer: smallpox in history, with a new introduction. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 80. ISBN 978-0-226-35168-1. OCLC 49305765. 
  40. ↑ Williams, Gareth (2010). Angel of Death: The Story of Smallpox. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 198. ISBN 978-0-230-27471-6. 
  41. ↑ Carlos Franco-Paredes; Lorena Lammoglia; José Ignacio Santos-Preciado (2005). "The Spanish Royal Philanthropic Expedition to Bring Smallpox Vaccination to the New World and Asia in the 19th Century". Clinical Infectious Diseases (Oxford Journals) 41 (9): 1285–1289. doi:10.1086/496930. PMID 16206103. 
  42. ↑ "Andean Studies: New Trends and Library Resources : Papers of the Forty-Fifth Annual Meeting of the Seminar on the Acquisition of Latin American Library Materials", University of California, Los Angeles ... 27–31 May 2000. p. 46
  43. ↑ 43.0 43.1 De Beer, G. R. (May 1952). "The relations between fellows of the Royal Society and French men of science when France and Britain were at war". Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London 9 (2): 297. doi:10.1098/rsnr.1952.0016. 
  44. ↑ Morgan, A.J.; Poland, Gregory A. (30 December 2011). "The Jenner Society and the Edward Jenner Museum: Tributes to a physician-scientist". Vaccine 29 (Supplement 4): D152–D154. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2011.08.128. PMID 22486976. http://www.edwardjennersociety.org/wp-content/uploads/The-Jenner-Society-and.pdf. 
  45. ↑ Commons, Great Britain Parliament House of (18 July 2018). "Reports from Committees of the House of Commons which Have Been Printed by Order of the House: And are Not Inserted in the Journals [1715–1801"]. https://books.google.com/books?id=xpFIAQAAMAAJ&q=Dr+John+Griffiths%2C+surgeon+to++st+George%27s+Hospital&pg=PA176. 
  46. ↑ 46.0 46.1 Lee, Sidney, ed (1892). "Jenner, Edward (1749-1823)". Dictionary of National Biography. 29. London: Smith, Elder & Co. 
  47. ↑ "APS Member History". https://search.amphilsoc.org/memhist/search?creator=Edward+Jenner&title=&subject=&subdiv=&mem=&year=&year-max=&dead=&keyword=&smode=advanced. 
  48. ↑ "Book of Members, 1780–2010: Chapter J". American Academy of Arts and Sciences. http://www.amacad.org/publications/BookofMembers/ChapterJ.pdf. 
  49. ↑ "Edward Jenner". https://freemasonry.bcy.ca/biography/jenner_e/jenner_e.html. 
  50. ↑ "Famous Freemasons in History | Freemason Information" (in en-US). 20 February 2009. https://freemasoninformation.com/masonic-education/famous/famous-freemasons-in-history/. 
  51. ↑ "Edward Jenner – St Mary's Church, Berkeley, Gloucestershire". http://www.stmarys-berkeley.co.uk/history/60-edward-jenner. 
  52. ↑ Horne, Charles F. 1894. Dr. Edward Jenner (1749–1823) by John Timbs, F.S.A.. GG Archives
  53. ↑ World Health Organization. "Smallpox". https://www.who.int/health-topics/smallpox#tab=tab_1. 
  54. ↑ "Forgotten smallpox vials found in cardboard box at Maryland laboratory". The Guardian. Retrieved 19 October 2016
  55. ↑ "Dr. Edward Jenner and the small pox vaccination". Essortment.com. http://www.essortment.com/all/edwardjennersm_rmfk.htm. 
  56. ↑ "100 great British heroes" (in en-GB). BBC News. 21 August 2002. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/2208671.stm. 
  57. ↑ "Issue: World Changers (21.09.1999)". BFDC. https://www.bfdc.co.uk/1999/world_changers/page1.html. 
  58. ↑ "Planetary Names: Crater, craters: Jenner on Moon". https://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/Feature/2819. 
  59. ↑ "‘POX’ A New Play by Janet Bolam" (in en-GB). 2025-08-14. https://jennermuseum.com/whats-on/event-two-8ccsw. 
  60. ↑ Herbert, N.M., ed (1988). "Gloucester: The cathedral and close". A History of the County of Gloucester. Victoria County History. 4: The City of Gloucester. London: Oxford University Press for the Institute of Historical Research. pp. 275–288. http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.asp?compid=42310. Retrieved 7 November 2006. 
  61. ↑ Royal College of Physicians. "Jenner, Edward (1749–1750)". AIM25 Archives. http://www.aim25.ac.uk/cgi-bin/search2?coll_id=7135&inst_id=8. 
  62. ↑ Bala, Divya; Badrinath, Chan (2013). "Edward Jenner (1749–1823)" (in en). The National Medical Graduates Club. http://www.tnmgc.com/gomu.php?menu=3&id=197. 
  63. ↑ St George's, University of London. "Our History". http://www.stgeorges.nhs.uk/aboutourhistory.asp. 
  64. ↑ History of Bedford, Somerset, and Fulton Counties, Pennsylvania: With Illustrations and Biographical Sketches of Some of Its Pioneers and Prominent Men. Waterman, Watkins & Co.. 1884. pp. 503–508. https://books.google.com/books?id=An02AgAACAAJ&pg=PA504. 
  65. ↑ "History and Demographics, Chester County, Pennsylvania" (in en-US). http://www.penntownship.us/about-the-township/historydemographics-populationmaps-real-estate/. 
  66. ↑ "Edward Jenner Unit". NHS Foundation Trust. https://www.gloshospitals.nhs.uk/your-visit/our-wards/edward-jenner-unit/. 
  67. ↑ "Northwick Park and St Mark's Hospital ward phone numbers". https://www.lnwh.nhs.uk/services/ward-phone-numbers/northwick-park-and-st-marks-hospital-ward-phone-numbers/. 
  68. ↑ "Jenner Gardens". Cheltenham.gov.uk. Retrieved 8 December 2017
  69. ↑ "Top 10 Tokyo". p. 27. Dorling Kindersley Ltd, 2017
  70. ↑ "Monument à Edward Jenner – Boulogne-sur-Mer" (in fr-FR). L'Association pour la sauvegarde et la promotion du patrimoine métallurgique haut-marnais. 5 July 2011. https://e-monumen.net/patrimoine-monumental/monument-a-edward-jenner-boulogne-sur-mer/. 
  71. ↑ "The Jenner Practice". https://www.jennerpractice.co.uk/. 
  72. ↑ "Behind the Frieze". http://www.lshtm.ac.uk/library/archives/history/frieze/index.html. 
  73. ↑ "(5168) Jenner". Dictionary of Minor Planet Names. Springer. 2003. pp. 445. doi:10.1007/978-3-540-29925-7_5016. ISBN 978-3-540-29925-7. https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007%2F978-3-540-29925-7_5016. 
  74. ↑ Edward Jenner (6 September 2022). "Further Observations on the Variolæ Vaccinæ, or Cow-Pox. 1799". The Harvard Classics, 1909–1914. http://www.bartleby.com/38/4/2.html. 
  75. ↑ Edward Jenner. (6 September 2022). "A Continuation of Facts and Observations Relative to the Variolæ Vaccinæ, or Cow-Pox. 1800". The Harvard Classics, 1909–1914. http://www.bartleby.com/38/4/3.html. 
  76. ↑ "The origins of vaccination: no inoculation, no vaccination". James Lind Initiative, the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh and Minervation Ltd

Further reading

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