Biology:Raspberry

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The raspberry is the edible fruit of several plant species in the genus Rubus of the rose family, most of which are in the subgenus Idaeobatus.[1] The name also applies to these plants themselves. Raspberries are perennial with woody stems.[2]

World production of raspberries in 2023 was 940,979 tonnes, led by Russia with 23% of the total. Raspberries are cultivated across northern Europe and North America and are consumed in various ways, including as whole fruit and in preserves, cakes, ice cream, and liqueurs.[3]

Description

A raspberry is an aggregate fruit, developing from the numerous distinct carpels of a single flower.[4] Each carpel then grows into individual drupelets, which, taken together, form the body of a single raspberry fruit. As with blackberries, each drupelet contains a seed. What distinguishes the raspberry from its blackberry relatives is whether or not the torus (receptacle or stem) "picks with" (i.e., stays with) the fruit. When picking a blackberry fruit, the torus stays with the fruit. With a raspberry, the torus remains on the plant, leaving a hollow core in the raspberry fruit.[5]

An individual raspberry weighs 3–5 g (1⁄8–3⁄16 oz) and is made up of around 100 drupelets.[6] A raspberry bush can yield several hundred berries a year.[citation needed]

Raspberries thrive in well-drained soil with a pH between 6 and 7 with ample organic matter to assist in retaining water.[7] Raspberries need ample sun and water for optimal development. While moisture is essential, wet and heavy soils or excess irrigation can bring on Phytophthora root rot, which is one of the most serious pest problems faced by the red raspberry. As a cultivated plant in moist, temperate regions, it is easy to grow and tends to spread unless pruned. Escaped raspberries frequently appear as garden weeds, spread by seeds found in bird droppings.[citation needed]

Raspberries are grown for the fresh fruit market and for commercial processing into individually quick frozen (IQF) fruit, purée, juice, or dried fruit used in a variety of grocery products such as raspberry pie.

Etymology

Raspberry is a compound word from rasp and berry first in print in 1602.[8] Rasp in this sense derives from raspise, "a sweet rose-colored wine" (mid-15th century), from the Anglo-Latin vinum raspeys. The speculation that it is derived from a Germanic word like the English rasp, so a "rough berry", based upon its appearance is a possible folk etymology according to Etymonline.[9] The word rasp is still used for the fruit in the north of England and in Scotland. It was first in print in 1555.[10]

Species

The fruit of four species of raspberry. Clockwise from top left: boulder raspberry, Korean raspberry, Australian native raspberry, and Mauritius raspberry.
Purple-fruited raspberry hybrid

Examples of raspberry species in Rubus subgenus Idaeobatus include:

Several species of Rubus, also called raspberries, are classified in other subgenera, including:

Cultivation

Flower

Various kinds of raspberries can be cultivated from hardiness zones 3 to 9.[11] Raspberries are traditionally planted in the winter as dormant canes, although planting of tender, plug plants produced by tissue culture has become much more common. A specialized production system called "long cane production" involves growing canes for a year in a northern climate such as Scotland or Oregon or Washington, where the chilling requirement for proper bud break is attained, or attained earlier than the ultimate place of planting. These canes are then dug, roots and all, to be replanted in warmer climates such as Spain, where they quickly flower and produce a very early season crop. Plants are typically planted 2–6 per meter in fertile, well drained soil; raspberries are usually planted in raised beds/ridges, if there is any question about root rot problems.[citation needed]

All cultivars of raspberries have perennial roots, but many do not have perennial shoots. In fact, most raspberries have shoots that are biennial (meaning shoots grow in the first growing season and fruits grow on those shoots during the second growing season).[12] The flowers can be a major nectar source for honeybees and other pollinators.[citation needed]

Raspberries are vigorous and can be locally invasive. They propagate using basal shoots (also known as suckers), extended underground shoots that develop roots and individual plants. They can sucker new canes some distance from the main plant. For this reason, raspberries spread well, and can take over gardens if left unchecked. Raspberries are often propagated using cuttings, and will root readily in moist soil conditions.

The fruit is harvested when it comes off the receptacle easily and has turned a deep color (red, black, purple, or golden yellow, depending on the species and cultivar). This is when the fruits are ripest and sweetest.

High tunnel bramble production offers the opportunity to bridge gaps in availability during late fall and late spring. Furthermore, high tunnels allow less hardy floricane-fruiting raspberries to overwinter in climates where they would not otherwise survive. In the tunnel, plants are established at close spacing usually prior to tunnel construction.[13]

Cultivars

Major cultivars

Yellow cultivar

Raspberries are an important commercial fruit crop, widely grown in all temperate regions of the world. Many of the most important modern commercial red raspberry cultivars derive from hybrids between R. idaeus and R. strigosus.[11] Some botanists consider the Eurasian and American red raspberries to belong to a single, circumboreal species, Rubus idaeus, with the European plants then classified as either R. idaeus subsp. idaeus or R. idaeus var. idaeus, and the native North American red raspberries classified as either R. idaeus subsp. strigosus, or R. idaeus var. strigosus. Recent breeding has resulted in cultivars that are thornless and more strongly upright, not needing staking.[citation needed]

The black raspberry, Rubus occidentalis, is also cultivated, providing both fresh and frozen fruit, as well as jams, preserves, and other products, all with that species' distinctive flavor.

Purple raspberries have been produced by horticultural hybridization of red and black raspberries, and have also been found in the wild in a few places (for example, in Vermont) where the American red and the black raspberries both grow naturally. Commercial production of purple-fruited raspberries is rare.

Blue raspberry is a local name used in Prince Edward County, Ontario, Canada,[14] for the cultivar 'Columbian', a hybrid (purple raspberry) of R. strigosus and R. occidentalis.[15] Blue raspberry can also refer to the whitebark raspberry, R. leucodermis. Both the red and the black raspberry species have albino-like pale-yellow natural or horticultural variants, resulting from presence of recessive genes that impede production of anthocyanin pigments.[16] Fruits from such plants are called golden raspberries or yellow raspberries; despite their similar appearance, they retain the distinctive flavor of their respective species (red or black). Most pale-fruited raspberries commercially sold in the eastern United States are derivatives of red raspberries. Yellow-fruited variants of the black raspberry are sometimes grown in home gardens.

Red raspberries have also been crossed with various species in other subgenera of the genus Rubus, resulting in a number of hybrids, the first of which was the loganberry. Later notable hybrids include the olallieberry, boysenberry, marionberry, and tayberry; all are multi-generational hybrids. Hybridization between the familiar cultivated red raspberries and a few Asiatic species of Rubus has also been achieved.

Selected cultivars

Numerous raspberry cultivars have been selected.

Two types of raspberry are available for commercial and domestic cultivation; the summer-bearing type produces an abundance of fruit on second-year canes (floricanes) within a relatively short period in midsummer, and double or "everbearing" plants, which also bear some fruit on first-year canes (primocanes) in the late summer and fall, as well as the summer crop on second-year canes. Those marked (AGM) have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.

Red, early summer fruiting
  • Boyne
  • Cascade Dawn
  • Fertödi Venus
  • Glen Clova
  • Glen Moy (AGM)[17]
  • Killarney
  • Latham
  • Malahat
  • Malling Exploit
  • Malling Jewel (AGM)[18]
  • Prelude [19]
  • Rubin Bulgarski
  • Titan
  • Willamette
Red, mid-summer fruiting
  • Cuthbert
  • Glen Ample (AGM)[20]
  • Lloyd George
  • Meeker
  • Newburgh
  • Ripley
  • Skeena
  • Cowichan
  • Chemainus
  • Saanich
Red, late summer fruiting
  • Cascade Delight
  • Coho
  • Fertödi Rubina
  • Glen Magna (AGM)[21]
  • Leo (AGM)[22]
  • Malling Admiral (AGM)[23]
  • Octavia
  • Schoenemann
  • Tulameen (AGM)[24]
Red primocane, autumn fruiting
  • Amity
  • Augusta
  • Autumn Bliss (AGM)[25]
  • Joan J. (Thornless)
  • Caroline
  • Fertödi Kétszertermö
  • Heritage
  • Imara
  • Joan J[26]
  • Josephine
  • Kwanza
  • Kweli
  • Mapema
  • Polka (AGM)[27]
  • Rafiki
  • Ripley
  • Summit
  • Zeva Herbsternte
Yellow primocane, autumn fruiting
  • Anne
  • Fallgold
  • Fertödi Aranyfürt
  • Goldenwest
  • Golden Queen
  • Honey Queen
  • Jambo
  • Kiwi Gold
Purple (hybrids between black and red raspberries)
  • Brandywine
  • Glencoe
  • Royalty
Black
Main article: Biology:Rubus occidentalis
  • Black Hawk
  • Bristol
  • Cumberland
  • Jewel
  • Logan
  • Morrison
  • Munger
  • Ohio Everbearer
  • Scepter
Dwarf cultivars
  • Ruby Beauty = 'Nr7'[28]

Diseases and pests

Raspberry production
2023, tonnes
 Russia 219,338
 Mexico 190,412
 Serbia 98,674
 Poland 96,100
 United States 62,640
World 940,979
Source: FAOSTAT of the United Nations[29]

Insects

Raspberries, due to the high sugar content of their fruit, are the main food resource of the Japanese beetle. The voracious feeding habits of these beetles not only pose a direct threat to raspberry plants but also increase the risk of transmitting various plant diseases. This dual impact can significantly undermine agricultural productivity, making pest control a high priority for growers.[30][31]

Raspberry beetle in Europe[32] and the raspberry fruitworm in North America [33] lay larvae that feed on raspberries. Other insects that prey on raspberry plants are some butterfly and moth species,[30] as well as European and American large raspberry aphids.[34]

Fungi

Botrytis cinerea, or gray mold, is a common fungal infection of raspberries and other soft fruit under wet conditions. It is seen as a gray mold growing on the raspberries, and particularly affects fruit which are bruised, as the bruises provide an easy entrance point for the spores.[35]

Potatoes, tomatoes, peppers, eggplants, or bulbs are hosts for the disease Verticillium wilt, a fungus that can stay in the soil for many years and can infest the raspberry crop. To avoid an infection, the soil should be fumigated after the harvest of these crops.

Viruses

Plants are often simultaneously infected by two or more viruses. These viruses form disease complexes, doing more damage that way than they could by single infection.[36]

Raspberry mosaic disease complex is formed by synergistic action of black raspberry necrosis virus, raspberry leaf mottle virus and Rubus yellow net virus. It causes characteristic mottling and later yellowing of leaves, as well as smaller yields.[36][37]

Raspberry crumbly fruit disease is caused by raspberry bushy dwarf virus in coinfection with one or more of the following viruses: Rubus yellow net virus, raspberry latent virus and raspberry leaf mottle virus. This infection reduces cane growth in first year plants, as well as drupelet abortion in fruits, which leads to a distinct misshapen crumbly fruit appearance. It also causes plant dwarfing and shoot proliferation.[36]

Tomato ringspot virus is more common in older plantings and causes a crumbly appearance in raspberry fruit.[37] Other symptoms vary from mottled, chlorotic, mosaic leaves to leaf curling and ring spotting. Infected plants can also have low vigor and yield, but be otherwise asymptomatic.[38]

Production

In 2023, world production of raspberries was 940,979 tonnes, led by Russia with 23% of the total (table). Other major producers were Mexico, Serbia, and Poland.

Nutrition

Raspberries, raw
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy220 kJ (53 kcal)
11.94 g
Sugars4.42 g
Dietary fiber6.5 g
0.65 g
1.2 g
VitaminsQuantity %DV†
Thiamine (B1)
3%
0.032 mg
Riboflavin (B2)
3%
0.038 mg
Niacin (B3)
4%
0.598 mg
Pantothenic acid (B5)
7%
0.329 mg
Vitamin B6
4%
0.055 mg
Folate (B9)
5%
21 μg
Choline
3%
12.3 mg
Vitamin C
32%
26.2 mg
Vitamin E
6%
0.87 mg
Vitamin K
7%
7.8 μg
MineralsQuantity %DV†
Calcium
3%
25 mg
Iron
5%
0.69 mg
Magnesium
6%
22 mg
Manganese
32%
0.67 mg
Phosphorus
4%
29 mg
Potassium
3%
151 mg
Zinc
4%
0.42 mg
Other constituentsQuantity
Water85.8 g
Link to USDA Database entry
†Percentages are roughly approximated using US recommendations for adults.

Raw raspberries are 86% water, 12% carbohydrates, and have about 1% each of protein and fat (table). In a reference amount of 100 g (3.5 oz), raspberries supply 53 kilocalories and 6.5 grams of dietary fiber. Raspberries are a rich source of vitamin C (29% of the Daily Value, DV), manganese (29% DV), and dietary fiber (6.5 grams), but otherwise have low content of micronutrients (table).

Phytochemicals

Raspberries contain phytochemicals, such as anthocyanin pigments, ellagic acid, ellagitannins, quercetin, gallic acid, cyanidins, pelargonidins, catechins, kaempferol and salicylic acid.[39][40] Yellow raspberries and others with pale-colored fruits are lower in anthocyanin content.[39] Both yellow and red raspberries contain carotenoids, mostly lutein esters, but these are masked by anthocyanins in red raspberries.[41]

Leaves

Raspberry leaves can be used fresh or dried in herbal teas, providing an astringent flavor. In herbal and traditional medicine, raspberry leaves are used for some remedies, although there is no scientifically valid evidence to support their medicinal use.[42]

See also

References

  1. ↑ Jules Janick (2011). Plant Breeding Reviews, Volume 32: Raspberry Breeding and Genetics. John Wiley & Sons. p. 51. ISBN 9780470593813. https://books.google.com/books?id=lPi0enEj_PwC&pg=PA51. 
  2. ↑ George Bentham (1858). Handbook of the British Flora: A Description of Flowering Plants and Ferns Indigenous To, Or Naturalized In, the British Isles. Lovell Reeve. p. 189. https://books.google.com/books?id=IIJIAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA189. 
  3. ↑ "Raspberry | Description, Fruit, Cultivation, Types, & Facts". Encyclopedia Britannica. 24 November 2023. https://www.britannica.com/plant/raspberry. Retrieved 6 December 2023. 
  4. ↑ "Angiosperm - Petals, Stamens, Sepals". Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/plant/angiosperm/The-corolla#ref597008. Retrieved 6 December 2023. "consist of several separate carpels of one apocarpous gynoecium (e.g., raspberries where each unit is a single carpel". 
  5. ↑ "Fruit development". North Carolina State University, Cooperative Extension. https://content.ces.ncsu.edu/southeast-regional-caneberry-production-guide/fruit-development. 
  6. ↑ Iannetta, P. P. M.; Wyman, M.; Neelam, A.; Jones, C.; Taylor, M. A.; Davies, H. V.; Sexton, R. (December 2000). "A causal role for ethylene and endo-beta-1,4-glucanase in the abscission of red-raspberry (Rubus idaeus) drupelets". Physiologia Plantarum 110 (4): 535–543. doi:10.1111/j.1399-3054.2000.1100417.x. Bibcode: 2000PPlan.110..535I. 
  7. ↑ Strik, B.C. (2008). "Growing Raspberries in Your Home Garden". Growing Small Fruits. Oregon State University Extension Service. https://ir.library.oregonstate.edu/downloads/0p096714f. 
  8. ↑ raspberry (n. & adj.) (3rd ed.), Oxford University Press, September 2005, http://oed.com/search?searchType=dictionary&q=raspberry+%28n.+%26+adj.%29  (Subscription or UK public library membership required.)
  9. ↑ "Raspberry". Online Etymology Dictionary. 2016. https://www.etymonline.com/word/raspberry. 
  10. ↑ rasp (n.2) (3rd ed.), Oxford University Press, September 2005, http://oed.com/search?searchType=dictionary&q=rasp+%28n.2%29  (Subscription or UK public library membership required.)
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 Huxley, A., ed. (1992). New RHS Dictionary of Gardening. Macmillan ISBN 0-333-47494-5.
  12. ↑ "Brambles (Fruit Production for the Home Gardener)" (in en-us). https://extension.psu.edu/brambles-in-the-home-fruit-planting. 
  13. ↑ "High Tunnel Raspberries and Blackberries", Department of Horticulture publication, Cathy Heidenreich, Marvin Pritts, Mary Jo Kelly., and Kathy Demchak
  14. ↑ Woolfrey, Sandra Marshall. A Country Mouse with one paw in the Village:Growing up in Prince Edward County. http://www.sandrawoolfrey.ca/wp-content/uploads/2010/07/countydisc241.pdf. Retrieved 23 October 2021. 
  15. ↑ Hedrick, U.P.; Howe, G.H.; Taylor, O.M.; Berger, A.; Slate, G.L.; Einset, O. (1925). The small fruits of New York. Albany, New York: J. B. Lyon. https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/30382#page/10/mode/1up. Retrieved 23 October 2021.  page 96
  16. ↑ Rafique, Muhammad Z.; Carvalho, Elisabete; Stracke, Ralf; Palmieri, Luisa; Herrera, Lorena; Feller, Antje; Malnoy, Mickael; Martens, Stefan (19 December 2016). "Nonsense Mutation Inside Anthocyanidin Synthase Gene Controls Pigmentation in Yellow Raspberry (Rubus idaeus L.)". Frontiers in Plant Science 7: 1892. doi:10.3389/fpls.2016.01892. PMID 28066458. Bibcode: 2016FrPS....7.1892R. 
  17. ↑ "Rubus idaeus 'Glen Moy'". RHS. https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/87734/Rubus-idaeus-Glen-Moy-(PBR)-(F)/Details. 
  18. ↑ "Rubus idaeus 'Malling Jewel'". RHS. https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/59126/Rubus-idaeus-Malling-Jewel-(F)/Details. 
  19. ↑ "Raspberry Plant Care". 21 October 2021. https://organicgardeningeek.com/all-about-raspberry-plant-50-varieties/. 
  20. ↑ "Rubus idaeus 'Glen Ample'". RHS. https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/115173/rubus-idaeus-glen-ample-pbr-(f)/details. 
  21. ↑ "Rubus idaeus 'Glen Magna'". RHS. https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/115171/Rubus-idaeus-Glen-Magna-(PBR)-(F)/Details. 
  22. ↑ "Rubus idaeus 'Leo'". RHS. https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/73917/Rubus-idaeus-Leo-(PBR)-(F)/Details. 
  23. ↑ "Rubus idaeus 'Malling Admiral'". RHS. https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/47620/Rubus-idaeus-Malling-Admiral-(F)/Details. 
  24. ↑ "Rubus idaeus 'Tulameen'". RHS. https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/129074/Rubus-idaeus-Tulameen-(F)/Details. 
  25. ↑ "Rubus idaeus 'Autumn Bliss'". RHS. https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/76281/Rubus-idaeus-Autumn-Bliss-(F)/Details. 
  26. ↑ "Rubus idaeus 'Joan J'". RHS. https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/195937/Rubus-idaeus-Joan-J-(PBR)-(F)/Details. 
  27. ↑ "Rubus idaeus 'Polka'". RHS. https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/226503/Rubus-idaeus-Polka-(PBR)-(F)/Details. 
  28. ↑ "Rubus idaeus Ruby Beauty = 'Nr7'". RHS. https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/347371/Rubus-idaeus-Ruby-Beauty-Nr7-(PBR)-(F)/Details. 
  29. ↑ "Raspberry production in 2023, Crops/Regions/World list/Production Quantity/Year (pick lists)". UN Food and Agriculture Organization, Corporate Statistical Database (FAOSTAT). 2025. https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QCL. 
  30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 "Japanese beetle - Popillia japonica". https://entnemdept.ufl.edu/creatures/orn/beetles/japanese_beetle.htm. 
  31. ↑ Klein, M (7 January 2022) (in en). Popillia japonica (Japanese beetle) (Report). doi:10.1079/cabicompendium.43599. 
  32. ↑ "Byturus tomentosus (BYTUTO)[World distribution]". European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization (EPPO). 1 July 2011. http://gd.eppo.int/taxon/BYTUTO/distribution. 
  33. ↑ "Raspberry Fruitworm Beetle (Byturus unicolor)" (in en). http://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/215612-Byturus-unicolor. 
  34. ↑ Tan, Jiunn L (2022). "Known and Potential Invertebrate Vectors of Raspberry Viruses". Viruses (MDPI) 14 (3): 571. doi:10.3390/v14030571. PMID 35336978. 
  35. ↑ "Raspberry diseases". University of Minnesota. https://extension.umn.edu/raspberry-farming/raspberry-diseases. 
  36. ↑ 36.0 36.1 36.2 Martin, Robert R (2013). "Viruses and Virus Diseases of Rubus". Plant Disease 97 (2): 168–182. doi:10.1094/PDIS-04-12-0362-FE. PMID 30722311. Bibcode: 2013PlDis..97..168M. https://apsjournals.apsnet.org/doi/epdf/10.1094/PDIS-04-12-0362-FE. 
  37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 "Raspberry viruses". Cornell University. https://blogs.cornell.edu/berrytool/raspberries/raspberry-viruses/. 
  38. ↑ "Raspberry (Rubus spp.) – Viruses". Oregon State University. 11 September 2015. https://pnwhandbooks.org/plantdisease/host-disease/raspberry-rubus-spp-viruses. 
  39. ↑ 39.0 39.1 "A targeted metabolomics approach to understand differences in flavonoid biosynthesis in red and yellow raspberries". Plant Physiology and Biochemistry 72: 79–86. 2013. doi:10.1016/j.plaphy.2013.04.001. PMID 23622736. Bibcode: 2013PlPB...72...79C. 
  40. ↑ "Quality and chemical composition of ten red raspberry (Rubus idaeus L.) genotypes during three harvest seasons". Food Chemistry 160: 233–40. 2014. doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2014.02.174. PMID 24799233. 
  41. ↑ Carvalho, Elisabete; Fraser, P.D.; Martens, S. (2013). "Carotenoids and tocopherols in yellow and red raspberries". Food Chemistry 139 (1–4): 744–752. doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2012.12.047. PMID 23561169. 
  42. ↑ Holst, Lone; Haavik, Svein; Nordeng, Hedvig (13 June 2009). "Raspberry leaf – Should it be recommended to pregnant women?". Complementary Therapies in Clinical Practice 15 (4): 204–8. doi:10.1016/j.ctcp.2009.05.003. PMID 19880082. 

Further reading

  • Funt, R.C.; Hall, H.K. (2012). Raspberries (Crop Production Science in Horticulture). CABI. ISBN 978-1-84593-791-1.



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