Earth:Mycoremediation

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Short description: Process of using fungi to degrade or sequester contaminants in the environment
Pleurotus Ostreatus (Oyster mushroom)

Mycoremediation (from ancient Greek μύκης (mukēs), meaning "fungus" and the suffix -remedium, in Latin meaning 'restoring balance') is a form of bioremediation in which fungi-based remediation methods are used to decontaminate the environment.[1] Fungi have been proven to be a cheap, effective and environmentally sound way for removing a wide array of contaminants from damaged environments or wastewater. These contaminants include heavy metals, organic pollutants, textile dyes, leather tanning chemicals and wastewater, petroleum fuels, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, pharmaceuticals and personal care products, pesticides and herbicides[2] in land, fresh water, and marine environments.

The byproducts of the remediation can be valuable materials themselves, such as enzymes (like laccase),[3] edible or medicinal mushrooms,[4] making the remediation process even more profitable. Some fungi are useful in the biodegradation of contaminants in extremely cold or radioactive environments where traditional remediation methods prove too costly or are unusable.

Pollutants

Fungi, thanks to their non-specific enzymes, are able to break down many kinds of substances including pharmaceuticals and fragrances that are normally recalcitrant to bacteria degradation,[5] such as paracetamol (also known as acetaminophen). For example, using Mucor hiemalis,[6] the breakdown of products which are toxic in traditional water treatment, such as phenols and pigments of wine distillery wastewater,[7] X-ray contrast agents, and ingredients of personal care products,[8] can be broken down in a non-toxic way.

Mycoremediation is a cheaper method of remediation, and it doesn't usually require expensive equipment. For this reason, it is often used in small scale applications, such as mycofiltration of domestic wastewater,[9] and industrial effluent filtration.[10]

According to a 2015 study, mycoremediation can even help with the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) soil biodegradation. Soils soaked with creosote contain high concentrations of PAH and in order to stop the spread, mycoremediation has proven to be the most successful strategy.[11]

Acid mine drainage from a metallic sulfide mine

Metals

Pollution from metals is very common, as they are used in many industrial processes such as electroplating, textiles,[12] paint and leather. The wastewater from these industries is often used for agricultural purposes, so besides the immediate damage to the ecosystem it is spilled into, the metals can enter creatures and humans far away through the food chain. Mycoremediation is one of the cheapest, most effective and environmental-friendly solutions to this problem.[13] Many fungi are hyperaccumulators, therefore they are able to concentrate toxins in their fruiting bodies for later removal. This is usually true for populations that have been exposed to contaminants for a long time, and have developed a high tolerance. Hyperaccumulation occurs via biosorption on the cellular surface, where the metals enter the mycelium passively with very little intracellular uptake.[14] A variety of fungi, such as Pleurotus, Aspergillus, Trichoderma has proven to be effective in the removal of lead,[15][16] cadmium,[16] nickel,[17][16] chromium,[16] mercury,[18] arsenic,[19] copper,[15][20] boron,[21] iron and zinc[22] in marine environments, wastewater and on land.[15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22]

Not all the individuals of a species are effective in the same way in the accumulation of toxins. The single individuals are usually selected from an older polluted environment, such as sludge or wastewater, where they had time to adapt to the circumstances, and the selection is carried on in the laboratory[citation needed]. A dilution of the water can drastically improve the ability of biosorption of the fungi.[23]

Coprinus comatus (Shaggy ink cap)

The capacity of certain fungi to extract metals from the ground also can be useful for bioindicator purposes, and can be a problem when the mushroom is of an edible variety. For example, the shaggy ink cap (Coprinus comatus), a common edible mushroom found in the Northern Hemisphere, can be a very good bioindicator of mercury.[24] However, as the shaggy ink cap accumulates mercury in its body, it can be toxic to the consumer.[24]

The capacity of metals uptake of mushroom has also been used to recover precious metals from medium. For example, VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland reported an 80% recovery of gold from electronic waste using mycofiltration techniques.[25]

Organic pollutants

Deepwater Horizon oil spill site with visible oil slicks

Fungi are amongst the primary saprotrophic organisms in an ecosystem, as they are efficient in the decomposition of matter. Wood-decay fungi, especially white rot, secretes extracellular enzymes and acids that break down lignin and cellulose, the two main building blocks of plant fiber. These are long-chain organic (carbon-based) compounds, structurally similar to many organic pollutants. They achieve this using a wide array of enzymes. In the case of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), complex organic compounds with fused, highly stable, polycyclic aromatic rings, fungi are very effective[26] in addition to marine environments.[27] The enzymes involved in this degradation are ligninolytic and include lignin peroxidase, versatile peroxidase, manganese peroxidase, general lipase, laccase and sometimes intracellular enzymes, especially the cytochrome P450.[28][29]

Other toxins fungi are able to degrade into harmless compounds include petroleum fuels,[30] phenols in wastewater,[31] polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) in contaminated soils using Pleurotus ostreatus,[32] polyurethane in aerobic and anaerobic conditions,[33] such as conditions at the bottom of landfills using two species of the Ecuadorian fungus Pestalotiopsis,[34] and more.[35]

Pleurotus pulmonarius mushroom on the side of a tree
Pleurotus pulmonarius

The mechanisms of degradation are not always clear,[36] as the mushroom may be a precursor to subsequent microbial activity rather than individually effective in the removal of pollutants.[37]

Pesticides

Pesticide contamination can be long-term and have a significant impact on decomposition processes and nutrient cycling.[38] Therefore, their degradation can be expensive and difficult. The most commonly used fungi for helping in the degradation of such substances are white rot fungi, which, thanks to their extracellular ligninolytic enzymes like laccase and manganese peroxidase, are able to degrade high quantity of such components. Examples includes the insecticide endosulfan,[39] imazalil, thiophanate methyl, ortho-phenylphenol, diphenylamine, chlorpyrifos[40] in wastewater, and atrazine in clay-loamy soils.[41]

Dyes

Dyes are used in many industries, like paper printing or textile. They are often recalcitrant to degradation and in some cases, like some azo dyes, carcinogenic or otherwise toxic.[42]

The mechanism by which the fungi degrade dyes is via their lignolytic enzymes, especially laccase, therefore white rot mushrooms are the most commonly used.[citation needed]

Mycoremediation has proven to be a cheap and effective remediation technology for dyes such as malachite green, nigrosin and basic fuchsin with Aspergillus niger and Phanerochaete chrysosporium[43] and Congo red, a carcinogenic dye recalcitrant to biodegradative processes,[44] direct blue 14 (using Pleurotus).[45]

Synergy with phytoremediation

Phytoremediation is the use of plant-based technologies to decontaminate an area.

Most land plants can form a symbiotic relationship with fungi which is advantageous for both organisms. This relationship is called mycorrhiza. Researchers found that phytoremediation is enhanced by mycorrhizae.[46] Mycorrhizal fungi's symbiotic relationships with plant roots help with the uptake of nutrients and the plant's ability to resist biotic and abiotic stress factors such as heavy metals bioavailable in the rhizosphere. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) produce proteins that bind heavy metals and thereby decrease their bioavailability.[47][48] The removal of soil contaminants by mycorrhizal fungi is called mycorrhizoremediation.[49]

Mycorrhizal fungi, especially AMF, can greatly improve the phytoremediation capacity of some plants. This is mostly due to the stress the plants suffer because of the pollutants is greatly reduced in the presence of AMF, so they can grow more and produce more biomass.[50][48] The fungi also provide more nutrition, especially phosphorus, and promote the overall health plants. The mycelium's quick expansion can also greatly extend the rhizosphere influence zone (hyphosphere), providing the plant with access to more nutrients and contaminants.[51] Increasing the rhizosphere overall health also means a rise in the bacteria population, which can also contribute to the bioremediation process.[52]

This relationship has been proven useful with many pollutants, such as Rhizophagus intraradices and Robinia pseudoacacia in lead contaminated soil,[53] Rhizophagus intraradices with Glomus versiforme inoculated into vetiver grass for lead removal,[54] AMF and Calendula officinalis in cadmium and lead contaminated soil,[55] and in general was effective in increasing the plant bioremediation capacity for metals,[56][57] petroleum fuels,[58][59] and PAHs.[52] In wetlands AMF greatly promote the biodegradation of organic pollutants like benzene-, methyl tert-butyl ether- and ammonia from groundwater when inoculated into Phragmites australis.[60]

Viability in extreme environments

Antarctic fungi species such as Metschnikowia sp., Cryptococcus gilvescens, Cryptococcus victoriae, Pichia caribbica and Leucosporidium creatinivorum can withstand extreme cold and still provide efficient biodegradation of contaminants.[61] Due to the nature of colder, remote environments like Antarctica, usual methods of contaminant remediation, such as the physical removal of contaminated media, can prove costly.[62][63] Most species of psychrophilic Antarctic fungi are resistant to the decreased levels of ATP (adenosine triphosphate) production causing reduced energy availability,[64] decreased levels of oxygen due to the low permeability of frozen soil, and nutrient transportation disruption caused by freeze-thaw cycles.[65] These species of fungi are able to assimilate and degrade compounds such as phenols, n-Hexadecane, toluene, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in these harsh conditions.[66][61] These compounds are found in crude oil and refined petroleum.

Some fungi species, like Rhodotorula taiwanensis, are resistant to the extremely low pH (acidic) and radioactive medium found in radioactive waste and can successfully grow in these conditions, unlike most other organisms.[67] They can also thrive in the presence of high concentrations of mercury and chromium.[67] Fungi such as Rhodotorula taiwanensis can possibly be used in the bioremediation of radioactive waste due to their low pH and radiation resistant properties.[67] Certain species of fungi are able to absorb and retain radionuclides such as 137Cs, 121Sr, 152Eu, 239Pu and 241Am.[68][10] In fact, cell walls of some species of dead fungi can be used as a filter that can adsorb heavy metals and radionuclides present in industrial effluents, preventing them from being released into the environment.[10]

Fire management

Mycoremediation can even be used for fire management with the encapsulation method. This process consists of using fungal spores coated with agarose in a pellet form, which is introduced to a substrate in the burnt forest, breaking down toxins and stimulating growth.[69]

See also

References

  1. ↑ "Mushroom as a product and their role in mycoremediation". AMB Express 4 (1): 29. April 2014. doi:10.1186/s13568-014-0029-8. PMID 24949264. 
  2. ↑ "Diverse Metabolic Capacities of Fungi for Bioremediation". Indian Journal of Microbiology 56 (3): 247–64. September 2016. doi:10.1007/s12088-016-0584-6. PMID 27407289. 
  3. ↑ "Bioremediation of a wine distillery wastewater using white rot fungi and the subsequent production of laccase". Water Science and Technology 56 (2): 179–86. 2007. doi:10.2166/wst.2007.487. PMID 17849993. "Trametes pubescens MB 89 greatly improved the quality of a wastewater known for toxicity towards biological treatment systems, while simultaneously producing an industrially relevant enzyme.". 
  4. ↑ "Mushroom as a product and their role in mycoremediation". AMB Express 4: 29. 1 April 2014. doi:10.1186/s13568-014-0029-8. PMID 24949264. "The cultivation of edible mushroom on agricultural and industrial wastes may thus be a value added process capable of converting these discharges, which are otherwise considered to be wastes, into foods and feeds". 
  5. ↑ "Untapped potential: exploiting fungi in bioremediation of hazardous chemicals". Nature Reviews. Microbiology 9 (3): 177–92. March 2011. doi:10.1038/nrmicro2519. PMID 21297669. "municipal wastewater contains small concentrations of the ingredients of many consumer products and drugs. Many of these contaminants do not lend themselves to bacterial degradation because of distinctly xenobiotic structures.". 
  6. ↑ "Using aquatic fungi for pharmaceutical bioremediation: Uptake of acetaminophen by Mucor hiemalis does not result in an enzymatic oxidative stress response". Fungal Biology 120 (10): 1249–57. October 2016. doi:10.1016/j.funbio.2016.07.009. PMID 27647241. 
  7. ↑ "Bioremediation of a wine distillery wastewater using white rot fungi and the subsequent production of laccase". Water Science and Technology 56 (2): 179–86. 2007. doi:10.2166/wst.2007.487. PMID 17849993. "Trametes pubescens MB 89 greatly improved the quality of a wastewater known for toxicity towards biological treatment systems". 
  8. ↑ "Untapped potential: exploiting fungi in bioremediation of hazardous chemicals". Nature Reviews. Microbiology 9 (3): 177–92. March 2011. doi:10.1038/nrmicro2519. PMID 21297669. "ligninolytic basidiomycetes and mitosporic ascomycetes, including aquatic fungi, are known to degrade EDCs (nonylphenol, bisphenol A and 17α-ethinylestradiol); analgesic, anti-epileptic and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs; X-ray contrast agents; polycyclic musk fragrances; and ingredients of personal care products". 
  9. ↑ "Mycoremediation--a prospective environmental friendly technique of bioseparation and dewatering of domestic wastewater sludge". Environmental Science and Pollution Research International 19 (5): 1612–9. June 2012. doi:10.1007/s11356-011-0676-0. PMID 22134862. "Within 2-3 days of treatment application, encouraging results were achieved in total dry solids (TDS), total suspended solid (TSS), turbidity, chemical oxygen demand (COD), specific resistance to filtration (SRF), and pH due to fungal treatment in recognition of bioseparation and dewaterability of wastewater sludge compared to control.". 
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 Belozerskaya, T.; Aslanidi, K.; Ivanova, A.; Gessler, N.; Egorova, A.; Karpenko, Y.; Olishevskaya, S. (2010). "Characteristics of Extremophylic Fungi from Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant". Current Research, Technology and Education Topics in Applied Microbiology and Microbial Biotechnology: 88–94. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/266487050. 
  11. ↑ García-Delgado, Carlos; Alfaro-Barta, Irene; Eymar, Enrique (March 2015). "Combination of biochar amendment and mycoremediation for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons immobilization and biodegradation in creosote-contaminated soil" (in en). Journal of Hazardous Materials 285: 259–266. doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2014.12.002. PMID 25506817. https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0304389414009844. 
  12. ↑ "Biological methods for textile dye removal from wastewater: A review". Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology 47 (19): 1836–1876. 2017. doi:10.1080/10643389.2017.1393263. Bibcode: 2017CREST..47.1836B. 
  13. ↑ "Bioremediation of heavy metals in liquid media through fungi isolated from contaminated sources". Indian Journal of Microbiology 51 (4): 482–7. October 2011. doi:10.1007/s12088-011-0110-9. PMID 23024411. "Wastewater particularly from electroplating, paint, leather, metal and tanning industries contain enormous amount of heavy metals. Microorganisms including fungi have been reported to exclude heavy metals from wastewater through bioaccumulation and biosorption at low cost and in eco-friendly way.". 
  14. ↑ "Sorption of lead and copper from an aqueous phase system by marine-derived Aspergillus species" (in English). Annals of Microbiology 63 (2): 503–511. 1 June 2013. doi:10.1007/s13213-012-0495-7. ISSN 1590-4261. "The sequestration of the metal occurred mainly by sorption to the cell-surface with very little intracellular uptake.". 
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 "Sorption of lead and copper from an aqueous phase system by marine-derived Aspergillus species" (in English). Annals of Microbiology 63 (2): 503–511. 1 June 2013. doi:10.1007/s13213-012-0495-7. ISSN 1590-4261. "Selected cultures displayed a good sorption capacity of 32 - 41 mg Pb2+ and 3.5 - 6.5 mg Cu2+ g-1 dry weight of mycelia". 
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 16.3 16.4 "Bioremediation of heavy metals in liquid media through fungi isolated from contaminated sources". Indian Journal of Microbiology 51 (4): 482–7. October 2011. doi:10.1007/s12088-011-0110-9. PMID 23024411. 
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 "Assessment of Ni accumulation capability by fungi for a possible approach to remove metals from soils and waters". Journal of Environmental Science and Health, Part B 52 (3): 166–170. March 2017. doi:10.1080/03601234.2017.1261539. PMID 28121266. Bibcode: 2017JESHB..52..166C. "This latter [Trichoderma harzianum strain] hyperaccumulates up to 11,000 mg Ni kg-1, suggesting its possible use in a bioremediation protocol able to provide a sustainable reclamation of broad contaminated areas.". 
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 "Potential bioremediation of mercury-contaminated substrate using filamentous fungi isolated from forest soil". Journal of Environmental Sciences 26 (6): 1223–31. June 2014. doi:10.1016/S1001-0742(13)60592-6. PMID 25079829. "The strain was able to remove 97.50% and 98.73% mercury from shaken and static systems respectively. A. flavus strain KRP1 seems to have potential use in bioremediation of aqueous substrates containing mercury(II) through a biosorption mechanism.". 
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 "Soil fungi for mycoremediation of arsenic pollution in agriculture soils". Journal of Applied Microbiology 119 (5): 1278–90. November 2015. doi:10.1111/jam.12948. PMID 26348882. "These fungal strains [Aspergillus oryzae FNBR_L35; Fusarium sp. FNBR_B7, FNBR_LK5 and FNBR_B3; Aspergillus nidulans FNBR_LK1; Rhizomucor variabilis sp. FNBR_B9; and Emericella sp. FNBR_BA5] can be used for As remediation in As-contaminated agricultural soils.". 
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 "Microfungi in highly copper-contaminated soils from an abandoned Fe-Cu sulphide mine: growth responses, tolerance and bioaccumulation". Chemosphere 117: 471–6. December 2014. doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2014.08.057. PMID 25240213. Bibcode: 2014Chmsp.117..471Z. 
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 "A new and effective approach to boron removal by using novel boron-specific fungi isolated from boron mining wastewater". Water Science and Technology 73 (3): 543–9. 2016. doi:10.2166/wst.2015.519. PMID 26877036. "The maximum boron removal yield by P. crustosum was 45.68% at 33.95 mg l(-1) initial boron concentration in MSM, and was 38.97% at 42.76 mg l(-1) boron for R. mucilaginosa, which seemed to offer an economically feasible method of removing boron from the effluents.". 
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 "Heavy metal pollution due to coal washery effluent and its decontamination using a macrofungus, Pleurotus ostreatus". Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety 145: 42–49. November 2017. doi:10.1016/j.ecoenv.2017.07.001. PMID 28704692. "Efficiency of Pleurotus for remediation of heavy metals was found to be highest in the 50% diluted effluent (57.2% Mn, 82.6% Zn, 98.0% Ni, 99.9% Cu, 99.3% Co, 99.1% Cr, 89.2% Fe and 35.6% Pb)". 
  23. ↑ "Heavy metal pollution due to coal washery effluent and its decontamination using a macrofungus, Pleurotus ostreatus". Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety 145: 42–49. November 2017. doi:10.1016/j.ecoenv.2017.07.001. PMID 28704692. 
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 "Mercury bio-extraction by fungus Coprinus comatus: a possible bioindicator and mycoremediator of polluted soils?". Environmental Science and Pollution Research International 23 (8): 7444–51. April 2016. doi:10.1007/s11356-015-5971-8. PMID 26705753. "Eating them when foraged from the urban places can provide to a consumer Hg at relatively high dose, while unresolved question is absorption rate of Hg compounds contained in ingested mushroom meal.". 
  25. ↑ "Environmental aspects of metals removal from waters and gold recovery". AIChE Journal 61 (9): 2739–2748. September 2015. doi:10.1002/aic.14917. 
  26. ↑ "Simple screening protocol for identification of potential mycoremediation tools for the elimination of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and phenols from hyperalkalophile industrial effluents". Journal of Environmental Management 198 (Pt 2): 1–11. August 2017. doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2017.05.010. PMID 28499155. "The levels of adsorption of the phenolic and PAHs were negligible with 99% biodegradation being observed in the case of benzo-α-pyrene, phenol and p-chlorophenol". 
  27. ↑ "Marine-derived filamentous fungi and their potential application for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon bioremediation". Marine Pollution Bulletin 62 (2): 364–70. February 2011. doi:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2010.10.003. PMID 21040933. Bibcode: 2011MarPB..62..364P. "The fungus Aspergillus sclerotiorum CBMAI 849 showed the best performance with regard to pyrene (99.7%) and benzo[a]pyrene (76.6%) depletion after 8 and 16 days, respectively. [...] Because these fungi were adapted to the marine environment, the strains that were used in the present study are considered to be attractive targets for the bioremediation of saline environments, such as ocean and marine sediments that are contaminated by PAHs.". 
  28. ↑ "Diverse Metabolic Capacities of Fungi for Bioremediation". Indian Journal of Microbiology 56 (3): 247–64. September 2016. doi:10.1007/s12088-016-0584-6. PMID 27407289. "certain fungi possess intracellular networks which constitute the xenome, consisting of cytochrome (CYP) P450 monooxygenases and the glutathione transferases for dealing with diverse range of pollutants.". 
  29. ↑ "Involvement of the ligninolytic system of white-rot and litter-decomposing fungi in the degradation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons". Biotechnology Research International 2012: 243217. 2012. doi:10.1155/2012/243217. PMID 22830035. "Ligninolytic fungi, such as Phanerochaete chrysosporium, Bjerkandera adusta, and Pleurotus ostreatus, have the capacity of PAH degradation. The enzymes involved in the degradation of PAHs are ligninolytic and include lignin peroxidase, versatile peroxidase, Mn-peroxidase, and laccase.". 
  30. ↑ "Degradation of Bunker C Fuel Oil by White-Rot Fungi in Sawdust Cultures Suggests Potential Applications in Bioremediation". PLOS ONE 10 (6): e0130381. 25 June 2015. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0130381. PMID 26111162. Bibcode: 2015PLoSO..1030381Y. "Averaging across all studied species, 98.1%, 48.6%, and 76.4% of the initial Bunker C C10 alkane, C14 alkane, and phenanthrene, respectively were degraded after 180 days of fungal growth on pine media.". 
  31. ↑ "Simple screening protocol for identification of potential mycoremediation tools for the elimination of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and phenols from hyperalkalophile industrial effluents". Journal of Environmental Management 198 (Pt 2): 1–11. August 2017. doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2017.05.010. PMID 28499155. "When this wastewater was supplemented with 0.1 mM glucose, all of the tested fungi, apart from A. caesiellus, displayed the capacity to remove both the phenolic and PAH compounds". 
  32. ↑ "Bioremediation of long-term PCB-contaminated soil by white-rot fungi". Journal of Hazardous Materials 324 (Pt B): 701–710. February 2017. doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2016.11.044. PMID 27894756. "The best results were obtained with P. ostreatus, which resulted in PCB removals of 18.5, 41.3 and 50.5% from the bulk, top (surface) and rhizosphere, respectively, of dumpsite soils after 12 weeks of treatment". 
  33. ↑ "Could Plastic-Eating Mushrooms Solve mankind's Plastic Problem?" (in en-US). 2021-04-14. https://sciencemint.com/could-plastic-eating-mushrooms-solve-mankinds-plastic-problem/. 
  34. ↑ "Biodegradation of polyester polyurethane by endophytic fungi". Applied and Environmental Microbiology 77 (17): 6076–84. September 2011. doi:10.1128/AEM.00521-11. PMID 21764951. Bibcode: 2011ApEnM..77.6076R. 
  35. ↑ "Untapped potential: exploiting fungi in bioremediation of hazardous chemicals". Nature Reviews. Microbiology 9 (3): 177–92. March 2011. doi:10.1038/nrmicro2519. PMID 21297669. "species of the genera Cladophialophora and Exophiala (of the order Chaetothyriales) assimilate toluene. Aspergillus and Penicillium spp. (of the order Eurotiales) degrade aliphatic hydrocarbons, chlorophenols, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAhs), pesticides, synthetic dyes and 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TnT). metabolization of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs) is reported for the genera Cordyceps and Fusarium (of the order hypocreales), as well as for Pseudallescheria spp. (of the order microascales). The mitosporic Acremonium spp. degrade PAhs and Royal Demolition Explosive (RDX), and Graphium spp. degrade methyl-tert-butylether (mTBE). outside of the Pezizomycotina, Phoma spp. degrade PAhs, pesticides and synthetic dyes. The subphylum Saccharomycotina mostly consists of yeasts and includes degraders of n-alkanes, n-alkylbenzenes, crude oil, the endocrine disrupting chemical (EDC) nonylphenol, PAhs and TnT (in the genera Candida, Kluyveromyces, Neurospora, Pichia, Saccharomyces and Yarrowia". 
  36. ↑ "Degradation of Bunker C Fuel Oil by White-Rot Fungi in Sawdust Cultures Suggests Potential Applications in Bioremediation". PLOS ONE 10 (6): e0130381. 25 June 2015. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0130381. PMID 26111162. Bibcode: 2015PLoSO..1030381Y. "The mechanisms by which P. strigosozonata may degrade complex oil compounds remain obscure, but degradation results of the 180-day cultures suggest that diverse white-rot fungi have promise for bioremediation of petroleum fuels.". 
  37. ↑ "Bioremediation of long-term PCB-contaminated soil by white-rot fungi". Journal of Hazardous Materials 324 (Pt B): 701–710. February 2017. doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2016.11.044. PMID 27894756. "P. ostreatus efficiently colonized the soil samples and suppressed other fungal genera. However, the same fungus substantially stimulated bacterial taxa that encompass putative PCB degraders.". 
  38. ↑ "Environmental factors and bioremediation of xenobiotics using white rot fungi". Mycobiology 38 (4): 238–48. December 2010. doi:10.4489/MYCO.2010.38.4.238. PMID 23956663. 
  39. ↑ "Analytical methodology for the study of endosulfan bioremediation under controlled conditions with white rot fungi". Journal of Chromatography B 907: 168–72. October 2012. doi:10.1016/j.jchromb.2012.09.010. PMID 23022115. "the basidiomycete Bjerkandera adusta was able to degrade 83% of (alpha+beta) endosulfan after 27 days, 6 mg kg(-1) of endosulfan diol were determined; endosulfan ether and endosulfan sulfate were produced below 1 mg kg(-1) (LOQ, limit of quantitation).". 
  40. ↑ "Potential for bioremediation of agro-industrial effluents with high loads of pesticides by selected fungi". Biodegradation 22 (1): 215–28. February 2011. doi:10.1007/s10532-010-9389-1. PMID 20635121. 
  41. ↑ "Atrazine degradation by fungal co-culture enzyme extracts under different soil conditions". Journal of Environmental Science and Health. Part. B, Pesticides, Food Contaminants, and Agricultural Wastes 51 (5): 298–308. 2016. doi:10.1080/03601234.2015.1128742. PMID 26830051. Bibcode: 2016JESHB..51..298C. "This study demonstrated that both the monoculture extracts of the native strain T. maxima and its co-culture with P. carneus can efficiently and quickly degrade atrazine in clay-loam soils.". 
  42. ↑ "Textile industry and occupational cancer". Journal of Occupational Medicine and Toxicology 11: 39. 2016-08-15. doi:10.1186/s12995-016-0128-3. PMID 27532013. 
  43. ↑ "Bioremediation of dyes by fungi isolated from contaminated dye effluent sites for bio-usability". Brazilian Journal of Microbiology 45 (3): 1055–63. 9 October 2014. doi:10.1590/s1517-83822014000300039. PMID 25477943. "Aspergillus niger recorded maximum decolorization of the dye Basic fuchsin (81.85%) followed by Nigrosin (77.47%), Malachite green (72.77%) and dye mixture (33.08%) under shaking condition. Whereas, P. chrysosporium recorded decolorization to the maximum with the Nigrosin (90.15%) followed by Basic fuchsin (89.8%), Malachite green (83.25%) and mixture (78.4%).". 
  44. ↑ "Mycoremediation of congo red dye by filamentous fungi". Brazilian Journal of Microbiology 42 (4): 1526–36. October 2011. doi:10.1590/s1517-83822011000400040. PMID 24031787. "the decolourisation obtained at optimized conditions varied between 29.25- 97.28% at static condition and 82.1- 100% at shaking condition". 
  45. ↑ "Bioremediation of direct blue 14 and extracellular ligninolytic enzyme production by white rot fungi: Pleurotus spp". BioMed Research International 2013: 180156. 2013. doi:10.1155/2013/180156. PMID 23841054. 
  46. ↑ "Chapter Four - Mycorrhiza-Assisted Phytoremediation", Advances in Botanical Research (Academic Press) 83: pp. 127–188, 2017-01-01, doi:10.1016/bs.abr.2016.12.005 
  47. ↑ Chen, Hansong; Xiong, Juan; Fang, Linchuan; Han, Fu; Zhao, Xiaolan; Fan, Qiaohui; Tan, Wenfeng (September 2022). "Sequestration of heavy metals in soil aggregates induced by glomalin-related soil protein: A five-year phytoremediation field study" (in en). Journal of Hazardous Materials 437: 129445. doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2022.129445. PMID 35897177. https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0304389422012389. 
  48. ↑ 48.0 48.1 Riaz, Muhammad; Kamran, Muhammad; Fang, Yizeng; Wang, Qianqian; Cao, Huayuan; Yang, Guoling; Deng, Lulu; Wang, Youjuan et al. (2021-01-15). "Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi-induced mitigation of heavy metal phytotoxicity in metal contaminated soils: A critical review" (in en). Journal of Hazardous Materials 402: 123919. doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.123919. ISSN 0304-3894. PMID 33254825. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0304389420319087. 
  49. ↑ "Mycorrhizoremediation--an enhanced form of phytoremediation". Journal of Zhejiang University. Science. B 7 (7): 503–14. July 2006. doi:10.1631/jzus.2006.B0503. PMID 16773723. 
  50. ↑ "Role of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in phytoremediation of soil rhizosphere spiked with poly aromatic hydrocarbons". Mycobiology 33 (1): 41–50. March 2005. doi:10.4489/MYCO.2005.33.1.041. PMID 24049473. "As consequence of the treatment with Am [Arbuscolar mycorrhize], the plants provide a greater sink for the contaminants since they are better able to survive and grow.". 
  51. ↑ "Prospects for arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) to assist in phytoremediation of soil hydrocarbon contaminants". Chemosphere 162: 105–16. November 2016. doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2016.07.071. PMID 27487095. Bibcode: 2016Chmsp.162..105R. "AMF have been considered to be a tool to enhance phytoremediation, as their mycelium create a widespread underground network that acts as a bridge between plant roots, soil and rhizosphere microorganisms. Abundant extramatrical hyphae extend the rhizosphere thus creating the hyphosphere, which significantly increases the area of a plant's access to nutrients and contaminants.". 
  52. ↑ 52.0 52.1 "Role of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in phytoremediation of soil rhizosphere spiked with poly aromatic hydrocarbons". Mycobiology 33 (1): 41–50. March 2005. doi:10.4489/MYCO.2005.33.1.041. PMID 24049473. "Highly significant positive correlations were shown between of arbuscular formation in root segments (A)) and plant water content, root lipids, peroxidase, catalase polyphenol oxidase and total microbial count in soil rhizosphere as well as PAH dissipation in spiked soil.". 
  53. ↑ "The roles of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) in phytoremediation and tree-herb interactions in Pb contaminated soil". Scientific Reports 6: 20469. February 2016. doi:10.1038/srep20469. PMID 26842958. Bibcode: 2016NatSR...620469Y. "Non-mycorrhizal legumes were more sensitive to Pb addition than that of mycorrhizal legumes [...] The presence of AMF greatly increased the total biomass of legumes in all treatments". 
  54. ↑ "Effectiveness of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in phytoremediation of lead- contaminated soil by vetiver grass". International Journal of Phytoremediation 18 (7): 730–7. 2016. doi:10.1080/15226514.2015.1131242. PMID 26709443. "With mycorrhizal inoculation and increasing Pb levels, Pb uptake of shoot and root increased compared to those of NM control". 
  55. ↑ "Effect of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi On Yield and Phytoremediation Performance of Pot Marigold (Calendula officinalis L.) Under Heavy Metals Stress". International Journal of Phytoremediation 17 (12): 1244–52. 2015. doi:10.1080/15226514.2015.1045131. PMID 26237494. "However, mycorrhizal fungi alleviated these impacts by improving plant growth and yield. Pot marigold concentrated high amounts of Pb and especially Cd in its roots and shoots; mycorrhizal plants had a greater accumulation of these metals, so that those under 80 mg/kg Cd soil(-1) accumulated 833.3 and 1585.8 mg Cd in their shoots and roots, respectively.". 
  56. ↑ "Assessment of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi status and heavy metal accumulation characteristics of tree species in a lead-zinc mine area: potential applications for phytoremediation". Environmental Science and Pollution Research International 22 (17): 13179–93. September 2015. doi:10.1007/s11356-015-4521-8. PMID 25929455. "Redundancy analysis (RDA) showed that the efficiency of phytoremediation was enhanced by AM symbioses, and soil pH, Pb, Zn, and Cd levels were the main factors influencing the HM accumulation characteristics of plants.". 
  57. ↑ "[Effects of the arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi on environmental phytoremediation in coal mine areas]". Huan Jing Ke Xue = Huanjing Kexue 34 (11): 4455–9. November 2013. PMID 24455959. "Population of microorganism increased obviously. All the above results show that their ecological effects are significantly improved. AM would promote rhizosphere soil that will help the sustainability of ecological systems in mining area.". 
  58. ↑ "Effect of plant growth-promoting bacteria (PGPR) and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) inoculation on oats in saline-alkali soil contaminated by petroleum to enhance phytoremediation". Environmental Science and Pollution Research International 22 (1): 598–608. January 2015. doi:10.1007/s11356-014-3396-4. PMID 25091168. "the degradation rate of total petroleum hydrocarbon during treatment with PGPR and AMF in moderately contaminated soil reached a maximum of 49.73%". 
  59. ↑ "Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi on growth, nutrient status, and total antioxidant activity of Melilotus albus during phytoremediation of a diesel-contaminated substrate". Journal of Environmental Management 95 Suppl: S319-24. March 2012. doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2011.02.015. PMID 21420227. "AMF-plants significantly contributed in higher degradation of total petroleum hydrocarbons when compared to non-AMF-plants.". 
  60. ↑ "Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in a wetland constructed for benzene-, methyl tert-butyl ether- and ammonia-contaminated groundwater bioremediation". Microbial Biotechnology 6 (1): 80–4. January 2013. doi:10.1111/j.1751-7915.2012.00357.x. PMID 22846140. 
  61. ↑ 61.0 61.1 "Bioremediation Abilities of Antarctic Fungi" (in en), Fungi in Extreme Environments: Ecological Role and Biotechnological Significance (Cham: Springer International Publishing): pp. 517–534, 2019, doi:10.1007/978-3-030-19030-9_26, ISBN 978-3-030-19030-9 
  62. ↑ "Remediation of Frozen Ground Contaminated with Petroleum Hydrocarbons: Feasibility and Limits", Permafrost Soils, Soil Biology (Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer) 16: pp. 279–301, 2009, doi:10.1007/978-3-540-69371-0_19, ISBN 978-3-540-69371-0 
  63. ↑ "Remediation of soil and water contaminated with petroleum hydrocarbon: A review". Environmental Technology & Innovation 17: 100526. 2020-02-01. doi:10.1016/j.eti.2019.100526. 
  64. ↑ Dunn, Jacob; Grider, Michael H. (2021), "Physiology, Adenosine Triphosphate", StatPearls (Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing), PMID 31985968, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK553175/, retrieved 2021-03-26 
  65. ↑ "Bioremediation of Oil Spills in Cold Environments: A Review". Pedosphere 19 (3): 371–381. 2009-06-01. doi:10.1016/S1002-0160(09)60128-4. 
  66. ↑ "Pathogenic Yet Environmentally Friendly? Black Fungal Candidates for Bioremediation of Pollutants". Geomicrobiology Journal 33 (3–4): 308–317. March 2016. doi:10.1080/01490451.2015.1052118. PMID 27019541. Bibcode: 2016GmbJ...33..308B. 
  67. ↑ 67.0 67.1 67.2 "Prospects for Fungal Bioremediation of Acidic Radioactive Waste Sites: Characterization and Genome Sequence of Rhodotorula taiwanensis MD1149" (in English). Frontiers in Microbiology 8: 2528. 2018. doi:10.3389/fmicb.2017.02528. PMID 29375494. 
  68. ↑ Zhdanova, N.N.; Redchits, T.I.; Zheltonozhsky, V.A.; Sadovnikov, L.V.; Gerzabek, M.H.; Olsson, S.; Strebl, F.; Mück, K. (January 2003). "Accumulation of radionuclides from radioactive substrata by some micromycetes" (in en). Journal of Environmental Radioactivity 67 (2): 119–130. doi:10.1016/S0265-931X(02)00164-9. PMID 12660044. https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0265931X02001649. 
  69. ↑ Rhodes, Christopher J. (January 2014). "Mycoremediation (bioremediation with fungi) – growing mushrooms to clean the earth" (in en). Chemical Speciation & Bioavailability 26 (3): 196–198. doi:10.3184/095422914X14047407349335. ISSN 0954-2299. 



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