Philosophy:Optimism

From HandWiki
Short description: Positive mental attitude


Half a glass of water, illustration of two different mental attitudes, optimism (half full) and pessimism (half empty)

Optimism is an attitude reflecting a belief or hope that the outcome of some specific endeavor, or outcomes in general, will be positive, favorable, and desirable. A common idiom used to illustrate optimism versus pessimism is a glass filled with water to the halfway point: an optimist is said to see the glass as half full, while a pessimist sees the glass as half empty.

The term derives from the Latin optimum, meaning "best". To be optimistic, in the typical sense of the word, is to expect the best possible outcome from any given situation.[1] This is usually referred to in psychology as dispositional optimism. It reflects a belief that future conditions will work out for the best.[2] As a trait, it fosters resilience in the face of stress.[3]

Theories of optimism include dispositional models and models of explanatory style. Methods to measure optimism have been developed within both of these theoretical approaches, such as various forms of the Life Orientation Test for the original dispositional definition of optimism and the Attributional Style Questionnaire designed to test optimism in terms of explanatory style.

Variation in optimism between people is somewhat heritable[4] and reflects biological trait systems to some degree.[clarification needed][5] A person's optimism is also influenced by environmental factors, including family environment,[4] and may be learnable.[6][page needed] Optimism may also be related to health.[7]

Psychological optimism

Dispositional optimism

An optimist and a pessimist, Vladimir Makovsky, 1893

Researchers operationalize the term "optimism" differently depending on their research. As with any trait characteristic, there are several ways to evaluate optimism, such as the Life Orientation Test (LOT), an eight-item scale developed in 1985 by Michael Scheier and Charles Carver.[8]

Dispositional optimism and pessimism are typically assessed by asking people whether they expect future outcomes to be beneficial or negative (see below).[9] The LOT returns separate optimism and pessimism scores for each individual. Behaviourally,[clarification needed] these two scores correlate around r=0.5. Optimistic scores on this scale predict better outcomes in relationships,[10] higher social status,[11] and reduced loss of well-being following adversity.[12][page needed] Health-preserving behaviors [vague] optimism while health-damaging behaviors are associated with pessimism.[13]

Some have argued that optimism is the opposite end of a single dimension with pessimism,[14][page needed] with any distinction between them reflecting factors such as social desirability. Confirmatory modelling, however, supports a two-dimensional model[15] and the two dimensions predict different outcomes[clarification needed].[16] Genetic modelling confirms this independence, showing that pessimism and optimism are inherited as independent traits, with the typical correlation between them emerging as a result of a general well-being factor and family environment influences.[4] Patients with high dispositional optimism appear to have stronger immune systems since optimism buffers against psychological stressors.[17] Optimists appear to live longer.[18]

Explanatory style

Explanatory style is distinct from dispositional theories of optimism. While related to life-orientation measures of optimism, attributional style[clarification needed] theory suggests that dispositional optimism and pessimism are reflections of the ways people explain events, i.e., that attributions cause these dispositions.[19] An optimist would view defeat as temporary, as something that does not apply to other cases, and as something that is not their fault.[20] Measures of attributional style distinguish three dimensions among explanations for events: Whether these explanations draw on internal versus external causes; whether the causes are viewed as stable versus unstable; and whether explanations apply globally versus being situationally specific. In addition, the measures distinguish attributions for positive and negative events.

Optimistic people attribute internal, stable, and global explanations to good things. Pessimistic explanations attribute these traits of stability, globality, and internality to negative events, such as relationship difficulty.[21] Models of optimistic and pessimistic attributions show that attributions themselves are a cognitive style – individuals who tend to focus on the global explanations do so for all types of events, and the styles correlate among each other. In addition, individuals vary in how optimistic their attributions are for good events and on how pessimistic their attributions are for bad events. Still, these two traits of optimism and pessimism are un-correlated.[22]

There is much debate about the relationship between explanatory style and optimism. Some researchers argue that optimism is simply the lay-term for what researchers know as explanatory style.[23] More commonly, it is found that explanatory style is distinct from dispositional optimism,[24] so the two should not be used interchangeably as they are marginally correlated at best. More research is required to "bridge" or further differentiate these concepts.[21]

Origins

Optimistic personality (modified from[4])

As with all psychological traits, differences in both dispositional optimism and pessimism[4] and in attributional style[25] are heritable. Both optimism and pessimism are strongly influenced by environmental factors, including the family environment.[4] Optimism may be indirectly inherited as a reflection of underlying heritable traits such as intelligence, temperament, and alcoholism.[25] Evidence from twin studies shows that the inherited component of the dispositional optimism is about 25 percent, making this trait a stable personality dimension[26][page needed] and a predictor of life outcomes.[27] Its genetic origin interacts with environmental influences and other risks, to determine the vulnerability to depression across the lifespan.[28] Many theories assume optimism can be learned,[6] and research supports a modest role of family-environment acting to raise (or lower) optimism and lower (or raise) neuroticism and pessimism.[4]

Work utilising brain imaging and biochemistry suggests that at a biological trait level, optimism and pessimism reflect brain systems specialised for the tasks of processing and incorporating beliefs regarding good and bad information respectively.[5]

Assessment

Life Orientation Test

The Life Orientation Test (LOT) was designed by Scheier and Carver (1985)[full citation needed] to assess dispositional optimism – expecting positive or negative outcomes.[21] It is one of the more popular tests of optimism and pessimism. It was often used in early studies examining these dispositions' effects in health-related domains.[29] Scheier and Carver's initial research, which surveyed college students, found that optimistic participants were less likely to show an increase in symptoms like dizziness, muscle soreness, fatigue, blurred vision, and other physical complaints than pessimistic respondents.[30]

There are eight items and four filler items in the test. Four are positive items (e.g. "In uncertain times, I usually expect the best") and four are negative items e.g. "If something can go wrong for me, it will."[31] The LOT has been revised twice—once by the original creators (LOT-R) and also by Chang, Maydeu-Olivares, and D'Zurilla as the Extended Life Orientation Test (ELOT). The Revised Life Orientation Test (LOT-R) consists of six items, each scored on a five-point scale from "Strongly disagree" to "Strongly agree" and four filler items.[32] Half of the coded items are phrased optimistically, the other half in a pessimistic way. Compared with its previous iteration, LOT-R offers good internal consistency over time despite item overlaps, making the correlation between the LOT and LOT-R extremely high.[29]

Attributional Style Questionnaire

The Attributional Style Questionnaire (ASQ)[33] is based on the explanatory style model of optimism. Subjects read a list of six positive and negative events (e.g. "you have been looking for a job unsuccessfully for some time"), and are asked to record a possible cause for the event. They then rate whether this is internal or external, stable or changeable, and global or local to the event.[33] There are several modified versions of the ASQ including the Expanded Attributional Style Questionnaire (EASQ), the Content Analysis of Verbatim Explanations (CAVE), and the ASQ designed for testing the optimism of children.[21]

Associations with health

Optimism and health are correlated moderately.[34] Optimism explains between 5–10% of the variation in the likelihood of developing some health conditions (correlation coefficients between .20 and .30),[35] notably including cardiovascular disease,[36] stroke,[37] and depression.Cite error: Closing </ref> missing for <ref> tag A meta-analysis confirmed the assumption that optimism is related to psychological well-being: "Put simply, optimists emerge from difficult circumstances with less distress than do pessimists."[38] Furthermore, the correlation appears to be attributable to coping style: "That is, optimists seem intent on facing problems head-on, taking active and constructive steps to solve their problems; pessimists are more likely to abandon their effort to attain their goals."[38]

Optimists may respond better to stress: pessimists have shown higher levels of cortisol (the "stress hormone") and trouble regulating cortisol in response to stressors.[39] Another study by Scheier examined the recovery process for a number of patients that had undergone surgery.[40] The study showed that optimism was a strong predictor of the rate of recovery. Optimists achieved faster results in "behavioral milestones" such as sitting in bed, walking around, etc. They also were rated by staff as having a more favorable physical recovery. At a six-month follow-up, optimists were quicker to resume normal activities.

Optimism and well-being

A number of studies have been done on optimism and psychological well-being. One 30-year study undertaken by Lee et al. (2019)[41]assessed the overall optimism and longevity of cohorts of men from the Veterans Affairs Normative Aging Study and women from the Nurses' Health Study. The study found a positive correlation between higher levels of optimism and exceptional longevity, defined as a lifespan exceeding 85 years.

Another study conducted by Aspinwall and Taylor (1990)[full citation needed] assessed incoming freshmen on a range of personality factors such as optimism, self-esteem, locus of self-control, etc.[40] Freshmen who scored high on optimism before entering college had lower levels of psychological distress than their more pessimistic peers while controlling for the other personality factors. Over time, the more optimistic students were less stressed, less lonely, and less depressed than their pessimistic counterparts. This study suggests a strong link between optimism and psychological well-being.

Low optimism may help explain the association between caregivers' anger and reduced sense of vitality[clarification needed].[42]

A meta-analysis of optimism supported findings that optimism is positively correlated with life satisfaction, happiness,[43][better source needed] and psychological and physical well-being, and negatively correlated with depression and anxiety.[44]

Seeking to explain the correlation,[specify] researchers find that optimists choose healthier lifestyles. For example, optimists smoke less, are more physically active, consume more fruit, vegetables, and whole-grain bread, and are more moderate in alcohol consumption.[45]

Translating association into modifiability

An article by Mayo Clinic argues that steps to change self-talk from negative to positive may shift individuals from a negative to a more positive/optimistic outlook.[46] Strategies claimed to be of value include surrounding oneself with positive people, identifying areas of change, practicing positive self-talk, being open to humor, and following a healthy lifestyle.[46]

There is also the notion of "learned optimism" in positive psychology, which holds that joy is a talent that can be cultivated and can be achieved through specific actions such as challenging negative self talk or overcoming "learned helplessness".[47] However, criticism against positive psychology argues that it places too much importance on "upbeat thinking, while shunting challenging and difficult experiences to the side"—threatening to become toxic positivity.[48]

A study involving twins found that optimism is largely inherited at birth.[49] Along with the recognition that childhood experiences determine an individual's outlook, such studies demonstrate the genetic basis for optimism reinforces the recognized difficulty in changing or manipulating the direction of an adult's disposition from pessimist to optimist.[49]

Philosophical optimism

One of the earliest forms of philosophical optimism was Socrates' theory of moral intellectualism, which formed part of his model of enlightenment through the process of self-improvement.[50] According to the philosopher, it is possible to live a virtuous life by attaining moral perfection through philosophical self-examination. He maintained that knowledge of moral truth is necessary and sufficient for leading a good life.[50] In his philosophical investigations, Socrates followed a model that did not merely focus on the intellect or reason but a balanced practice that also considered emotion as an important contributor to the richness of human experience.[51]

Distinct from a disposition to believe that things will work out, there is a philosophical idea that, perhaps in ways that may not be fully comprehended, the present moment is in an optimum state. This view that all of nature—past, present, and future—operates by laws of optimization along the lines of Hamilton's principle in the realm of physics is countered by views such as idealism, realism, and philosophical pessimism. Philosophers often link the concept of optimism with the name of Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, who held that we live in the best of all possible worlds (le meilleur des mondes possibles), or that God created a physical universe that applies the laws of physics.[clarification needed] The concept was also reflected in an aspect of Voltaire's early philosophy, one that was based on Isaac Newton's view that described a divinely ordered human condition.[52] This philosophy would also later emerge in Alexander Pope's Essay on Man.

Leibniz proposed that it was not God's power to create a perfect world, but he created the best among possible worlds.[53] In one of his writings, he responded to Blaise Pascal's philosophy of awe and desperation in the face of the infinite by claiming that infinity should be celebrated. While Pascal advocated for making man's rational aspirations more humble, Leibniz was optimistic about the capacity of human reason to extend itself further.[54]

This idea was mocked by Voltaire in his satirical novel Candide as baseless optimism of the sort exemplified by the beliefs of one of its characters, Dr. Pangloss, which are the opposite of his fellow traveller Martin's pessimism and emphasis on free will. The optimistic position is also called Panglossianism which became an term for excessive, even stupendous, optimism.[55] The phrase "panglossian pessimism" has been used[by whom?] to describe the pessimistic position that, since this is the best of all possible worlds, it is impossible for anything to get any better. Conversely, philosophical pessimism might be associated[by whom?] with an optimistic long-term view because it implies that no change for the worse is possible. Voltaire found it difficult to reconcile Leibniz's optimism with human suffering as demonstrated by the earthquake that devastated Lisbon in 1755 and the atrocities committed by the pre-revolutionary France against its people.[56]

Optimalism

As defined by Nicholas Rescher, philosophical optimalism holds that this universe exists because it is better than the alternatives.[57] While this philosophy does not exclude the possibility of a deity, it also does not require one, and is compatible with atheism.[58] Rescher explained that the concept can stand on its own feet, arguing that there is no necessity to seeing optimalism realization as divinely instituted because it is a naturalistic theory in principle.[59]

Psychological optimalism, as defined by the positive psychologist Tal Ben-Shahar, means willingness to accept failure while remaining confident that success will follow, a positive attitude he contrasts with negative perfectionism.[60] Perfectionism can be defined as a persistent compulsive drive toward unattainable goals and valuation based solely in terms of accomplishment.[61] Perfectionists reject the realities and constraints of human ability. They cannot accept failures, delaying any ambitious and productive behavior in fear of failing again.[62] This neuroticism can even lead to clinical depression and low productivity.[63][better source needed] As an alternative to negative perfectionism, Ben-Shahar suggests the adoption of optimalism. Optimalism allows for failure in pursuit of a goal, and expects that while the trend of activity is towards the positive, it is not necessary always to succeed while striving towards goals. This basis in reality, prevents the optimalist from being overwhelmed in the face of failure.[60]

Optimalists accept failures and learn from them, encouraging further pursuit of achievement.[62] Ben-Shahar believes that optimalists and perfectionists show distinct motives. Optimalists tend to have more intrinsic, inward desires, with a motivation to learn, while perfectionists are highly motivated by a need to prove themselves worthy consistently.[60]

Two additional facets of optimalism have been described: product optimalism and process optimalism. The former is described as an outlook that seeks to realize the best possible result, while the latter seeks maximization of the chances of achieving the best possible result.[64]

Some sources also distinguish the concept from optimism since it does not focus on how things are going well but on whether things are going as well as possible.[65]

See also

References

  1. ↑ "optimism". Merriam-Webster. https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/optimism. 
  2. ↑ "Definition of optimism in English". http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/optimism. 
  3. ↑ Weiten, Wayne; Lloyd, Margaret (2005). Psychology Applied to Modern Life: Adjustment in the 21st Century. Belmont, Calif.: Thomson Wadsworth. pp. 96. ISBN 978-0534608590. https://archive.org/details/psychologyapplie00weit_0. 
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 Bates, Timothy C. (25 February 2015). "The glass is half full and half empty: A population-representative twin study testing if optimism and pessimism are distinct systems". The Journal of Positive Psychology 10 (6): 533–542. doi:10.1080/17439760.2015.1015155. PMID 26561494. 
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Sharot, Tali (December 2011). "The optimism bias". Current Biology 21 (23): R941–R945. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2011.10.030. PMID 22153158. 
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 Vaughan, Susan C. (2000). Half Empty, Half Full: Understanding the Psychological Roots of Optimism. New York: Harcourt. ISBN 0151004013. https://archive.org/details/halfemptyhalfful00vaug. 
  7. ↑ Ron Gutman: The hidden power of smiling on YouTube
  8. ↑ Breckler, Steven J.; Olson, James; Wiggins, Elizabeth (2006). Social Psychology Alive. Belmont, Calif.: Thomson Learning. pp. 190. ISBN 0534578349. https://archive.org/details/socialpsychology0000brec. 
  9. ↑ Scheier, M. F.; Carver, C. S. (1987). "Dispositional optimism and physical well-being: the influence of generalized outcome expectancies on health". Journal of Personality 55 (2): 169–210. doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.1987.tb00434.x. PMID 3497256. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1467-6494.1987.tb00434.x. 
  10. ↑ House, J.; Landis, K.; Umberson, D (1988-07-29). "Social relationships and health". Science 241 (4865): 540–545. doi:10.1126/science.3399889. PMID 3399889. Bibcode: 1988Sci...241..540H. https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.3399889. 
  11. ↑ Lorant, Vincent; Croux, Christophe; Weich, Scott; Deliège, Denise; Mackenbach, Johan; Ansseau, Marc (2007-04-01). "Depression and socio-economic risk factors: 7-year longitudinal population study". The British Journal of Psychiatry 190 (4): 293–298. doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.105.020040. ISSN 0007-1250. PMID 17401034. 
  12. ↑ Carver, C. S.; Scheier, M. F. (1998). On the self-regulation of behavior. New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521572040. https://archive.org/details/onselfregulation0000carv. 
  13. ↑ Hooker, Karen; Monahan, Deborah; Shifren, Kim; Hutchinson, Cheryl (1992). "Mental and physical health of spouse caregivers: The role of personality". Psychology and Aging 7 (3): 367–375. doi:10.1037/0882-7974.7.3.367. PMID 1388857. https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2F0882-7974.7.3.367. 
  14. ↑ Jeste, Dilip V.; Palmer, Barton W. (2015-04-28) (in en). Positive Psychiatry: A Clinical Handbook. American Psychiatric Pub. ISBN 9781585625192. 
  15. ↑ Herzberg, Philipp Yorck; Glaesmer, Heide; Hoyer, Jürgen (2006). "Separating optimism and pessimism: A robust psychometric analysis of the Revised Life Orientation Test (LOT-R)". Psychological Assessment 18 (4): 433–438. doi:10.1037/1040-3590.18.4.433. PMID 17154764. 
  16. ↑ Robinson-Whelen, Susan; Kim, Cheongtag; MacCallum, Robert C.; Kiecolt-Glaser, Janice K. (1997). "Distinguishing optimism from pessimism in older adults: Is it more important to be optimistic or not to be pessimistic?". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 73 (6): 1345–1353. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.73.6.1345. PMID 9418282. https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2F0022-3514.73.6.1345. 
  17. ↑ Duffy, James D.; Valentine, Alan (2010). MD Anderson Manual of Psychosocial Oncology. New York City: McGraw Hill Professional. p. 38. ISBN 9780071624381. 
  18. ↑ Abbott, Eileen (14 November 2019). "Optimists live longer. Here's why." (in en). Changing America. https://thehill.com/changing-america/well-being/longevity/470527-optimists-live-longer-heres-why. 
  19. ↑ Hackfort, Dieter; Schinke, Robert J.; Strauss, Bernd (2019). Dictionary of Sport Psychology: Sport, Exercise, and Performing Arts. London: Academic Press. p. 202. ISBN 9780128131503. 
  20. ↑ Snyder, C. R.; Lopez, Shane J. (2009). Oxford Handbook of Positive Psychology, Second edition. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 137. ISBN 9780195187243. 
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 21.2 21.3 Gillham, Jane E.; Shatté, Andrew J.; Reivich, Karen J.; Seligman, Martin E. P. (2001). "Optimism, Pessimism, and Explanatory Style". in Chang, Edward C.. Optimism and Pessimism: Implications for Theory, Research, and Practice. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. pp. 53–75. ISBN 978-1-55798-691-7. https://archive.org/details/optimismpessimis0000unse/page/53/mode/1up. 
  22. ↑ Liu, Caimei; Bates, Timothy C. (2014-08-01). "The structure of attributional style: Cognitive styles and optimism–pessimism bias in the Attributional Style Questionnaire". Personality and Individual Differences 66: 79–85. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2014.03.022. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0191886914001810. 
  23. ↑ Peterson, C. (2000). "The Future of Optimism". American Psychologist 55 (1): 44–55. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.44. PMID 11392864. https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2F0003-066X.55.1.44. 
  24. ↑
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 Schulman, P.; Keith, D.; Seligman, M. (1993). "Is Optimism Heritable? A Study of Twins". Behaviour Research and Therapy 31 (6): 569–574. doi:10.1016/0005-7967(93)90108-7. PMID 8347115. 
  26. ↑ Bornstein, Marc H. (2018-01-15) (in en). The SAGE Encyclopedia of Lifespan Human Development. SAGE Publications. ISBN 9781506353326. 
  27. ↑ Popper, Micha; Mayseless, Ofra (2013). "Internal World of Transformational Leaders". Transformational and Charismatic Leadership: The Road Ahead. Bingley, U.K.: Emerald Group Publishing Limited. p. 247. ISBN 9781781905999. https://archive.org/details/transformational0000unse_n8p4/page/237/mode/1up. 
  28. ↑ Abela, John R.Z.; Auerbach, Randy P.; Seligman, Martin E.P. (2008). "Dispositional Pessimism Across the Lifespan". Risk Factors in Depression. San Diego, Calif.: Academic Press. p. 213. ISBN 9780080450780. https://archive.org/details/riskfactorsindep0000dobs/page/195/mode/1up. 
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 Christensen, Alan; Martin, René; Smyth, Joshua (2004). Encyclopedia of Health Psychology. New York: Springer Science+Business Media. p. 159. ISBN 9780306483363. 
  30. ↑ Breckler, Steven; Olson, James; Wiggins, Elizabeth (2005). Social Psychology Alive. Belmont, Calif.: Thomson Wadsworth. p. 190. ISBN 978-0534578343. https://archive.org/details/socialpsychology0000brec. 
  31. ↑ Scheier, Michael F.; Carver, Charles S. (1985). "Optimism, coping, and health: Assessment and implications of generalized outcome expectancies". Health Psychology 4 (3): 219–247. doi:10.1037/0278-6133.4.3.219. PMID 4029106. https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2F0278-6133.4.3.219. 
  32. ↑ Scheier, Michael F.; Carver, Charles S.; Bridges, Michael W. (December 1994). "Distinguishing optimism from neuroticism (and trait anxiety, self-mastery, and self-esteem): A reevaluation of the Life Orientation Test.". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 67 (6): 1063–1078. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.67.6.1063. PMID 7815302. https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2F0022-3514.67.6.1063. 
  33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 Peterson, Christopher; Semmel, Amy; von Baeyer, Carl; Abramson, Lyn Y.; Metalsky, Gerald I.; Seligman, Martin E. P. (September 1982). "The Attributional Style Questionnaire". Cognitive Therapy and Research 6 (3): 287–299. doi:10.1007/BF01173577. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF01173577. 
  34. ↑ Peterson, Christopher; Park, Nansook; Kim, Eric S. (February 2012). "Can optimism decrease the risk of illness and disease among the elderly?". Aging Health 8 (1): 5–8. doi:10.2217/ahe.11.81. https://www.futuremedicine.com/doi/10.2217/ahe.11.81. 
  35. ↑ Peterson, Christopher; Bossio, Lisa M. (2001). "Optimism and Physical Well-Being". in Chang, Edward C.. Optimism and Pessimism: Implications for Theory, Research, and Practice. Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association. pp. 127–145. ISBN 978-1-55798-691-7. 
  36. ↑
  37. ↑ Kim, Eric S.; Park, Nansook; Peterson, Christopher (October 2011). "Dispositional Optimism Protects Older Adults From Stroke: The Health And Retirement Study". Stroke 42 (10): 2855–2859. doi:10.1161/STROKEAHA.111.613448. PMID 21778446. 
  38. ↑ 38.0 38.1 Scheier, Michael F.; Carver, Charles S.; Bridges, Michael W. (2001). "Optimism, Pessimism, and Psychological Well-Being". in Chang, E.. Optimism & Pessimism: Implications for Theory, Research, and Practice. Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association. pp. 189–216. ISBN 978-1-55798-691-7. https://archive.org/details/optimismpessimis0000unse/page/189/mode/1up. 
  39. ↑ Bergland, Christopher (2013-07-24). "Optimism Stabilizes Cortisol Levels and Lowers Stress". https://www.psychologytoday.com/intl/blog/the-athletes-way/201307/optimism-stabilizes-cortisol-levels-and-lowers-stress. 
  40. ↑ 40.0 40.1 Scheier, Michael F.; Carver, Charles S. (April 1992). "Effects of optimism on psychological and physical well-being: Theoretical overview and empirical update". Cognitive Therapy and Research 16 (2): 201–228. doi:10.1007/BF01173489. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF01173489. 
  41. ↑ Wilson, Micah K.; Boag, Russell James; Strickland, Luke (2019-12-01). "All models are wrong, some are useful, but are they reproducible? Commentary on Lee et al. (2019)" (in en). Computational Brain & Behavior 2 (3): 239–241. doi:10.1007/s42113-019-00054-x. ISSN 2522-087X. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42113-019-00054-x. 
  42. ↑ López, J.; Romero-Moreno, R.; Márquez-González, M.; Losada, A. (2015-04-01). "Anger and Health in Dementia Caregivers: Exploring the Mediation Effect of Optimism" (in en). Stress and Health 31 (2): 158–165. doi:10.1002/smi.2539. ISSN 1532-2998. PMID 24123699. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/smi.2539. 
  43. ↑ Singh, Sarbjit (May 2019). "How Optimism Affects Happiness". https://loveequals.net/blogs/sports/how-optimism-affects-happiness. 
  44. ↑ Alarcon, Gene M.; Bowling, Nathan A.; Khazon, Steven (May 2013). "Great expectations: A meta-analytic examination of optimism and hope". Personality and Individual Differences 54 (7): 821–827. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2012.12.004. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0191886912005818. 
  45. ↑ Giltay, Erik J.; Geleijnse, Johanna M.; Zitman, Frans G.; Buijsse, Brian; Kromhout, Daan (November 2007). "Lifestyle and dietary correlates of dispositional optimism in men: The Zutphen Elderly Study". Journal of Psychosomatic Research 63 (5): 483–490. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychores.2007.07.014. PMID 17980220. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0022399907002917. 
  46. ↑ 46.0 46.1 "Positive thinking: Stop negative self-talk to reduce stress". Mayo Clinic. March 4, 2014. https://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-lifestyle/stress-management/in-depth/positive-thinking/art-20043950. 
  47. ↑ Rockwell, Sylvia (2006). You Can't Make Me!: From Chaos to Cooperation in the Elementary Classroom. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Corwin Press. p. 110. ISBN 978-1412916615. https://archive.org/details/youcantmakemefro0000rock. 
  48. ↑ Smith, Jen Rose (17 September 2020). "When does a good attitude become toxic positivity?". https://www.cnn.com/2020/09/17/health/toxic-positivity-mental-health-wellness/index.html. 
  49. ↑ 49.0 49.1 Rand, Kevin L.; Shea, Amanda M. (2013). "Optimism Within the Context of Disability". in Wehmeyer, Michael L.. The Oxford Handbook of Positive Psychology and Disability. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 56. ISBN 9780195398786. https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195398786/page/48/mode/2up. 
  50. ↑ 50.0 50.1 Wallgren, Thomas (2006). Transformative Philosophy: Socrates, Wittgenstein, and the Democratic Spirit of Philosophy. Lanham, Md.: Lexington Books. p. 60. ISBN 978-0-7391-1361-5. 
  51. ↑ Schultz, Anne-Marie (2013-06-07). Plato's Socrates as Narrator: A Philosophical Muse. Lanham, Md.: Lexington Books. p. 28. ISBN 978-0-7391-8330-4. 
  52. ↑ Craig, Edward (2005). The Shorter Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Oxon: Routledge. p. 1052. ISBN 978-1-134-34409-3. https://archive.org/details/shorterroutledge0000unse. 
  53. ↑ Cronk, Nicholas (2009). The Cambridge Companion to Voltaire. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 125. ISBN 9780521849739. 
  54. ↑ Nachtomy, Ohad (2018). "On Living Mirrors and Mites: Leibniz's Encounter with Pascal on Infinity and Living Things Circa 1696". Oxford Studies in Early Modern Philosophy, Volume 8. 9780198829294: Oxford University Press. pp. 176. ISBN 9780198829294. 
  55. ↑ Olick, Jeffrey (2013). The Politics of Regret: On Collective Memory and Historical Responsibility. New York: Routledge. p. 169. ISBN 9780415956833. 
  56. ↑ Zack, Naomi (2009). The Handy Philosophy Answer Book. Detroit: Visible Ink Press. p. 137. ISBN 978-1-57859-277-7. https://archive.org/details/the-handy-philosophy-answer-book. 
  57. ↑ Rescher, Nicholas (June 2000). "Optimalism and axiological metaphysics". The Review of Metaphysics 53 (4): 807–35. ISSN 0034-6632. https://www.jstor.org/stable/20131443. 
  58. ↑ Steinhart, Eric (2010). "Platonic Atheism". https://www.ericsteinhart.com/articles/platonicatheism.pdf. 
  59. ↑ Rescher, Nicholas (2013). Issues in the Philosophy of Religion. Piscataway, N.J.: Transaction Books. p. 80. ISBN 9783938793701. 
  60. ↑ 60.0 60.1 60.2 Ben-Shahar, Tal (11 March 2009). The Pursuit of Perfect: How to Stop Chasing Perfection and Start Living a Richer, Happier Life. McGraw-Hill Professional. p. 7. ISBN 978-0-07-160882-4. https://archive.org/details/pursuitofperfect00bens. Retrieved 26 July 2011. 
  61. ↑ Parker, W. D.; Adkins, K. K. (1994), "Perfectionism and the gifted", Roeper Review 17 (3): 173–176, doi:10.1080/02783199509553653, https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02783199509553653 
  62. ↑ 62.0 62.1 Horne, Amanda (2009-09-03). "Positive Psychology News Daily". https://positivepsychologynews.com/news/amanda-horne/200909035149. 
  63. ↑ "Perfectionism: Impossible Dream", Psychology Today, May 1995, http://www.psychologytoday.com/articles/pto-19950501-000002.html, retrieved 2011-07-26 
  64. ↑ Rescher, Nicholas (2013). Being and Value and Other Philosophical Essays. Frankfurt: Ontos Verlag. p. 11. ISBN 978-3-938793-88-6. 
  65. ↑ Rescher, Nicholas (2010). Axiogenesis: An Essay in Metaphysical Optimalism. Lanham, Md.: Lexington Books. pp. 41. ISBN 978-0-7391-4932-4. 

Further reading




Retrieved from "https://handwiki.org/wiki/index.php?title=Philosophy:Optimism&oldid=3418439"