Biology:Avocado

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Short description: Species of flowering plant in the laurel family Lauraceae

Avocado
Close-up picture of foliage and avocado fruit
Avocado fruit and foliage, Réunion island
Avocado Hass - single and halved.jpg
Scientific classification edit
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Magnoliids
Order: Laurales
Family: Lauraceae
Genus: Persea
Species:
P. americana
Binomial name
Persea americana
Mill.
Synonyms[2]

The avocado (Persea americana) is a medium-sized, evergreen tree in the laurel family (Lauraceae). It is native to the Americas and was first domesticated in Mesoamerica more than 5,000 years ago. Then as now it was prized for its large and unusually oily fruit.[3] The tree likely originated in the highlands bridging south-central Mexico and Guatemala.[4][5][6] Its fruit, sometimes also referred to as an alligator pear or avocado pear, is botanically a large berry containing a single large seed.[7] Sequencing of its genome showed that the evolution of avocados was shaped by polyploidy events and that commercial varieties have an hybrid origin.[8] Avocado trees are partly self-pollinating, and are often propagated through grafting to maintain consistent fruit output.[9] Avocados are presently cultivated in the tropical and Mediterranean climates of many countries.[4] Mexico is the world's leading producer of avocados as of 2020, supplying nearly 30% of the global harvest in that year.[10]

The fruit of domestic varieties have smooth, buttery, golden-green flesh when ripe. Depending on the cultivar, avocados have green, brown, purplish, or black skin, and may be pear-shaped, egg-shaped, or spherical. For commercial purposes the fruits are picked while unripe and ripened after harvesting. The nutrient density and extremely high fat content of avocado flesh are useful to a variety of cuisines and are often eaten to enrich vegetarian diets.[11]

In major production regions like Chile , Mexico and California the water demands of avocado farms place strain on local resources.[12] Avocado production is also implicated in other externalities, including deforestation and human rights concerns associated with the partial control of their production in Mexico by organized crime.[13][14][15][16] Global warming is expected to result in significant changes to the suitable growing zones for avocados, and place additional pressures on the locales in which they are produced due to heat waves and drought.[17][18]

Description

Persea americana is a tree that grows to 9–20 m (30–66 ft) with a trunk diameter between 0.3–0.6 m (0.98–1.97 ft). The leaves are 7.62–25 cm (3–10 in) long and alternately arranged.[19][20]

Flower

Panicles of flowers with deciduous bracts arise from new growth or the axils of leaves. The tree flowers thousands of blossoms every year. Avocado blossoms sprout from racemes near the leaf axils; they are small and inconspicuous 5–10 mm (3⁄16–3⁄8 in) wide. They have no petals but instead 2 whorls of 3 pale-green or greenish-yellow downy perianth lobes, each blossom has 9 stamens with 2 basal orange nectar glands.[19][4]

Flower of Avocado
Pollen grains of avocado

Fruit

The avocado fruit is a climacteric,[21] single-seeded berry, due to the imperceptible endocarp covering the seed,[7][22] rather than a drupe.[23] The pear-shaped fruit is usually 7–20 cm (3–8 in) long, weighs between 100 and 1,000 g (3 1⁄2 and 35 1⁄2 oz), and has a large central seed, 5–6.4 cm (2–2 1⁄2 in) long.[4]

The species produces various cultivars with larger, fleshier fruits with a thinner exocarp because of selective breeding by humans.[24]

Taxonomy

Persea americana is regarded as an evolutionary anachronism, having likely coevolved dispersal of its large seed by now-extinct megafauna in South America, notably giant ground sloths and the gomphothere genus of the elephant lineage.[25][26][27] Following extinction of these original seed dispersers, humans migrating into the region are thought to have become primary long-distance dispersers, eventuating in domestication of the species.[26][28]

In 1982, evolutionary biologist Daniel H. Janzen concluded that the avocado is an example of an "evolutionary anachronism", a fruit adapted for ecological relationship with now-extinct large mammals (such as giant ground sloths or gomphotheres).[29][30] Most large fleshy fruits serve the function of seed dispersal, accomplished by their consumption by large animals. There are some reasons to think that the fruit, with its mildly toxic pit, may have coevolved with Pleistocene megafauna to be swallowed whole and excreted in their dung, ready to sprout. No extant native animal is large enough to effectively disperse avocado seeds in this fashion.[31][32]

The earliest known written account of the avocado in Europe is that of Martín Fernández de Enciso (c. 1470 – 1528) in 1519 in his book, Suma De Geographia Que Trata De Todas Las Partidas Y Provincias Del Mundo.[33][34] The first detailed account that unequivocally describes the avocado was given by Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés in his work Sumario de la natural historia de las Indias [es] in 1526.[35] The first written record in English of the use of the word 'avocado' was by Hans Sloane, who coined the term,[35] in a 1696 index of Jamaican plants.

Etymology

The word avocado comes from the Spanish aguacate, which derives from the Nahuatl (Mexican) word āhuacatl [aːˈwakat͡ɬ],[36] which goes back to the proto-Aztecan *pa:wa.[37] In Molina's Nahuatl dictionary "auacatl" is given also as the translation for compañón "testicle",[38] and this has been taken up in popular culture where a frequent claim is that testicle was the word's original meaning. This is not the case, as the original meaning can be reconstructed rather as "avocado" – rather the word seems to have been used in Nahuatl as a euphemism for "testicle".[39][40][41]

The modern English name comes from a rendering of the Spanish aguacate as avogato. The earliest known written use in English is attested from 1697 as avogato pear, later avocado pear (due to its shape), a term sometimes corrupted to alligator pear.[42][43][4]

Regional names

In Central American, Caribbean Spanish-speaking countries, and Spain[44] it is known by the Mexican Spanish name aguacate, while South American Spanish-speaking countries Argentina, Chile, Perú and Uruguay use a Quechua-derived word, palta.[45] In Portuguese, it is abacate. The Nahuatl āhuacatl can be compounded with other words, as in ahuacamolli, meaning avocado soup or sauce, from which the Spanish word guacamole derives.[46]

In the United Kingdom the term avocado pear, applied when avocados first became commonly available in the 1960s, is sometimes used.[47]

Originating as a diminutive in Australian English, a clipped form, avo, has since become a common colloquialism in South Africa and the United Kingdom.[48]

It is known as "butter fruit" in parts of India[49] and Hong Kong.[50]

Cultivation

History

Domestication, leading to genetically distinct cultivars, possibly originated in the Tehuacan Valley[51] in the state of Puebla, Mexico.[52] There is evidence for three possible separate domestications of the avocado, resulting in the currently recognized Guatemalan (quilaoacatl), Mexican (aoacatl) and West Indian (tlacacolaocatl) landraces.[35][53] The Guatemalan and Mexican and landraces originated in the highlands of those countries, while the West Indian landrace is a lowland variety that ranges from Guatemala, Costa Rica, Colombia, Ecuador to Peru,[35] achieving a wide range through human agency before the arrival of the Europeans.[53] The three separate landraces were most likely to have already intermingled[lower-alpha 1] in pre-Columbian America and were described in the Florentine Codex.[53]

The earliest residents of northern coastal Peru were living in temporary camps in an ancient wetland and eating avocados, along with chilies, mollusks, sharks, birds, and sea lions.[54] The oldest discovery of an avocado pit comes from Coxcatlan Cave, dating from around 9,000 to 10,000 years ago.[51][53] Other caves in the Tehuacan Valley from around the same time period also show early evidence for the presence and consumption of avocado.[51] There is evidence for avocado use at Norte Chico civilization sites in Peru by at least 3,200 years ago and at Caballo Muerto in Peru from around 3,800 to 4,500 years ago.[51]

Native Oaxaca criollo avocados, the ancestral form of today's domesticated varieties

The avocado tree also has a long history of cultivation in Central and South America, likely beginning as early as 5,000 BC.[52] A water jar shaped like an avocado, dating to AD 900, was discovered in the pre-Inca city of Chan Chan.[55]

The plant was introduced to Spain in 1601, Indonesia around 1750, Mauritius in 1780, Brazil in 1809, the United States mainland in 1825, South Africa and Australia in the late 19th century, and the Ottoman Empire in 1908.[53] In the United States, the avocado was introduced to Florida and Hawaii in 1833 and in California in 1856.[53]

Before 1915, the avocado was commonly referred to in California as ahuacate and in Florida as alligator pear. In 1915, the California Avocado Association introduced the then-innovative term avocado to refer to the plant.[53]

Requirements

Persea americana, young avocado plant (seedling), complete with parted pit and roots

As a subtropical species, avocados need a climate without frost and with little wind. High winds reduce the humidity, dehydrate the flowers, and affect pollination.[original research?] When even a mild frost occurs, premature fruit drop may occur; although the 'Hass' cultivar can tolerate temperatures down to −1 °C.[original research?] Several cold-hardy varieties[specify][which?] are planted in the region of Gainesville, Florida, which survive temperatures as low as −6.5 °C (20 °F) with only minor leaf damage. The trees also need well-aerated soils, ideally more than 1 m deep.[original research?] However, Guatemalan varieties such as "MacArthur", "Rincon", or "Nabal" can withstand temperatures down to −1.6 °C (29 °F) [56]

According to information published by the Water Footprint Network, it takes an average of approximately 70 litres (18 US gallons; 15 imperial gallons) of applied fresh ground or surface water, not including rainfall or natural moisture in the soil, to grow one avocado (283 L/kg [33.9 US gal/lb; 28.2 imp gal/lb]). However, the amount of water needed depends on where it is grown; for example, in the main avocado-growing region of Chile, about 320 L (85 US gal; 70 imp gal) of applied water are needed to grow one avocado (1,280 L/kg [153 US gal/lb; 128 imp gal/lb]).[57]

Increasing demand and production of avocados may cause water shortages in some avocado production areas, such as the Mexican state of Michoacán.[12][58] Avocados may also cause environmental and socioeconomic impacts in major production areas, illegal deforestation, and water disputes.[12][58] Water requirements for growing avocados are three times higher than for apples, and 18 times higher than for tomatoes.[58]

Harvest and postharvest

Commercial orchards produce an average of seven tonnes per hectare each year, with some orchards achieving 20 tonnes per hectare.[59] Biennial bearing can be a problem, with heavy crops in one year being followed by poor yields the next.

Like the banana, the avocado is a climacteric fruit, which matures on the tree, but ripens off the tree. Avocados used in commerce are picked hard and green and kept in coolers at 3.3 to 5.6 °C (37.9 to 42.1 °F) until they reach their final destination. Avocados must be mature to ripen properly. Avocados that fall off the tree ripen on the ground. Generally, the fruit is picked once it reaches maturity; Mexican growers pick 'Hass' avocados when they have more than 23% dry matter, and other producing countries have similar standards. Once picked, avocados ripen in one to two weeks (depending on the cultivar) at room temperature (faster if stored with other fruits such as apples or bananas, because of the influence of ethylene gas). Some supermarkets sell ripened avocados which have been treated with synthetic ethylene to hasten ripening.[60] The use of an ethylene gas "ripening room", which is now an industry standard, was pioneered in the 1980s by farmer Gil Henry of Escondido, California, in response to footage from a hidden supermarket camera which showed shoppers repeatedly squeezing hard, unripe avocados, putting them "back in the bin", and moving on without making a purchase.[61] In some cases, avocados can be left on the tree for several months, which is an advantage to commercial growers who seek the greatest return for their crop, but if the fruit remains unpicked for too long, it falls to the ground.

Breeding

A seedless avocado, or cuke, growing next to two regular Ettinger avocados

The species is only partially able to self-pollinate because of dichogamy in its flowering. This limitation, added to the long juvenile period, makes the species difficult to breed. Most cultivars are propagated by grafting, having originated from random seedling plants or minor mutations derived from cultivars. Modern breeding programs tend to use isolation plots where the chances of cross-pollination are reduced. That is the case for programs at the University of California, Riverside, as well as the Volcani Centre and the Instituto de Investigaciones Agropecuarias in Chile.

The avocado is unusual in that the timing of the male and female flower phases differs among cultivars. The two flowering types are A and B. A-cultivar flowers open as female on the morning of the first day and close in late morning or early afternoon. Then they open as male in the afternoon of the second day. B varieties open as female on the afternoon of the first day, close in late afternoon and reopen as male the following morning.

  • A cultivars: 'Hass', 'Gwen', 'Lamb Hass', 'Pinkerton', 'Reed'
  • B cultivars: 'Fuerte', 'Sharwil', 'Zutano', 'Bacon', 'Ettinger', 'Sir Prize', 'Walter Hole'[62][63]

Certain cultivars, such as the 'Hass', have a tendency to bear well only in alternate years. After a season with a low yield, due to factors such as cold (which the avocado does not tolerate well), the trees tend to produce abundantly the next season. In addition, due to environmental circumstances during some years, seedless avocados may appear on the trees.[64] Known in the avocado industry as "cukes", they are usually discarded commercially due to their small size.[65]

Propagation and rootstocks

A common technique to germinate avocados at home is to use toothpicks poked into the avocado pit to suspend the pit partially in water.
Young avocado sprout

Avocados can be propagated by seed, taking roughly four to six years to bear fruit, although in some cases seedlings can take 10 years to come into bearing.[66] The offspring is unlikely to be identical to the parent cultivar in fruit quality. Prime quality varieties are therefore propagated by grafting to rootstocks that are propagated by seed (seedling rootstocks) or by layering (clonal rootstocks). After about a year of growing in a greenhouse, the young rootstocks are ready to be grafted. Terminal and lateral grafting is normally used. The scion cultivar grows for another 6–12 months before the tree is ready to be sold. Clonal rootstocks are selected for tolerance of specific soil and disease conditions, such as poor soil aeration or resistance to the soil-borne disease (root rot) caused by Phytophthora cinnamomi. Advances in cloning techniques that can produce up to 500 new plants from a single millimetre of tree cutting have the potential to increase the availability of rootstocks.[67]

Commercial avocado production is limited to a small fraction of the vast genetic diversity in the species. Conservation of this genetic diversity has relied largely on field collection, as avocado seeds often do not survive storage in seed banks. This is problematic, as field preservation of living cultivars is expensive, and habitat loss threatens wild cultivars. More recently, an alternate method of conservation has been developed based on cryopreservation of avocado somatic embryos with reliable methods for somatic embryogenesis and reconstitution into living trees.[68][69]

As a houseplant

Avocado houseplant leaf with ruler to indicate size

The avocado tree can be grown domestically and used as a decorative houseplant. The pit germinates in normal soil conditions or partially submerged in a small glass (or container) of water. In the latter method, the pit sprouts in four to six weeks, at which time it is planted in standard houseplant potting soil. The plant normally grows large enough to be prunable; it does not bear fruit unless it has ample sunlight. Home gardeners can graft a branch from a fruit-bearing plant to speed maturity, which typically takes four to six years to bear fruit.[70]

Pests and diseases

Main page: Biology:List of avocado diseases
P. americana, avocado plant flowers

Avocado trees are vulnerable to bacterial, viral, fungal, and nutritional diseases (excesses and deficiencies of key minerals). Disease can affect all parts of the plant, causing spotting, rotting, cankers, pitting, and discoloration.[71] The pyriform scale insect (Protopulvinaria pyriformis) is known from Australia, South Africa, Israel, Italy, France, Spain, Cuba, Florida,[72] and Peru. It is normally found on avocado, and in Peru it is said to be the worst insect pest of the fruit. Certain cultivars of avocado seem more susceptible to attack by the scale than others.[73]

Cultivation by location

Cultivation in Mexico

Mexico is by far the world's largest avocado growing country, producing several times more than the second largest producer.[74] In 2013, the total area dedicated to avocado production was 188,723 hectares (466,340 acres), and the harvest was 2.03 million tonnes in 2017.[10] The states that produce the most are México, Morelos, Nayarit, Puebla, and Michoacan, accounting for 86% of the total. In Michoacán, the cultivation is complicated by the existence of drug cartels that extort protection fees from cultivators. They are reported to exact 2,000 Mexican pesos per hectare from avocado farmers and 1 to 3 pesos/kg of harvested fruit.[75] It is such a problem that the phrase blood guacamole has been adopted to describe the social effects in Mexico of the vast worldwide demand for its fruits.[76]

Cultivation in California

The avocado was introduced from Mexico to California in the 19th century, and has become a successful cash crop. About 24,000 hectares (59,000 acres) – as of 2015, some 80% of United States avocado production – is located in Southern California,[76] with 60% in San Diego County.[citation needed]

Avocado is the official fruit of the state of California.[77] Fallbrook, California, claims, without official recognition, the title of "Avocado Capital of the World" (also claimed by the town of Uruapan in Mexico[78]), and both it and Carpinteria, California, host annual avocado festivals.

The California Avocado Commission and the California Avocado Society are the two major grower organizations and Calavo Growers is a major distributor.

Cultivation in Peru

'Hass' avocado production in Peru encompasses thousands of hectares in central and western Peru.[79] Peru has now become the largest supplier of avocados imported to the European Union and the second largest supplier to Asia and the United States.[80] The country's location near the equator and along the Pacific Ocean creates consistently mild temperatures all year.

'Hass' avocados from Peru are seasonally available to consumers from May through September and are promoted under the auspices of the Peruvian Avocado Commission, headquartered in Washington, D.C.

Cultivation in Chile

Chile has produced avocados for over 100 years with production increasing dramatically in the early 1980s due to global demand. New York magazine reported in 2015 that "Large avocado growers are draining the country's groundwater and rivers faster than they can replenish themselves."[76] 88% of total production and 99% of exported avocados from Chile are Hass avocados. Avocados are a staple fruit in Chile with 30% of production destined for the domestic market. The country pays zero important tariffs with the China, United States, and the European Union, due to free trade agreements.[81][82]

Cultivars

A cultivars

  • 'Choquette':
    Avocado 'Choquette' grafted
    A seedling from Miami, Florida. 'Choquette' bore large fruit of good eating quality in large quantities and had good disease resistance, and thus became a major cultivar. Today 'Choquette' is widely propagated in south Florida both for commercial growing and for home growing.[83]
  • 'Gwen': A seedling bred from 'Hass' x 'Thille' in 1982, 'Gwen' is higher yielding and more dwarfing than 'Hass' in California. The fruit has an oval shape, slightly smaller than 'Hass' (100–200 g or 3 1⁄2–7 oz), with a rich, nutty flavor. The skin texture is more finely pebbled than 'Hass', and is dull green when ripe. It is frost-hardy down to −1 °C (30 °F).[84]
  • 'Hass':
    Two 'Hass' avocados
    The 'Hass' is the most common cultivar of avocado. It produces fruit year-round and accounts for 80% of cultivated avocados in the world.[34][85] All 'Hass' trees are descended from a single "mother tree" raised by a mail carrier named Rudolph Hass, of La Habra Heights, California.[33][85] Hass patented the productive tree in 1935. The "mother tree", of uncertain subspecies, died of root rot and was cut down in September 2002.[34][85][86]
  • 'Lula': A seedling reportedly grown from a 'Taft' avocado planted in Miami on the property of George Cellon, it is named after Cellon's wife, Lula. It was likely a cross between Guatemalan and Mexican types. 'Lula' was recognized for its flavor and high oil content and propagated commercially in Florida.
  • 'Maluma': A relatively new cultivar, it was discovered in South Africa in the early 1990s by Mr. A.G. (Dries) Joubert. It is a chance seedling of unknown parentage.
  • 'Pinkerton': First grown on the Pinkerton Ranch in Saticoy, California, in the early 1970s, 'Pinkerton' is a seedling of 'Hass' x 'Rincon'. The large fruit has a small seed, and its green skin deepens in color as it ripens. The thick flesh has a smooth, creamy texture, pale green color, good flavor, and high oil content. It shows some cold tolerance, to −1 °C (30 °F) and bears consistently heavy crops. A hybrid Guatemalan type, it has excellent peeling characteristics.[citation needed]
  • 'Reed': Developed from a chance seedling found in 1948 by James S. Reed in California, this cultivar has large, round, green fruit with a smooth texture and dark, thick, glossy skin. Smooth and delicate, the flesh has a slightly nutty flavor. The skin ripens green. A Guatemalan type, it is hardy to −1 °C (30 °F). Tree size is about 5 by 4 m (16 1⁄2 by 13 ft).[citation needed]

B cultivars

  • 'Fuerte': Commercialized in the U.S. from budwood imported from Atlixco, Mexico in 1911,[87] Fuerte was the dominant commercial variety in the U.S. for the first half of the 20th century.[88]
  • 'Sharwil': Developed by James Cockburn Wilson (died 1990) with Frank Victor Sharpe in Tamborine Mountain, Queensland, Australia in the 1950s, a portmanteau of Sharpe and Wilson.[89] Wilson also developed the Willard variety (Wilson and Hazzard), imported the Reed variety into Australia, and developed the Shepard variety. Sharpe OBE was later awarded a CMG in 1972 for services to the avocado industry. The variety originated in Guatemala.[90]

Other cultivars

Other avocado cultivars include 'Spinks'. Historically attested varieties (which may or may not survive among horticulturists) include the 'Challenge', 'Dickinson', 'Kist', 'Queen', 'Rey', 'Royal', 'Sharpless', and 'Taft'.[91]

Stoneless avocado

A stoneless avocado, marketed as a "cocktail avocado", which does not contain a pit, is available on a limited basis. They are five to eight centimetres long; the whole fruit may be eaten, including the skin. It is produced from an unpollinated blossom in which the seed does not develop.[92] Seedless avocados regularly appear on trees.[93] Known in the avocado industry as "cukes", they are usually discarded commercially due to their small size.[94]

Production

Avocado production – 2020
Country Production (millions of tonnes)
 Mexico 2.39
 Colombia 0.88
 Dominican Republic 0.68
 Peru 0.66
 Indonesia 0.61
 Kenya 0.32
World 8.06
Source: FAOSTAT of the United Nations[10]

In 2020, world production of avocados was 8.1 million tonnes, led by Mexico with 30% (2.4 million tonnes) of the total (table). Other major producers were Colombia, Dominican Republic, Peru, and Indonesia, together producing 35% of the world total.[10] Despite market effects of the 2020 COVID-19 pandemic, volume production of avocados in Mexico increased by 40% over 2019 levels.[95]

In 2018, the US Department of Agriculture estimated that 231,028 hectares (570,880 acres) in total were under cultivation for avocado production in Mexico, a 6% increase over the previous year, and that 2 million tonnes would be exported.[96] The Mexican state of Michoacán is the world leader in avocado production, accounting for 80% of all Mexican output.[96][97] Most Mexican growers produce the Hass variety due to its longer shelf life for shipping and high demand among consumers.[96]

First international air shipment of avocados from Los Angeles to Toronto for the Canadian National Exhibition, 1927

Market

Seventy-six percent of Mexico's avocado exports go to the United States,[98] with the free trade agreement between the US, Canada and Mexico in July 2020 facilitating avocado shipments within the North American free trade zone.[97] The Mexican domestic market was expanding during 2020.[97] Mexican avocado exports are challenged by growth of production by Peru and the Dominican Republic to supply the US and European markets.[97][95]

During the COVID-19 pandemic, Mexican avocado farmers restricted harvesting as the overall demand and supply chain slowed due to labor and shipping restrictions.[97][95] Later in 2020, demand in the United States and within Mexico increased at a time when American retail prices continued to rise.[95][98] During 2020 in the United States, month-to-month volume sales of avocados were similar to those of tomatoes at about 250 million pounds (110 million kg) per month.[98] A report issued in mid-2020 forecast that the worldwide market, which was US$13.7 billion in 2018, would recover after the end of the pandemic and rise to US$21.6 billion by 2026.[97]

Toxicity

Allergies

Some people have allergic reactions to avocado. There are two main forms of allergy: those with a tree-pollen allergy develop local symptoms in the mouth and throat shortly after eating avocado; the second, known as latex-fruit syndrome,[99] is related to latex allergy[100] and symptoms include generalised urticaria, abdominal pain, and vomiting and can sometimes be life-threatening.[101]

Toxicity to animals

Avocado leaves, bark, skin, or pit are documented to be harmful to animals; cats, dogs, cattle, goats, rabbits,[102] rats, guinea pigs, birds, fish, and horses[103] can be severely harmed or even killed when they consume them. The avocado fruit is poisonous to some birds, and the American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (ASPCA) lists it as toxic to horses.[104]

Avocado leaves contain a toxic fatty acid derivative, persin, which in sufficient quantity can cause colic in horses and without veterinary treatment, death.[105] The symptoms include gastrointestinal irritation, vomiting, diarrhea, respiratory distress, congestion, fluid accumulation around the tissues of the heart, and even death. Birds also seem to be particularly sensitive to this toxic compound.

The leaves of the Guatemalan variety of P. americana are toxic to goats, sheep, and horses.[106]

Uses

A line of US-produced dog and cat food, AvoDerm, uses oils and meal made from avocado meat as main ingredients.[107]

Nutrition

Avocados, raw
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy670 kJ (160 kcal)
8.53 g
Sugars0.66 g
Dietary fiber6.7 g
14.66 g
Saturated2.13 g
Monounsaturated9.80 g
Polyunsaturated1.82 g
2 g
VitaminsQuantity %DV†
Vitamin A equiv.
1%
7 μg
1%
62 μg
271 μg
Thiamine (B1)
6%
0.067 mg
Riboflavin (B2)
11%
0.13 mg
Niacin (B3)
12%
1.738 mg
Pantothenic acid (B5)
28%
1.389 mg
Vitamin B6
20%
0.257 mg
Folate (B9)
20%
81 μg
Vitamin C
12%
10 mg
Vitamin E
14%
2.07 mg
Vitamin K
20%
21 μg
MineralsQuantity %DV†
Calcium
1%
12 mg
Iron
4%
0.55 mg
Magnesium
8%
29 mg
Manganese
7%
0.142 mg
Phosphorus
7%
52 mg
Potassium
10%
485 mg
Sodium
0%
7 mg
Zinc
7%
0.64 mg
Other constituentsQuantity
Water73.23 g
Fluoride7 µg
Beta-sitosterol76 mg
Link to USDA Database entry
†Percentages are roughly approximated using US recommendations for adults.
Source: USDA Nutrient Database

Raw avocado flesh is 73% water, 15% fat, 9% carbohydrates, and 2% protein (table). In a 100 gram reference amount, avocado supplies 160 calories, and is a rich source (20% or more of the Daily Value, DV) of several B vitamins (such as 28% DV in pantothenic acid) and vitamin K (20% DV), with moderate contents (10–19% DV) of vitamin C, vitamin E, and potassium. Avocados also contain phytosterols and carotenoids, such as lutein and zeaxanthin.[108]

Fat composition

Avocados have diverse fats.[109] For a typical one:

Although costly to produce, nutrient-rich avocado oil has a multitude of uses for salads or cooking and in cosmetics and soap products.[4]

Research

In 2022, a prospective cohort study following 110,487 people for 30 years found that eating two servings of avocado per week reduced the risk of developing cardiovascular diseases by 16–22%.[110] The study involved replacing half a daily serving of saturated fat sources, including margarine, butter, egg, yogurt, cheese, or processed meats, with an equivalent amount of avocado.[110]

Culinary

The fruit of horticultural cultivars has a markedly higher fat content than most other fruit, mostly monounsaturated fat, and as such serves as an important staple in the diet of consumers who have limited access to other fatty foods (high-fat meats and fish, dairy products). Having a high smoke point, avocado oil is expensive compared to common salad and cooking oils, and is mostly used for salads or dips.

A ripe avocado yields to gentle pressure when held in the palm of the hand and squeezed. The flesh is prone to enzymatic browning, quickly turning brown after exposure to air.[111] To prevent this, lime or lemon juice can be added to avocados after peeling.

The fruit is not sweet, but distinctly and subtly flavored, with smooth texture.[4] It is used in both savory and sweet dishes, though in many countries not for both. The avocado is common in vegetarian cuisine as a substitute for meats in sandwiches and salads because of its high fat content.

Generally, avocado is served raw, though some cultivars, including the common 'Hass', can be cooked for a short time without becoming bitter. The flesh of some avocados may be rendered inedible by heat. Prolonged cooking induces this chemical reaction in all cultivars.[112]

It is used as the base for the Mexican dip known as guacamole,[4] as well as a spread on corn tortillas or toast, served with spices. Avocado is a primary ingredient in avocado soup. Avocado slices are frequently added to hamburgers and tortas and is a key ingredient in California rolls and other makizushi ("maki", or rolled sushi).

  • Avocado toast

  • Avocado in milk and sugar, a traditional dish from the Philippines where avocados are regarded as a dessert fruit, rather than savory.

  • Indonesian-style avocado milkshake with chocolate syrup

  • A guacamole mix (right) used as a dip for tortilla chips (left).

  • Sliced avocado

  • Unusual avocado variety from Cebu, Philippines

International

In Mexico and Central America, avocados are served mixed with white rice, in soups, salads, or on the side of chicken and meat. They are also commonly added to pozole. In Peru, they are consumed with tequeños as mayonnaise, served as a side dish with parrillas, used in salads and sandwiches, or as a whole dish when filled with tuna, shrimp, or chicken. In Chile, it is used as a puree-like sauce with chicken, hamburgers, and hot dogs; and in slices for celery or lettuce salads. The Chilean version of Caesar salad contains large slices of mature avocado.[citation needed]

Avocados in savory dishes, often seen as exotic, are a relative novelty in Portuguese-speaking countries, such as Brazil, where the traditional preparation is mashed with sugar and lime, and eaten as a dessert or snack. This contrasts with Spanish-speaking countries such as Chile, Mexico, or Argentina , where the opposite is true and sweet preparations are rare. With the exception of the Philippines, a former Spanish colony where avocados are traditionally used in sweet preparations and savory uses are seen as exotic.[113]

In the Philippines (where avocados were introduced from Mexico since before the 1700s),[113] Brazil, Indonesia, Vietnam, and southern India (especially the coastal Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka region), avocados are frequently used for milkshakes and occasionally added to ice cream and other desserts.[114] In Brazil, the Philippines[115] Vietnam, and Indonesia, a dessert drink is made with sugar, milk or water, and pureed avocado. Chocolate syrup is sometimes added. In Morocco, a similar chilled avocado and milk drink is sweetened with confectioner's sugar and flavored with a touch of orange flower water.

In Ethiopia, avocados are made into juice by mixing them with sugar and milk or water, usually served with Vimto and a slice of lemon. It is also common to serve layered multiple fruit juices in a glass (locally called Spris) made of avocados, mangoes, bananas, guavas, and papayas. Avocados are also used to make salads. In Kenya and Nigeria, the avocado is often eaten as a fruit alone or mixed with other fruits in a fruit salad, or as part of a vegetable salad. In Ghana, they are often eaten alone on sliced bread as a sandwich. In Sri Lanka, their well-ripened flesh, thoroughly mashed or pureed with milk and kitul treacle (a liquid jaggery made from the sap of the inflorescence of jaggery palms), is a common dessert.[116] In Haiti, they are often consumed with cassava or regular bread for breakfast.

In the United Kingdom, the avocado became available during the 1960s when introduced by Sainsbury's under the name 'avocado pear'.[47] Much of the success of avocados in the UK is attributed to a long-running promotional campaign initiated by South African growers in 1995.[117] In Australia and New Zealand, avocados are commonly served on sandwiches, sushi, toast, or with chicken.

Leaves

Avocado has elliptical-shaped leaves

In addition to the fruit, the leaves of Mexican avocados (Persea americana var. drymifolia) are used in some cuisines as a spice, with a flavor somewhat reminiscent of anise.[118] They are sold both dried and fresh, toasted before use, and either crumbled or used whole, commonly in bean dishes.[119]

See also

  • California Avocado Commission
  • California Avocado Society
  • Florida Lime & Avocado Growers, Inc. v. Paul
  • Guacamole
  • List of avocado dishes
  • Plant propagation
  • Recalcitrant seed


Explanatory notes

  1. ↑ Intermingled in a trade or cultural sense, but not necessarily a genetic one.

References

  1. ↑ Wegier, A., Lorea Hernández, F., Contreras, A., Tobón, W. & Mastretta-Yanes, A. 2017. Persea americana (errata version published in 2018). The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2017: e.T96986556A129765464. https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2017-3.RLTS.T96986556A96986588.en. Downloaded on 01 May 2021.
  2. ↑ "Persea americana Mill.". The World Flora Online Consortium. 2022. http://www.worldfloraonline.org/taxon/wfo-0000465160. 
  3. ↑ "Avocado History" (in en-US). 2017-05-18. https://avocadosfrommexico.com/avocados/history/. 
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 Morton JF (1987). Avocado; In: Fruits of Warm Climates. Center for New Crops and Plant Products, Department of Horticulture and Landscape Architecture, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN. pp. 91–102. ISBN 978-0-9610184-1-2. https://hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/avocado_ars.html. 
  5. ↑ "What's in a name?". University of California. http://ucavo.ucr.edu/General/HistoryName.html. 
  6. ↑ Chen, H; Morrell, PL; Ashworth, V; de la Cruz, M; Clegg, MT (2008). "Tracing the Geographic Origins of Major Avocado Cultivars". Journal of Heredity 100 (1): 56–65. doi:10.1093/jhered/esn068. PMID 18779226. 
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Storey, W. B. (1973). "What kind of fruit is the avocado?". California Avocado Society 1973–74 Yearbook 57: 70–71. http://ucavo.ucr.edu/General/FruitBerry.html. 
  8. ↑ Rendón-Anaya, Martha; Ibarra-Laclette, Enrique; Méndez-Bravo, Alfonso; Lan, Tianying; Zheng, Chunfang; Carretero-Paulet, Lorenzo; Perez-Torres, Claudia Anahí; Chacón-López, Alejandra et al. (2019-08-20). "The avocado genome informs deep angiosperm phylogeny, highlights introgressive hybridization, and reveals pathogen-influenced gene space adaptation" (in en). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 116 (34): 17081–17089. doi:10.1073/pnas.1822129116. ISSN 0027-8424. PMID 31387975. Bibcode: 2019PNAS..11617081R. 
  9. ↑ "Growing avocados: flowering, pollination and fruit set". https://www.agric.wa.gov.au/spring/growing-avocados-flowering-pollination-and-fruit-set. 
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  11. ↑ Dreher, Mark L.; Davenport, Adrienne J. (2013-01-01). "Hass Avocado Composition and Potential Health Effects". Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition 53 (7): 738–750. doi:10.1080/10408398.2011.556759. ISSN 1040-8398. PMID 23638933. 
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  30. ↑ Cook, Robert E. "Attractions of the flesh." Natural History New York, 91, no. 1 (1982): 20–24.
  31. ↑ Cited in Barlow; Connie C. (2000). The ghosts of evolution: nonsensical fruit, missing partners, and other ecological anachronisms. New York: Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-465-00551-2. https://archive.org/details/ghostsofevolutio00conn. 
  32. ↑ Nigel-Wolstenholme, B.; Whiley, A.W. (1999). "Ecophysiology of the avocado (Persea americana Mill.) tree as a basis for pre-harvest management". Revista Chapingo Serie Horticultura 5: 77–88. doi:10.5154/r.rchsh.1999.06.043. https://www.chapingo.mx/revistas/horticultura/contenido.php?id_articulo=735&id_revistas=1&id_revista_numero=70. 
  33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 "Avocado History". IndexFresh.com. Bloomington, CA: Index Fresh Avocado. 2007. http://www.indexfresh.com/avocado_history.htm. 
  34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 34.2 Stradley, Linda (2004). "All About Avocados: History of the Hass Avocado". What'sCookingAmerica.net. Newberg, OR: self-published. http://whatscookingamerica.net/avacado.htm. 
  35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 35.2 35.3 Ayala Silva, Tomas; Ledesma, Noris (2014). "Avocado History, Biodiversity and Production". Sustainable Horticultural Systems. Sustainable Development and Biodiversity. 2. pp. 157–205. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-06904-3_8. ISBN 978-3-319-06903-6. 
  36. ↑ Nahuatl Dictionary/Diccionario del náhuatl . Whp.uoregon.edu. Retrieved on 25 July 2013.
  37. ↑ Dakin, Karen (1982) (in es). La evolución fonológica del Protonáhuatl. México D.F.: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Instituto de Investigaciones Filológicas. p. 210. ISBN 978-968-5802-92-5. OCLC 10216962. 
  38. ↑ Molina Alonso de, Julius Platzmann (1880) (in es). Vocabulario De La Lengua Méxicana. Edición facsimilaria. Leipzig: B.G. Teubner. OCLC 11400907. https://archive.org/details/vocabulariodela00platgoog/page/n287/mode/2up?q=Auacatl. 
  39. ↑ Pharao Hansen, Magnus (2021). "Avocado og testikelsovs:et internet meme og en aztekisk etymologi (Avocados and testicle sauce: an internet meme and an aztec etymology". Mål og Mæle 42 (3): 9–12. https://magnuspharao.files.wordpress.com/2021/12/mom_42-3-m_pharao.pdf. 
  40. ↑ Brooke, Binkowski (February 9, 2016). "Does the Word 'Guacamole' Mean 'Testicle Sauce'?". https://www.snopes.com/fact-check/guacamole-means-testicle-sauce/. 
  41. ↑ Magnus Pharao Hansen (February 10, 2016). "No Snopes.com, the word guacamole does not come from the Nahuatl word for "ground testicles or avocados"". http://nahuatlstudies.blogspot.com/2016/02/no-snopescom-word-guacamole-does-not.html. 
  42. ↑ "8 Words from Nahuatl, the Language of the Aztecs". Merriam-Webster. https://www.merriam-webster.com/words-at-play/words-from-nahuatl-the-language-of-the-aztecs/tomato. 
  43. ↑ Oxford English Dictionary, second edition (1989), articles "avocado", "alligator, n.2"
  44. ↑ "aguacate". aguacate. Real Academia Española. https://dle.rae.es/palta. 
  45. ↑ "palta". palta. Real Academia Española. https://dle.rae.es/palta. 
  46. ↑ guacamole (3rd ed.), Oxford University Press, September 2005, http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/82081  (Subscription or UK public library membership required.)
  47. ↑ 47.0 47.1 "Twiggy squares up to Sainsbury's in the avocado wars". The Scotsman. 23 May 2009. http://www.scotsman.com/lifestyle/culture/twiggy-squares-up-to-sainsbury-s-in-the-avocado-wars-1-1352962. 
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  50. ↑ Conversation, The (2017-05-14). "What is China's role in the global avocado shortage?" (in en-GB). Hong Kong Free Press. https://hongkongfp.com/2017/05/14/chinas-role-global-avocado-shortage/. 
  51. ↑ 51.0 51.1 51.2 51.3 Landon, Amanda J. (2009). "Domestication and Significance of Persea americana, the Avocado, in Mesoamerica". Nebraska Anthropologist 47. http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1046&context=nebanthro. 
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  54. ↑ Dillehay, Tom D; Goodbred, Steve; Pino, Mario; Vásquez Sánchez, Víctor F; Tham, Teresa Rosales; Adovasio, James; Collins, Michael B; Netherly, Patricia J et al. (2017). "Simple technologies and diverse food strategies of the Late Pleistocene and Early Holocene at Huaca Prieta, Coastal Peru". Science Advances 3 (5): e1602778. doi:10.1126/sciadv.1602778. PMID 28560337. Bibcode: 2017SciA....3E2778D. 
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  56. ↑ Hessong, Athena. How Much Coldness Can Avocado Trees Take?. SF Gate. Retrieved on Dec. 4, 2022
  57. ↑ "How much water does it take to grow an avocado?". 2019. https://old.danwatch.dk/en/undersogelseskapitel/how-much-water-does-it-take-to-grow-an-avocado/. 
  58. ↑ 58.0 58.1 58.2 "How green are avocados? (Yes, that's a trick question)". CBC. 25 January 2019. https://www.cbc.ca/news/technology/what-on-earth-newsletter-avocados-road-salt-light-pollution-1.4991627. "Producing avocados is very water-intensive. The Water Footprint Network estimates it takes an average of 2,000 litres of water to produce one kilogram of avocados" 
  59. ↑ Whiley, A (1 September 2000). "Avocado Production in Australia". Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/x6902e/x6902e04.htm. 
  60. ↑ "Ethylene gas and produce". Mindfully.org. 1 June 1976. http://www.mindfully.org/Plastic/Ethylene-Gas.htm. 
  61. ↑ Steve Chawkins (3 June 2013). "Gil Henry dies at 88; revolutionized avocado industry; Henry pioneered the use of a 'ripening room' at his family's Escondido farm. The method, now an industry standard, allows markets to sell fruit that is ready to eat or close to it.". Los Angeles Times. http://www.latimes.com/news/obituaries/la-me-gil-henry-20130603,0,3688440.story. 
  62. ↑ "Agriculture Handbook". University of California. 2007. http://ceventura.ucdavis.edu/Agriculture265/Avocado_Handbook.htm. 
  63. ↑ Crane, JH; Balerdi CF (1 August 2007). "Avocado Growing in the Florida Home Landscape". University of Florida. http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/MG213. 
  64. ↑ "Development of Seeded and Seedless Avocado Fruit". Agricultural Research Organization, Volcani Center, Bet-Dagan, Israel. http://www.soilzone.com/Library/Crops/Avocado/Phenology/Avocado%20fruit%20growth.pdf. 
  65. ↑ Stewart, W.S.; Smoyer, K.M.; Puffer, R.E.. "Progress Report on Effects of Plant Growth Regulator Sprays on Avocados". California Avocado Society 1948 Yearbook 33: 113–116. http://www.avocadosource.com/CAS_Yearbooks/CAS_33_1948/CAS_1948_PG_113-116.pdf. Retrieved 21 September 2010. 
  66. ↑ Boning, Charles (2006). Florida's Best Fruiting Plants: Native and Exotic Trees, Shrubs, and Vines. Sarasota, Florida: Pineapple Press, Inc.. p. 33. 
  67. ↑ Hughes, Megan Avocado tree wait times smashed thanks to world-first rootstock trial ABC News, 7 June 2021. Retrieved 5 October 2020.
  68. ↑ O'Brien, Christopher, Jayeni CA Hiti-Bandaralage, Alice Hayward, and Neena Mitter. "Avocado (Persea americana Mill.)." In Step Wise Protocols for Somatic Embryogenesis of Important Woody Plants, pp. 305–328. Springer, Cham, 2018.
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  70. ↑ "Avocado Houseplant » Top Tips for Lush Indoor Foliage". 11 November 2017. https://www.garden.eco/avocado-houseplant. 
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  72. ↑ "Protopulvinaria pyriformis (pyriform scale)". CABI. https://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/44552. 
  73. ↑ Peña, Jorge E.; Sharp, Jennifer L.; Wysoki, M. (2002). Tropical Fruit Pests and Pollinators: Biology, Economic Importance, Natural Enemies, and Control. CABI. p. 232. ISBN 978-0-85199-976-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=t_BSs0hrAPAC&pg=PA232. 
  74. ↑ "2001–2013 World avocado production, 2000–2011 World Avocado Exports, 2002–2013 French avocado imports". Novagrim.com. http://www.novagrim.com/Pages/2000_2011_avocado_statistics_EN.aspx. 
  75. ↑ "Templarios ganan 2,000 mdp al año extorsionando a aguacateros en Michoacán" (in es). Aristegui Noticias. 29 October 2013. http://aristeguinoticias.com/3010/mexico/templarios-ganan-2000-mdp-al-ano-extorsionando-a-aguacateros-en-michoacan/. 
  76. ↑ 76.0 76.1 76.2 Sternbergh, Adam, "Avocados Are Toast", New York magazine, April 20 – May 3, 2015
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  79. ↑ "Peru: Record avocado production saturated the markets in 2014". freshplaza.com. 23 October 2014. http://www.freshplaza.com/article/129650/Peru-Record-avocado-production-saturated-the-markets-in-2014. 
  80. ↑ "Peru jumps to No.2 avocado exporter to the U.S." (in en-US). 10 January 2019. https://www.producebluebook.com/2019/01/10/peru-jumps-to-no-2-avocado-exporter-to-the-u-s/. 
  81. ↑ Gonzalez, Sergio. "Avocado Annual 2018". https://apps.fas.usda.gov/newgainapi/api/report/downloadreportbyfilename?filename=Avocado%20Annual_Santiago_Chile_11-15-2018.pdf. 
  82. ↑ "Avocados". https://fruitsfromchile.com/fruit/avocados/#:~:text=Chile%20has%20been%20growing%20commercial%20varieties%20of%20avocados,most%20production%20has%20shifted%20to%20the%20Hass%20variety.. 
  83. ↑ Crane, Jonathan H.; Balerdi, Carlos F.; Maguire, Ian (2018). "Avocado Growing in the Florida Home Landscape" (in English). https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/mg213. 
  84. ↑ Sidnam, Bill (1992-04-26). "Gwen Avocado Produces More in Less Space" (in en-US). https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1992-04-26-re-1139-story.html. 
  85. ↑ 85.0 85.1 85.2 "The Hass Mother Tree: 1926–2002". Avocado.org. Irvine, CA: California Avocado Commission. 2008. pp. 'About Avocados: History' section. http://www.avocado.org/about/avocado-history/mother-tree. 
  86. ↑ "Avocado Tree's Demise Is the Pits for Growers; Fitting farewell sought for 'mother'". Los Angeles Times , 7 September 2003.
  87. ↑ POPENOE, WILSON. "California Avocado Society 1925-26 Yearbook: THE PARENT FUERTE TREE AT ATLIXCO, MEXICO". https://www.avocadosource.com/cas_yearbooks/cas_11_1925-26/cas_1925-26_pg_24-34.pdf. 
  88. ↑ "FUERTE AVOCADO". https://www.cooksinfo.com/fuerte-avocado. 
  89. ↑ "Talking avocados". Australian Avocado Growers' Federation. June 1990. https://avocado.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/TalkingAvocadosWinter1990Vol1No2scanned_001.pdf. 
  90. ↑ "Research plants stolen". Hamersley News (Western Australia) X (17): p. 2. 8 September 1977. http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article214554727. 
  91. ↑ Overholser, E. L. (1924–1925). "Cold Storage Behavior of Avocados". California Avocado Association Annual Report (San Diego, California: California Avocado Association) 10: 32–40. http://www.avocadosource.com/CAS_Yearbooks/CAS_10_1924-25/CAS_1924-25_PG_32-40.pdf. Retrieved 19 August 2009. 
  92. ↑ The holy grail of avocados – stoneless – hits shops for a limited time only The Sunday Independent, 10 December 2017.
  93. ↑ "Development of Seeded and Seedless Avocado Fruit". Agricultural Research Organization, Volcani Center, Bet-Dagan, Israel. http://www.soilzone.com/Library/Crops/Avocado/Phenology/Avocado%20fruit%20growth.pdf. 
  94. ↑ Stewart, W.S.; Smoyer, K.M.; Puffer, R.E.. "Progress Report on Effects of Plant Growth Regulator Sprays on Avocados". California Avocado Society 1948 Yearbook 33: 113–116. http://www.avocadosource.com/CAS_Yearbooks/CAS_33_1948/CAS_1948_PG_113-116.pdf. Retrieved 21 September 2010. 
  95. ↑ 95.0 95.1 95.2 95.3 Greg Johnson (29 June 2020). "Avocado market stabilizes after lockdowns". Blue Book Services – Produce. https://www.producebluebook.com/2020/06/29/avocado-market-stabilizes-after-lockdowns/#. 
  96. ↑ 96.0 96.1 96.2 "Mexico; Avocado Annual". US Department of Agriculture, Foreign Agricultural Service. 27 November 2018. https://gain.fas.usda.gov/Recent%20GAIN%20Publications/Avocado%20Annual_Mexico%20City_Mexico_11-27-2018.pdf. 
  97. ↑ 97.0 97.1 97.2 97.3 97.4 97.5 "International avocado market expected to recover in Covid-19 aftermath". Fresh Fruit Portal. 29 July 2020. https://www.freshfruitportal.com/news/2020/07/29/international-avocado-market-expected-to-recover-in-covid-19-aftermath/. 
  98. ↑ 98.0 98.1 98.2 Raul Lopez (18 December 2020). "The numbers behind avocados' record 2020". Blue Book Services – Produce. https://www.producebluebook.com/2020/12/18/the-numbers-behind-avocados-record-2020/. 
  99. ↑ ""Latex-fruit syndrome": frequency of cross-reacting IgE antibodies". Allergy 52 (4): 404–410. April 1997. doi:10.1111/j.1398-9995.1997.tb01019.x. PMID 9188921. 
  100. ↑ "Latex allergy". Better Health Channel. http://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/bhcv2/bhcarticles.nsf/pages/Latex_allergy. 
  101. ↑ "Avocado – allergy information (InformAll: Communicating about Food Allergies – University of Manchester)". Inflammation-repair.manchester.ac.uk. 18 October 2006. http://research.bmh.manchester.ac.uk/informall/allergenic-food/?FoodId=4. 
  102. ↑ Appleman, D. (1944). "Preliminary Report on Toxicity of Avocado Leaves". http://www.avocadosource.com/CAS_Yearbooks/CAS_29_1944/CAS_1944_PG_037.pdf. 
  103. ↑ "Notes on poisoning: avocado". Canadian Biodiversity Information Facility. 30 June 2006. http://www.cbif.gc.ca/pls/pp/ppack.info?p_psn=238&p_type=all&p_sci=comm&p_x=px. 
  104. ↑ "Avocado". ASPCA Animal Poison Control Center. http://www.aspca.org/pet-care/poison-control/plants/avocado.html. 
  105. ↑ Oelrichs, Peter B; Ng, Jack C; Seawright, Alan A; Ward, Annemarie; Schäffeler, Lothar; MacLeod, John K (1995). "Isolation and identification of a compound from avocado (Persea americana) leaves which causes necrosis of the acinar epithelium of the lactating mammary gland and the myocardium". Natural Toxins 3 (5): 344–349. doi:10.1002/nt.2620030504. PMID 8581318. 
  106. ↑ "Livestock – Poisoning Plants of California, Publication 8398". Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of California. November 2010. http://alfalfa.ucdavis.edu/-files/pdf/LivestockPoisoningPlantsNov2010.pdf. 
  107. ↑ Greye, Jan; Jesse Smith, Gail (2002). Puppy Parenting: Everything You Need to Know About Your Puppy's First Year. HarperCollins. p. 135. ISBN 978-0-06-001260-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=42p1AzLpNeQC&pg=PA135. 
  108. ↑ "Hass avocado composition and potential health effects". Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 53 (7): 738–750. 2013. doi:10.1080/10408398.2011.556759. PMID 23638933. 
  109. ↑ 109.0 109.1 109.2 109.3 109.4 "Avocados, raw, all commercial varieties, per 100 grams". NutritionData.com. 2013. http://nutritiondata.self.com/facts/fruits-and-fruit-juices/1843/2. 
  110. ↑ 110.0 110.1 Pacheco, Lorena S.; Li, Yanping; Rimm, Eric B.; Manson, JoAnn E.; Sun, Qi; Rexrode, Kathryn; Hu, Frank B.; Guasch‐Ferré, Marta (5 April 2022). "Avocado Consumption and Risk of Cardiovascular Disease in US Adults". Journal of the American Heart Association 11 (7): e024014. doi:10.1161/jaha.121.024014. ISSN 2047-9980. PMID 35352568. 
  111. ↑ Jules Janick, ed (2008). The Encyclopedia of Fruit & Nuts. Oxfordshire, England: CABI. p. 440. ISBN 978-0-85199-638-7. 
  112. ↑ Bates, Robert P (1970). "Heat-Induced Off-Flavor in Avocado Flesh". Journal of Food Science 35 (4): 478–482. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2621.1970.tb00962.x. 
  113. ↑ 113.0 113.1 Malasig, Jeline (22 May 2018). "Is this the best way to eat avocado westerners aren't aware of?". Interaksyon. https://interaksyon.philstar.com/lifestyle/2018/05/22/127241/viral-tweet-avocado-different-culture/. 
  114. ↑ "Around the world culinary tour with avocados – AvoSeedo". 20 October 2015. https://www.avoseedo.com/around-the-world-culinary-tour-with-avocados/. 
  115. ↑ Zeldes, Leah A. (2 June 2010). "Eat this! The 'Hass' avocado, black and green and creamy". Dining Chicago. Chicago's Restaurant & Entertainment Guide, Inc.. http://www.diningchicago.com/blog/2010/06/02/eat-this-the-hass-avocado-black-and-green-and-creamy/. 
  116. ↑ Lim T. K. (2012). Edible Medicinal And Non Medicinal Plants: Volume 3, Fruits. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 82. ISBN 978-94-007-2534-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=32rWbxUtjeMC&pg=PA82. 
  117. ↑ Saner, Emine (2 November 2015). "Ripe and ready: how 'evil geniuses' got us hooked on avocados". The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2015/nov/02/avocados-ripe-ready-evil-geniuses-hooked. 
  118. ↑ Thomas E. Weil (1969). "Area Handbook for Chile (Area handbook series)". Pamphlet (United States: U.S. Government Printing Office (Digitized: 16 August 2007)) 550 (77): 104. ISSN 0892-8541. https://books.google.com/books?id=4EVGAAAAMAAJ. 
  119. ↑ Diana Kennedy (2010). Oaxaca Al Gusto: An Infinite Gastronomy. University of Texas Press. p. 426. ISBN 978-0-292-72266-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=vY4j3OIDMeoC&pg=PA426. 

Further reading

External links

Wikidata ☰ Q37153 entry



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