Biology:Bat-borne virus

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A bat-borne virus is any virus whose primary reservoir is any species of bat. The viruses species include coronaviruses, hantaviruses, lyssaviruses, SARS coronavirus, rabies virus, nipah virus, lassa virus, Henipavirus, Ebola virus and Marburg virus. Bat-borne viruses are among the most important of the emerging viruses.[1][2][3]

Transmission

Bat-borne viruses are transmitted via bat bite and transfer via saliva, as well as aerosolization of saliva, feces, and/or urine. Like rabies virus, newly emerging bat-borne viruses can be transmitted to humans directly by bats. These include Ebola virus, SARS, and the Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus.[4][5]

Left unrecognized and untreated, the interval between transmission of rabies virus strains until the disease manifests in the victims, varies from hours to years. Most victims are not aware of either having been bitten by a bat or exposed to a bat's secretions. This can be due to a lack of awareness of a bat's presence in the same space, such as when sleeping, not feeling the bite if aware of the bat's presence, and/or exposure to bat saliva, urine, and/or feces in closed environments. These include caves and human living spaces such as attics, basements, barns and sheds. [6][7]

Bat susceptibility to viral infection

It is believed that bat roosting habits, reproductive cycle, migration, hibernation, produce a natural susceptibility to viruses. In addition, bats are known to have persistent viral infections at a rate higher than other mammals. This is believed to be due to a shorter antibody half-life. Bats have also been shown to be more susceptible to reinfection with the same viruses, whereas other mammals, especially humans, have a greater propensity for developing varying degrees of immunity.[8][9]

Bats versus rodents as reservoirs

Bats harbor more viruses than rodents and are capable of spreading disease over a wider geographic area owing to their ability to fly and their migration and roosting patterns. In addition, certain species of bat, like the brown bat, favor roosts in attic spaces of human dwellings from which they often invade spaces in other parts of the structure. This brings them into contact with humans. Rodents, on the other hand, are more confined to their geographic location and seek seasonal shelter in burrows and in human dwellings and buildings in the immediate area.[10][11][12]

Bat viruses

Coronaviruses

The 2002 outbreak of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), and the 2012 outbreak of Middle East respiratory syndrome have been traced to have an origin in bats.[13][14] Coronaviruses are positive-sense, single-stranded RNA viruses with four genera, Alphacoronaviruses, betacoronaviruses, gammacoronaviruses, and deltacoronaviruses. Of these four, alphacoroanviruses and betacoronaviruses are bat-borne.[15][16][17]

Rabies virus (family Rhabdoviridae, genus Lyssavirus)

Although bats are not unique among mammals to carry rabies,[18] they are known to carry and transmit the disease.[19] For example, they are a source of rabies fatalities in the United States which results in one to two infections per year in that country.[20] Dogs are, by far, the main source of human rabies deaths, contributing up to 99% of all rabies transmissions to humans according to the World Health Organization.[21] Arctic rabies virus, widespread in the Artic, is hosted by the Arctic fox.[22][23]

Hantaviruses

Hantaviruses, usually found in rodents and shrews, were discovered in two species of bats. The Mouyassué virus (MOUV) was isolated from banana pipistrelle bats captured near Mouyassué village in Cote d'Ivoire, West Africa. The Magboi virus was isolated from hairy split-faced bats found near the Magboi River in Sierra Leone in 2011. They are single-stranded, negative sense, RNA viruses in the Bunyaviridae family.[24][25][26][27]

Henipaviruses

Henipavirus is a genus of RNA viruses in the family Paramyxoviridae, order Mononegavirales containing five established species. Henipaviruses are naturally harboured by pteropid fruit bats (flying foxes) and microbats of several species.[28]

Filoviruses

The filoviruses are responsible for fatal hemorrhagic infections in humans and monkeys. These include Marburgviruses (MARV) and Ebolaviruses (EBOV).

See also

References

  1. ↑ Calisher, Charles H.; Childs, James E.; Field, Hume E.; Holmes, Kathryn V.; Schountz, Tony (July 2006). "Bats: Important hosts of emerging viruses". Clin Microbiol Rev 19 (3): 531–545. doi:10.1128/CMR.00017-06. PMID 16847084. 
  2. ↑ Sumibcay, L; Kadjo, B; Gu, SH; Kang, HJ; Lim, BK; Cook, JA (2012). "Divergent lineage of a novel hantavirus in the banana pipistrelle (Neoromicia nanus) in Côte d'Ivoire". Virol J 9: 34. doi:10.1186/1743-422x-9-34. PMID 22281072. 
  3. ↑ Weiss, S; Witkowski, PT; Auste, B; Nowak, K; Weber, N; Fahr, J (2012). "Hantavirus in bat, Sierra Leone". Emerg Infect Dis 18: 159–61. doi:10.3201/eid1801.111026. PMID 22261176. 
  4. ↑ Leroy, E. M.; Kumulungui, B.; Pourrut, X.; Rouquet, P.; Hassanin, A.; Yaba, P.; Delicat, A.; Paweska, J. T. et al. (2005). "Fruit bats as reservoirs of Ebola virus". Nature 438: 575–576. doi:10.1038/438575a. PMID 16319873. 
  5. ↑ Li, W.; Shi, Z.; Yu, M.; Ren, W.; Smith, C.; Epstein, J. H.; Wang, H.; Crameri, G. et al. (2005). "Bats are natural reservoirs of SARS-like coronaviruses". Science 310: 676–679. doi:10.1126/science.1118391. PMID 16195424. 
  6. ↑ Altringham, J. D. 1996. Bats: biology and behavior. Oxford University Press, Oxford, England.
  7. ↑ Rupprecht, C. E.; Gibbons, R. V. (2004). "Clinical practice. Prophylaxis against rabies". N. Engl. J. Med. 351: 2626–2635. doi:10.1056/nejmcp042140. 
  8. ↑ Kuno, G. 2001. Persistence of arboviruses and antiviral antibodies in vertebrate hosts: its occurrence and impacts. Rev. Med. Virol. 11:165-190.
  9. ↑ Sarkar, S. K., and A. K. Chakravarty. 1991. Analysis of immunocompetent cells in the bat, Pteropus giganteus: isolation and scanning electron microscopic characterization. Dev. Comp. Immunol. 15:423-430.
  10. ↑ Luis, ADExpression error: Unrecognized word "etal". (2013). "A comparison of bats and rodents as reservoirs of zoonotic viruses: are bats special?". Proc Biol Sci 280: 20122753. doi:10.1098/rspb.2012.2753. PMID 23378666. 
  11. ↑ Teeling, ECExpression error: Unrecognized word "etal". (2005). "A molecular phylogeny for bats illuminates biogeography and the fossil record". Science 307: 580–584. doi:10.1126/science.1105113. PMID 15681385. 
  12. ↑ Wang, LF; Walker, PJ; Poon, LL (2011). "Mass extinctions, biodiversity and mitochondrial function: are bats 'special' as reservoirs for emerging viruses?". Curr Opin Virol 1: 649–657. doi:10.1016/j.coviro.2011.10.013. 
  13. ↑ "Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus in bats, Saudi Arabia". Emerg. Infect. Dis. 19 (11): 1819–23. Nov 2013. doi:10.3201/eid1911.131172. PMID 24206838. 
  14. ↑ "Adaptive evolution of bat dipeptidyl peptidase 4 (dpp4): implications for the origin and emergence of Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus". Virol. J. 10 (1): 304. Oct 10, 2013. doi:10.1186/1743-422X-10-304. PMID 24107353. 
  15. ↑ Woo, P C YExpression error: Unrecognized word "etal".. "Discovery of seven novel mammalian and avian coronaviruses in the genus Deltacoronavirus supports bat coronaviruses as the gene source of Alphacoronavirus and Betacoronavirus and avian coronaviruses as the gene source of Gammacoronavirus and Deltacoronavirus". J Virol 2012 (86): 3995–4008. 
  16. ↑ de Groot R, Baker S, Baric R, et al. Family Coronaviridae. In: Virus Taxonomy: Ninth Report of the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses. San Diego, CA: Academic Press, 2012. 806–828
  17. ↑ Rota, P. A.; Oberste, M. S.; Monroe, S. S.; Nix, W. A.; Campagnoli, R.; Icenogle, J. P.; Penaranda, S.; Bankamp, B. et al. (2003). "Characterization of a novel coronavirus associated with severe acute respiratory syndrome". Science 300: 1394–1399. doi:10.1126/science.1085952. PMID 12730500. 
  18. ↑ "Rabies still kills". World Organization for Animal Health. http://www.oie.int/animal-health-in-the-world/rabies-portal/. Retrieved 27 January 2015. 
  19. ↑ "Rabies Info". http://batworld.org/rabies-info/. Retrieved 27 January 2015. 
  20. ↑ "Learning about bats and rabies". CDC. https://www.cdc.gov/rabies/bats/education/. Retrieved 27 January 2015. 
  21. ↑ WHO Rabies Fact Sheet http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs099/en/
  22. ↑ Mørk, Torill; Prestrud, Pål. "Arctic Rabies – A Review". Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica 2004 (45): 1–9. 
  23. ↑ Cherkasskiy BL: The epidemiological surveillance on Arctic fox rabies. WHO/NVI Workshop on Arctic fox rabies, Uppsala, Sweden. Background papers 1990, 25–28
  24. ↑ Weiss S, Witkowski PT, Auste B, Nowak K, Weber N, Fahr J, et al. Hantavirus in bat, Sierra Leone [letter]. Emerg Infect Dis [serial on the Internet]. 2012 Jan
  25. ↑ Jung YT, Kim GR. Genomic characterization of M and S RNA segments of hantaviruses isolated from bats. Acta Virol. 1995;39:231–3.
  26. ↑ Calisher, CH; Childs, JE; Field, HE; Holmes, KV; Schountz, T (2006). "Bats: important reservoir hosts of emerging viruses". Clin Microbiol Rev 19: 531–45. doi:10.1128/cmr.00017-06. PMID 16847084. 
  27. ↑ Krüger DH, Schonrich G, Klempa B. Human pathogenic hantaviruses and prevention of infection. Hum Vaccin. 2011;7:685–93.
  28. ↑ Li, Y; Wang, J; Hickey, AC; Zhang, Y; Li, Y; Wu, Y; Zhang, Huajun; Han, Zhenggang et al. (December 2008). "Antibodies to Nipah or Nipah-like viruses in bats, China [letter"]. Emerging Infectious Diseases 14 (12): 1974–6. doi:10.3201/eid1412.080359. PMID 19046545. 

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