Biology:Cutibacterium acnes

From HandWiki
Short description: Species of bacterium

Cutibacterium acnes
Propionibacterium acnes.jpg
Scientific classification edit
Domain: Bacteria
Phylum: Actinomycetota
Class: Actinomycetia
Order: Propionibacteriales
Family: Propionibacteriaceae
Genus: Cutibacterium
Species:
C. acnes
Binomial name
Cutibacterium acnes
Scholz and Kilian, 2016[1][2]
Subspecies
  • subsp. acnes
  • subsp. defendens
  • subsp. elongatum[3]
Synonyms
  • "Bacillus acnes" Gilchrist 1900
  • Propionibacterium acnes (Gilchrist 1900) Douglas and Gunter 1946 (Approved Lists 1980)

Cutibacterium acnes (Propionibacterium acnes)[1][2][3][4] is the relatively slow-growing, typically aerotolerant anaerobic, gram-positive bacterium (rod) linked to the skin condition of acne;[5] it can also cause chronic blepharitis and endophthalmitis,[6] the latter particularly following intraocular surgery. Its genome has been sequenced and a study has shown several genes can generate enzymes for degrading skin and proteins that may be immunogenic (activating the immune system).[7]

The species is largely commensal and part of the skin flora present on most healthy adult humans' skin.[8] It is usually just barely detectable on the skin of healthy preadolescents. It lives, among other things, primarily on fatty acids in sebum secreted by sebaceous glands in the follicles. It may also be found throughout the gastrointestinal tract.[9]

Originally identified as Bacillus acnes,[10] it was later named Propionibacterium acnes for its ability to generate propionic acid.[11] In 2016, P. acnes was taxonomically reclassified as a result of biochemical and genomic studies. In terms of both phylogenetic tree structure and DNA G + C content, the cutaneous species was distinguishable from other species that had been previously categorized as P. acnes.[2][12] As part of restructuring, the novel genus Cutibacterium was created for the cutaneous species,[2] including those formerly identified as Propionibacterium acnes, Propionibacterium avidum, and Propionibacterium granulosum.[1] Characterization of phylotypes of C. acnes is an active field of research.[3][13][14]

Role in diseases

Acne vulgaris

Cutibacterium acnes bacteria predominantly live deep within follicles and pores, although they are also found on the surface of healthy skin.[3] In these follicles, C. acnes bacteria use sebum, cellular debris and metabolic byproducts from the surrounding skin tissue as their primary sources of energy and nutrients. Elevated production of sebum by hyperactive sebaceous glands (sebaceous hyperplasia) or blockage of the follicle can cause C. acnes bacteria to grow and multiply.[15]

Cutibacterium acnes bacteria secrete many proteins, including several digestive enzymes.[16] These enzymes are involved in the digestion of sebum and the acquisition of other nutrients. They can also destabilize the layers of cells that form the walls of the follicle. The cellular damage, metabolic byproducts and bacterial debris produced by the rapid growth of C. acnes in follicles can trigger inflammation.[17] This inflammation can lead to the symptoms associated with some common skin disorders, such as folliculitis and acne vulgaris.[18][19] Acne vulgaris is the disease most commonly associated with C. acnes infection.[citation needed]

Acne vulgaris is a chronic inflammatory disease of the pilosebaceous unit, which includes the hair follicle, hair shaft, and sebaceous gland and about 650 million people are affected globally by this disease.[20] C. acnes starts to colonize on the skin around 1 to 3 years prior to puberty and grows exponentially during this time.[21] This is why so many teens and young adults struggle with acne. Prescriptions to treat acne are often antibiotics. However, with the rise of antibiotic resistance, antibiotics are now often combined with broad-spectrum antibacterial agents such as benzoyl peroxide, and other medications like isotretinoin (commonly known as Accutane) are being used on patients with severe or resistant acne.[22]

Staphylococcus epidermidis

The damage caused by C. acnes and the associated inflammation make the affected tissue more susceptible to colonization by opportunistic bacteria, such as Staphylococcus aureus. Preliminary research shows healthy pores are only colonized by C. acnes, while unhealthy ones universally include the nonpore-resident Staphylococcus epidermidis, amongst other bacterial contaminants. Whether this is a root causality, just opportunistic and a side effect, or a more complex pathological duality between C. acnes and this particular Staphylococcus species is not known.[23] Current research has pointed to the idea that C. acnes and S. epidermidis have a symbiotic relationship.[24] Both bacteria exist on the normal flora of the skin and a disrupt in balance of these bacteria on the skin can result in acne or other bacterial infection.[24]

Ophthalmic complications

Cutibacterium acnes is a common cause of chronic endophthalmitis following cataract surgery. The pathogen may also cause corneal ulcers.[25]

Disk herniation

Cutibacterium acnes has been found in herniated discs.[26] The propionic acid which it secretes creates micro-fractures of the surrounding bone. These micro-fractures are sensitive and it has been found that antibiotics have been helpful in resolving this type of low back pain.[27]

Sarcoidosis

Cutibacterium acnes can be found in bronchoalveolar lavage of approximately 70% of patients with sarcoidosis and is associated with disease activity, but it can also be found in 23% of controls.[23][28] The subspecies of C. acnes that cause these infections of otherwise sterile tissues (prior to medical procedures), however, are the same subspecies found on the skin of individuals who do not have acne-prone skin, so are likely local contaminants. Moderate to severe acne vulgaris appears to be more often associated with virulent strains.[29]

Opportunistic diseases

Cutibacterium acnes is often considered an opportunistic pathogen, causing a range of postoperative and device-related infections e.g., surgical infections,[30] post-neurosurgical infections,[31] infected joint prostheses (especially shoulder),[32] neurosurgical shunt infections and endocarditis in patients with prosthetic heart valves (predominantly men).[33] C. acnes may play a role in other conditions, including SAPHO (synovitis, acne, pustulosis, hyperostosis, osteitis) syndrome, sarcoidosis and sciatica.[34] It is also suspected a main bacterial source of neuroinflammation in Alzheimer's disease brains.[35] It is a common contaminant in blood and cerebrospinal fluid cultures.[36][37]

Antimicrobial susceptibility

Cutibacterium acnes bacteria are susceptible to a wide range of antimicrobial molecules, from both pharmaceutical and natural sources. The antibiotics most frequently used to treat acne vulgaris are erythromycin, clindamycin, doxycycline, and minocycline.[38][39][40] Several other families of antibiotics are also active against C. acnes bacteria, including quinolones, cephalosporins, pleuromutilins, penicillins, and sulfonamides.[41][42][43]

Antibiotic-resistance

The emergence of antibiotic-resistant C. acnes bacteria represents a growing problem worldwide.[44] The problem is especially pronounced in North America and Europe.[45] The antibiotic families that C. acnes are most likely to acquire resistance to are the macrolides (e.g., erythromycin and azithromycin), lincosamides (e.g., clindamycin) and tetracyclines (e.g., doxycycline and minocycline).[46][47]

However, C. acnes bacteria are susceptible to many types of antimicrobial chemicals found in over-the-counter antibacterial products, including benzoyl peroxide,[48] triclosan,[49] chloroxylenol,[50] salicylic acid and chlorhexidine gluconate.[51]

Treatments

Several naturally occurring molecules and compounds are toxic to C. acnes bacteria. Some essential oils such as rosemary,[52] tea tree oil,[53] clove oil,[54] and citrus oils[55][56] contain antibacterial chemicals. Natural honey has also been shown to have some antibacterial properties that may be active against C. acnes.[57]

The elements silver,[58] sulfur,[59] and copper[60] have also been demonstrated to be toxic towards many bacteria, including C. acnes.

Some other antimicrobials like salicylic acid have been proven to inhibit C. acnes. Salicylic acid is a naturally occurring substance derived from plants (white willow bark and wintergreen leaves) used to promote exfoliation of the skin in order to treat acne. Additionally, research investigates the mechanism by which salicylic acid (SA) treats acne vulgaris. A study finds that SA suppresses the AMPK/SREBP1 (AMP-activated protein kinase)(AMPK/SREBP1 pathway is a signaling pathway involved in the regulation of lipid metabolism in sebocytes, which are the cells responsible for producing sebum in the skin) pathway in sebocytes, leading to a decrease in lipid synthesis and sebum production. SA also reduces the inflammatory response of sebocytes and decreases the proliferation of C. acnes. These results suggest that SA has a multifaceted approach in treating acne vulgaris by targeting several key factors that contribute to its development.[61] The minimum inhibitory concentration for SA is 4000–8000 µg/mL.[62]

Photosensitivity

Cutibacterium acnes glows orange when exposed to blacklight, possibly due to the presence of endogenous porphyrins. It is also killed by ultraviolet light. C. acnes is especially sensitive to light in the 405–420 nanometer (near the ultraviolet) range due to an endogenic porphyrin–coporphyrin III. A total radiant exposure of 320 J/cm2 inactivates this species in vitro.[63] Its photosensitivity can be enhanced by pretreatment with aminolevulinic acid, which boosts production of this chemical, although this causes significant side effects in humans, and in practice was not significantly better than the light treatment alone.[64][65]

Other habitats

Cutibacterium acnes has been found to be an endophyte of plants. Notably, grapevine appears to host an endophytic population of C. acnes that is closely related to the human-associated strains. The two lines diverged roughly 7,000 years ago, at about the same time when grapevine agriculture may have been established. This C. acnes subtype was dubbed Zappae in honour of the eccentric composer Frank Zappa, to highlight its unexpected and unconventional habitat.[66]

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 "Genus: Cutibacterium". DSMZ. https://www.dsmz.de/microorganisms/pnu/bacterial_nomenclature_info_mm.php?genus=Cutibacterium&show_all_details=1. 
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 "The natural history of cutaneous propionibacteria, and reclassification of selected species within the genus Propionibacterium to the proposed novel genera Acidipropionibacterium gen. nov., Cutibacterium gen. nov. and Pseudopropionibacterium gen. nov". International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology 66 (11): 4422–4432. November 2016. doi:10.1099/ijsem.0.001367. PMID 27488827. http://www.microbiologyresearch.org/docserver/fulltext/ijsem/66/11/4422_ijsem001367.pdf?expires=1534521507&id=id&accname=guest&checksum=B23A8B3A726C1F800627847E3280A9A2. Retrieved 17 August 2018. 
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 "Cutibacterium acnes (Propionibacterium acnes) and acne vulgaris: a brief look at the latest updates". Journal of the European Academy of Dermatology and Venereology 32 (Suppl 2): 5–14. June 2018. doi:10.1111/jdv.15043. PMID 29894579. 
  4. ↑ "Genus Cutibacterium". https://lpsn.dsmz.de/genus/cutibacterium. 
  5. ↑ (in en) Proprionibacterium acnes and Chronic Diseases. National Academies Press (US). 2004-01-01. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK83685/. 
  6. ↑ "Susceptibilities of Propionibacterium acnes ophthalmic isolates to moxifloxacin". Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 45 (10): 2969–70. October 2001. doi:10.1128/AAC.45.10.2969-2970.2001. PMID 11583007. 
  7. ↑ "Draft Genome Sequences of Propionibacterium acnes Type Strain ATCC6919 and Antibiotic-Resistant Strain HL411PA1". Genome Announcements 2 (4): e00740–14. August 2014. doi:10.1128/genomeA.00740-14. PMID 25125638. 
  8. ↑ "The complete genome sequence of Propionibacterium acnes, a commensal of human skin". Science 305 (5684): 671–3. July 2004. doi:10.1126/science.1100330. PMID 15286373. Bibcode: 2004Sci...305..671B. 
  9. ↑ "Propionibacterium acnes: infection beyond the skin". Expert Review of Anti-Infective Therapy 9 (12): 1149–56. December 2011. doi:10.1586/eri.11.137. PMID 22114965. 
  10. ↑ "A bacteriological and microscopical study of over 300 vesicular and pustular lesions of the skin, with a research upon the etiology of acne vulgaris". Johns Hopkins Hospital Report 9: 409–430. 1900. 
  11. ↑ "The Taxonomic Position of Corynebacterium acnes". Journal of Bacteriology 52 (1): 15–23. July 1946. doi:10.1128/JB.52.1.15-23.1946. PMID 16561149. 
  12. ↑ "Propionibacterium Cutibacterium - late breaking news and a new name". April 2, 2017. http://shoulderarthritis.blogspot.com/2017/04/propionibacterium-cutibacterium-late.html. 
  13. ↑ "Cutibacterium acnes molecular typing: time to standardize the method". Clinical Microbiology and Infection 24 (11): 1149–1155. November 2018. doi:10.1016/j.cmi.2018.03.010. PMID 29544912. https://www.clinicalmicrobiologyandinfection.com/article/S1198-743X(18)30216-7/pdf. Retrieved 17 August 2018. 
  14. ↑ "Cutibacterium (Formerly Propionibacterium) avidum: A Rare but Avid Agent of Prosthetic Hip Infection". The Journal of Arthroplasty 33 (7): 2246–2250. July 2018. doi:10.1016/j.arth.2018.02.008. PMID 29544969. https://www.arthroplastyjournal.org/article/S0883-5403(18)30135-9/fulltext?rss=yes. Retrieved 17 August 2018. 
  15. ↑ "Acne and sebaceous gland function". Clinics in Dermatology 22 (5): 360–6. 2011. doi:10.1016/j.clindermatol.2004.03.004. PMID 15556719. 
  16. ↑ "Proteomic identification of secreted proteins of Propionibacterium acnes". BMC Microbiology 10: 230. August 2010. doi:10.1186/1471-2180-10-230. PMID 20799957. 
  17. ↑ "Review of the innate immune response in acne vulgaris: activation of Toll-like receptor 2 in acne triggers inflammatory cytokine responses". Dermatology 211 (3): 193–8. 2005. doi:10.1159/000087011. PMID 16205063. 
  18. ↑ "Acne and sebaceous gland function". Clinics in Dermatology 22 (5): 360–6. 2004. doi:10.1016/j.clindermatol.2004.03.004. PMID 15556719. 
  19. ↑ "Understanding Acne - News in Health, January 2010". Newsinhealth.nih.gov. http://newsinhealth.nih.gov/2010/January/feature2.htm. 
  20. ↑ Tuchayi, Sara Moradi; Makrantonaki, Evgenia; Ganceviciene, Ruta; Dessinioti, Clio; Feldman, Steven R.; Zouboulis, Christos C. (2015-09-17). "Acne vulgaris" (in en). Nature Reviews Disease Primers 1 (1): 15029. doi:10.1038/nrdp.2015.29. ISSN 2056-676X. PMID 27189872. https://www.nature.com/articles/nrdp201529. 
  21. ↑ "Cutibacterium (Propionibacterium) Infections Clinical Presentation: History, Complications". https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/226337-clinical. 
  22. ↑ Ross (2003). "Antibiotic-resistant acne: lessons from Europe.". British Journal of Dermatology 148 (3): 467–78. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2133.2003.05067.x. PMID 12653738. 
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 "Propionibacterium acnes DNA detected in bronchoalveolar lavage cells from patients with sarcoidosis". Sarcoidosis, Vasculitis, and Diffuse Lung Diseases 20 (3): 197–203. October 2003. PMID 14620162. 
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 "Staphylococcus epidermidis and Cutibacterium acnes: Two Major Sentinels of Skin Microbiota and the Influence of Cosmetics". Microorganisms 8 (11): 1752. November 2020. doi:10.3390/microorganisms8111752. PMID 33171837. 
  25. ↑ Lim, Sung A.; Na, Kyung-Sun; Joo, Choun-Ki (September 2017). "Clinical Features of Infectious Keratitis Caused by Propionibacterium Acnes" (in en-US). Eye & Contact Lens 43 (5): 330–333. doi:10.1097/ICL.0000000000000281. ISSN 1542-233X. PMID 27203796. https://journals.lww.com/claojournal/Abstract/2017/09000/Clinical_Features_of_Infectious_Keratitis_Caused.10.aspx. 
  26. ↑ "Propionibacterium acnes biofilm is present in intervertebral discs of patients undergoing microdiscectomy". PLOS ONE 12 (4): e0174518. 2017-04-03. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0174518. PMID 28369127. Bibcode: 2017PLoSO..1274518C. 
  27. ↑ "Antibiotic treatment in patients with chronic low back pain and vertebral bone edema (Modic type 1 changes): a double-blind randomized clinical controlled trial of efficacy". European Spine Journal 22 (4): 697–707. April 2013. doi:10.1007/s00586-013-2675-y. PMID 23404353. 
  28. ↑ "[Granulomatous diseases and pathogenic microorganism]". Kekkaku 83 (2): 115–30. February 2008. PMID 18326339. 
  29. ↑ "Population genetic analysis of Propionibacterium acnes identifies a subpopulation and epidemic clones associated with acne". PLOS ONE 5 (8): e12277. August 2010. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0012277. PMID 20808860. Bibcode: 2010PLoSO...512277L. 
  30. ↑ Haidar R., Najjar M., Boghossian A.D., Tabbarah Z., "Propionibacterium acnes causing delayed postoperative spine infection: Review." Scandinavian Journal of Infectious Diseases. 42 (6-7) (pp 405-411), 2010
  31. ↑ Nisbet, M.; Briggs, S.; Ellis-Pegler, R.; Thomas, M. ;Holland, D. "Propionibacterium acnes: an under-appreciated cause of post-neurosurgical infection" Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy. 60(5). NOV 2007. 1097-1103.1103.
  32. ↑ "Propionibacterium acnes postoperative shoulder arthritis: an emerging clinical entity". Clinical Infectious Diseases 46 (12): 1884–6. June 2008. doi:10.1086/588477. PMID 18462110. 
  33. ↑ "Infective endocarditis due to Propionibacterium species". Clinical Microbiology and Infection 15 (4): 387–94. April 2009. doi:10.1111/j.1469-0691.2009.02703.x. PMID 19260876. 
  34. ↑ Perry A., Lambert P. " Propionibacterium acnes: Infection beyond the skin." Expert Review of Anti-Infective Therapy. 9 (12) (pp 1149-1156), 2011
  35. ↑ "16S rRNA Next Generation Sequencing Analysis Shows Bacteria in Alzheimer's Post-Mortem Brain". Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience 9: 195. 2017. doi:10.3389/fnagi.2017.00195. PMID 28676754. 
  36. ↑ "Propionibacterium acnes: an underestimated pathogen in implant-associated infections". BioMed Research International 2013: 804391. 2013. doi:10.1155/2013/804391. PMID 24308006. 
  37. ↑ "Cutibacterium (formerly Propionibacterium) acnes infections associated with implantable devices". Expert Review of Anti-Infective Therapy 15 (12): 1083–1094. December 2017. doi:10.1080/14787210.2017.1404452. PMID 29125405. 
  38. ↑ "Prescription Medications for Treating Acne". Skincarephysicians.com. 2007-02-16. http://www.skincarephysicians.com/acnenet/prescriptmeds.html. 
  39. ↑ "The Cause Of Acne and Natural or Medical Acne Treatment". http://jawlineacne.com/. 
  40. ↑ "Guidelines of care for acne vulgaris management". Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology 56 (4): 651–63. April 2007. doi:10.1016/j.jaad.2006.08.048. PMID 17276540. 
  41. ↑ "Antimicrobiol susceptibility of Propinibacterium acnes and related microbial species". Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 10 (3): 387–94. September 1976. doi:10.1128/aac.10.3.387. PMID 984781. 
  42. ↑ "Susceptibility of Propionibacterium acnes to seventeen antibiotics". Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 11 (1): 171–3. January 1977. doi:10.1128/aac.11.1.171. PMID 836012. 
  43. ↑ "Antibiotic Susceptibility of Propionibacterium acnes". ScienceOfAcne.com. 2011-07-15. http://scienceofacne.com/antibiotic-susceptibility-of-propionibacterium-acnes/. 
  44. ↑ "Treating acne with antibiotic-resistant bacterial colonization". Expert Opinion on Pharmacotherapy 12 (8): 1233–47. June 2011. doi:10.1517/14656566.2011.553192. PMID 21355786. 
  45. ↑ "Phenotypic and genotypic characterization of antibiotic-resistant Propionibacterium acnes isolated from acne patients attending dermatology clinics in Europe, the U.S.A., Japan and Australia". The British Journal of Dermatology 144 (2): 339–46. February 2001. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2133.2001.03956.x. PMID 11251569. 
  46. ↑ "Antibiotic-resistant acne: lessons from Europe". The British Journal of Dermatology 148 (3): 467–78. March 2003. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2133.2003.05067.x. PMID 12653738. 
  47. ↑ "Prevalence of antibiotic-resistant propionibacteria on the skin of acne patients: 10-year surveillance data and snapshot distribution study". The British Journal of Dermatology 146 (5): 840–8. May 2002. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2133.2002.04690.x. PMID 12000382. 
  48. ↑ "Antibiotic-resistant Propionibacterium acnes suppressed by a benzoyl peroxide cleanser 6%". Cutis 82 (6): 417–21. December 2008. PMID 19181031. 
  49. ↑ "Q&A for Health Care Professionals: Health Care Antiseptics". December 19, 2017. https://www.fda.gov/Drugs/DrugSafety/InformationbyDrugClass/ucm445062.htm. 
  50. ↑ Vanity, Vitality, and Virility: The Chemistry Behind the Products You Love to Buy. Oxford University. July 1, 2004. p. 130. ISBN 978-0-19-280509-6. https://archive.org/details/vanityvitalityvi00emsl. Retrieved 17 August 2018. 
  51. ↑ "Efficacy of chlorhexidine gluconate ointment (Oronine H(®)) for experimentally-induced comedones". Clinical, Cosmetic and Investigational Dermatology 5: 79–83. July 2012. doi:10.2147/CCID.S33361. PMID 22936850. 
  52. ↑ "Investigation of antibacterial activity of rosemary essential oil against Propionibacterium acnes with atomic force microscopy". Planta Medica 73 (12): 1275–80. October 2007. doi:10.1055/s-2007-981614. PMID 17893831. 
  53. ↑ "Antimicrobial effects of tea-tree oil and its major components on Staphylococcus aureus, Staph. epidermidis and Propionibacterium acnes". Letters in Applied Microbiology 21 (4): 242–5. October 1995. doi:10.1111/j.1472-765x.1995.tb01051.x. PMID 7576514. 
  54. ↑ "The antibacterial activity of clove essential oil against Propionibacterium acnes and its mechanism of action". Archives of Dermatology 145 (1): 86–8. January 2009. doi:10.1001/archdermatol.2008.549. PMID 19153353. 
  55. ↑ "A review on recent research results (2008–2010) on essential oils as antimicrobials and antifungals. A review.". Flavour and Fragrance Journal 27 (1): 13–39. January 2012. doi:10.1002/ffj.2082. 
  56. ↑ "Chemical composition and biological activities of essential oils extracted from Korean endemic citrus species". Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology 18 (1): 74–9. January 2008. PMID 18239420. https://www.koreascience.or.kr/article/JAKO200832642389230.page. 
  57. ↑ "Effect of antibacterial honey on the ocular flora in tear deficiency and meibomian gland disease". Cornea 25 (9): 1012–9. October 2006. doi:10.1097/01.ico.0000225716.85382.7b. PMID 17133045. 
  58. ↑ "In vitro antimicrobial activity of silver-processed catheters for neurosurgery". The Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy 65 (2): 258–65. February 2010. doi:10.1093/jac/dkp420. PMID 19942617. 
  59. ↑ "Antibacterial effect of elemental sulfur". The Journal of Infectious Diseases 93 (1): 28–35. 1953. doi:10.1093/infdis/93.1.28. PMID 13069766. 
  60. ↑ "Antibacterial activity of multilayer silver-copper surface films on catheter material". Canadian Journal of Microbiology 39 (9): 895–9. September 1993. doi:10.1139/m93-134. PMID 8242490. 
  61. ↑ "Salicylic acid treats acne vulgaris by suppressing AMPK/SREBP1 pathway in sebocytes". Experimental Dermatology 28 (7): 786–794. October 2019. doi:10.1111/exd.13934. PMID 30972839. 
  62. ↑ "In vitro Antimicrobial Activity of Acne Drugs Against Skin-Associated Bacteria". Scientific Reports 9 (1): 14658. October 2019. doi:10.1038/s41598-019-50746-4. PMID 31601845. Bibcode: 2019NatSR...914658B. 
  63. ↑ "Phototherapy with blue (415 nm) and red (660 nm) light in the treatment of acne vulgaris". The British Journal of Dermatology 142 (5): 973–8. May 2000. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2133.2000.03481.x. PMID 10809858. 
  64. ↑ "Short and limited effect of long-pulsed dye laser alone and in combination with photodynamic therapy for inflammatory rosacea". Journal of the European Academy of Dermatology and Venereology 23 (2): 200–1. February 2009. doi:10.1111/j.1468-3083.2008.02781.x. PMID 18452529. 
  65. ↑ "Current evidence and applications of photodynamic therapy in dermatology". Clinical, Cosmetic and Investigational Dermatology 7: 145–63. May 2014. doi:10.2147/CCID.S35334. PMID 24899818. 
  66. ↑ "Interkingdom transfer of the acne-causing agent, Propionibacterium acnes, from human to grapevine". Molecular Biology and Evolution 31 (5): 1059–65. May 2014. doi:10.1093/molbev/msu075. PMID 24554779. 

External links

Wikidata ☰ Q2442109 entry



Retrieved from "https://handwiki.org/wiki/index.php?title=Biology:Cutibacterium_acnes&oldid=3665992"