Biology:List of animals by number of neurons
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Brief comparisons of number of whole brain neurons (top) and cerebral cortex neurons (bottom) among six mammals.
The following are two lists of animals ordered by the size of their nervous system. The first list shows number of neurons in their entire nervous system, indicating their overall neural complexity. The second list shows the number of neurons in the structure that has been found to be representative of animal intelligence.[1] The human brain contains 86 billion neurons, with 16 billion neurons in the cerebral cortex.[2][1]
Scientists are engaged in counting, quantification, in order to find answers to the question in the strategy of neuroscience and intelligence of "self-knowledge": how the evolution of a set of components and parameters (~1011 neurons, ~1014 synapses) of a complex system could lead to the phenomenon of the appearance of intelligence in the biological species "sapiens".[3]
Overview
Neurons are the cells that transmit information in an animal's nervous system so that it can sense stimuli from its environment and behave accordingly. Not all animals have neurons; Trichoplax and sponges lack nerve cells altogether.
Neurons may be packed to form structures such as the brain of vertebrates or the neural ganglions of insects.
The number of neurons and their relative abundance in different parts of the brain is a determinant of neural function and, consequently, of behavior.
Whole nervous system
All numbers for neurons (except Caenorhabditis and Ciona), and all numbers for synapses (except Ciona) are estimations.
| Name | Neurons in the brain & whole nervous system | Synapses | Details | Image | Source |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Sponge | 0 |  |
[4] | ||
| Trichoplax | 0 | Despite no nervous system, it exhibits coordinated feeding and response behaviors.[5] |  |
[6] | |
| Asplanchna brightwellii (rotifer) | ~200 | Brain only | _-_40X_view.jpg) |
[7] | |
| Tardigrade | ~200 | Brain only |  |
[8] | |
| Ciona intestinalis larva (sea squirt) | 231 | 8,617 (central nervous system only) |  |
[9] | |
| Caenorhabditis elegans (roundworm) | 302 | ~7,500 | is the only organism to have its whole connectome (neuronal "wiring diagram") completed.[11][12][13] |  | |
| Starfish | ~500 | ring of neurons surrounding the mouth | .jpg) | ||
| Jellyfish | 5,600 | Hydra vulgaris (H. attenuate) |  |
[14] | |
| Megaphragma mymaripenne | 7,400 | File:Megaphragma mymaripenne-SEM (cropped-B).tif | [15] | ||
| Box jellyfish | 8,700–17,500 | adult Tripedalia cystophora (8 mm diameter) – does not include 1000 neurons in each of the four rhopalia |  |
[16] | |
| Medicinal leech | 10,000 |  |
[17] | ||
| Pond snail | 11,000 |  |
[18] | ||
| Sea slug | 18,000 |  |
[19] | ||
| Amphioxus | 20,000 | central nervous system only |  |
[20] | |
| Larval zebrafish | 100,000 |  |
[22] | ||
| Fruit fly | 150,000 | There are approximately 135,000 and 150,000 neurons in the brain and ventral nerve cord, respectively. | .jpg) |
Drosophila connectome[23][24] | |
| Wandering spider | 100,000 |  |
[25] | ||
| Calliopsis (bee) | 234,000 | .jpg) |
[26] | ||
| Ant | 250,000 | Varies per species |  |
[27] | |
| Perdita (bee) | 275,000 | [26] | |||
| Melissodes | 495,000 | [26] | |||
| Bombus impatiens | 557,000 |  |
[26] | ||
| Western honey bee | 613,000 |  |
[26] | ||
| Honey bee | 960,000 | ~1×109 |  |
[28] | |
| Cockroach | 1,000,000 |  |
[29] | ||
| Coconut crab | >1,000,000 | c. 1,000,000 interneurons are dedicated to analysing olfactory input alone. | [30] | ||
| California carpenter bee | 1,180,000 |  |
[26] | ||
| Steudner's dwarf gecko | 1,771,000 |  |
[31] | ||
| Brown anole | 2,792,000 | _juvenile.JPG) |
[31] | ||
| Mochlus sundevallii | 3,049,000 | .jpg) |
[31] | ||
| Peloponnese slowworm | 3,713,000 |  |
[31] | ||
| Common house gecko | 3,988,000 |  |
[31] | ||
| Takydromus sexlineatus | 4,021,000 |  |
[31] | ||
| Anolis cristatellus | 4,270,000 |  |
[32] | ||
| Papua snake lizard | 4,271,000 | [31] | |||
| Guppy | 4,300,000 |  |
[33] | ||
| Natal Midlands dwarf chameleon | 4,305,000 |  |
[31] | ||
| Acontias percivali | 4,340,000 |  |
[31] | ||
| Sand lizard | 4,341,000 |  |
[31] | ||
| Ocelot gecko | 4,420,000 |  |
[34] | ||
| Darevskia raddei | 4,765,000 |  |
[31] | ||
| Anolis evermanni | 4,920,000 | [32] | |||
| Echis carinatus | 4,951,000 | .jpg) |
[31] | ||
| Cerastes cerastes | 4,996,000 |  |
[31] | ||
| Tenerife gecko | 5,001,000 |  |
[31] | ||
| Draco sumatranus | 5,174,000 |  |
[31] | ||
| Blue-throated keeled lizard | 5,269,000 | ._Algyroides_nigropunctatus_(44191025654).jpg) |
[31] | ||
| Crested gecko | 5,417,000 |  |
[31] | ||
| Lacerta strigata | 5,529,000 |  |
[31] | ||
| San Francisco garter snake | 5,663,000 | _-_uitsnede.jpg) |
[31] | ||
| Red-eyed crocodile skink | 5,697,000 |  |
[31] | ||
| Emoia cyanura | 5,733,000 |  |
[31] | ||
| East African spiny-tailed lizard | 5,756,000 | .jpg) |
[31] | ||
| Chalcides ocellatus | 5,774,000 |  |
[31] | ||
| Cylindrophis ruffus | 5,779,000 |  |
[31] | ||
| Cat gecko | 5,964,000 |  |
[31] | ||
| Aspidoscelis deppii | 5,968,000 |  |
[31] | ||
| Brown water snake | 5,995,000 |  |
[31] | ||
| Aspidelaps lubricus | 6,020,000 |  |
[31] | ||
| Scincus scincus | 6,284,000 |  |
[31] | ||
| Montivipera xanthina | 6,677,000 |  |
[31] | ||
| Hispaniolan curlytail lizard | 7,063,000 |  |
[31] | ||
| Sceloporus malachiticus | 7,149,000 | _-_Flickr_-_gailhampshire.jpg) |
[31] | ||
| Crotalus durissus | 7,263,000 | .JPG) |
[31] | ||
| Agama agama | 7,455,000 | _male_(7609816076).jpg) |
[31] | ||
| Agama aculeata | 7,631,000 | .jpg) |
[31] | ||
| Gekko kuhli | 7,659,000 | _(8744025989).jpg) |
[31] | ||
| Leopard gecko | 8,081,000 |  |
[31] | ||
| Latastia longicaudata | 8,099,000 | -1.JPG) |
[31] | ||
| Razor-backed musk turtle | 8,389,000 |  |
[31] | ||
| Greek tortoise | 8,520,000 |  |
[31] | ||
| Phelsuma grandis | 8,623,000 | _Nosy_Komba.jpg) |
[31] | ||
| Acanthocercus atricollis | 8,650,000 | _(6002525679).jpg) |
[31] | ||
| Tokay gecko | 8,892,000 | _adult_male_and_juvenile.jpg) |
[31] | ||
| Russian tortoise | 9,008,000 |  |
[31] | ||
| Marginated tortoise | 9,074,000 |  |
[31] | ||
| Psammophis elegans | 9,170,000 | [31] | |||
| Xenopeltis unicolor | 9,293,000 | _(7121228691).jpg) |
[31] | ||
| Zonosaurus Karsteni | 9,538,000 |  |
[31] | ||
| Oplurus quadrimaculatus | 9,565,000 | _Isalo.jpg) |
[31] | ||
| Malagasy giant chameleon | 9,751,000 | _female.jpg) |
[31] | ||
| Ahaetulla prasina | 9,767,000 | .jpg) |
[31] | ||
| Dasia olivacea | 9,785,000 |  |
[31] | ||
| Adult zebrafish | ~10,000,000 | cells (neurons + other) |  |
[35] | |
| Timon tangitanus | 10,619,000 |  |
[31] | ||
| Corn snake | 10,629,000 |  |
[31] | ||
| Acanthosaura capra | 10,724,000 |  |
[31] | ||
| Gallotia galloti | 10,903,000 |  |
[31] | ||
| Eutropis multifasciata | 10,944,000 | .jpg) |
[31] | ||
| Rainbow boa | 11,083,000 | _coiled_around_a_branch.jpg) |
[31] | ||
| East African black mud turtle | 11,285,000 |  |
[31] | ||
| Indochinese spitting cobra | 11,306,000 |  |
[31] | ||
| Cyrtodactylus irianjayaensis | 11,415,000 | [31] | |||
| Uromastyx ornata | 11,438,000 |  |
[31] | ||
| Yellow-throated plated lizard | 11,847,000 | _(14033889705),_crop.jpg) |
[31] | ||
| Meller's chameleon | 12,035,000 |  |
[31] | ||
| Twist-necked turtle | 12,171,000 | _(10358928446).jpg) |
[31] | ||
| Western whiptail | 12,269,000 |  |
[31] | ||
| Gehyra vorax | 12,388,000 |  |
[31] | ||
| White-lipped mud turtle | 12,671,000 | [31] | |||
| Painted wood turtle | 12,677,000 |  |
[31] | ||
| Sheltopusik | 12,830,000 |  |
[31] | ||
| Standing's day gecko | 13,223,000 |  |
[31] | ||
| Common snapping turtle | 13,681,000 |  |
[31] | ||
| Painted turtle | 14,302,000 | _(49866261538)_(cropped).jpg) |
[31] | ||
| Ocellated lizard | 14,593,000 |  |
[31] | ||
| Oplurus cuvieri | 14,627,000 |  |
[31] | ||
| African spurred tortoise | 14,986,000 |  |
[31] | ||
| Boa imperator | 15,194,000 |  |
[31] | ||
| Red-eared slider | 15,388,000 |  |
[31] | ||
| Plumed basilisk | 15,536,000 |  |
[31] | ||
| Red-bellied short-necked turtle | 15,787,000 |  |
[31] | ||
| Frog | 16,000,000 | _crop.jpg) |
[36] | ||
| Corallus hortulana | 16,303,000 |  |
[31] | ||
| Blue-tongued skink | 16,376,000 | .jpg) |
[31] | ||
| Gran Canaria giant lizard | 18,038,000 |  |
[31] | ||
| Chinese water dragon | 18,301,000 | _-_Khao_Yai_National_Park_-_1.jpg) |
[31] | ||
| Chlamydosaurus | 18,641,000 |  |
[31] | ||
| Northern snake-necked turtle | 19,040,000 |  |
[31] | ||
| Spiny-tailed monitor | 19,771,000 |  |
[31] | ||
| Boa constrictor | 19,781,000 | .jpg) |
[31] | ||
| Ameiva ameiva | 19,835,000 | .jpg) |
[31] | ||
| Chinese softshell turtle | 20,697,000 |  |
[31] | ||
| Amboina box turtle | 21,440,000 |  |
[31] | ||
| Alligator snapping turtle | 22,230,000 |  |
[31] | ||
| Yellow anaconda | 23,035,000 | _(48292380166).jpg) |
[31] | ||
| Mexican beaded lizard | 23,681,000 |  |
[31] | ||
| Major skink | 24,155,000 | _(9951680974).jpg) |
[31] | ||
| Sudan plated lizard | 24,434,000 |  |
[31] | ||
| Mata mata | 26,105,000 | [31] | |||
| Naked mole-rat | 26,880,000 |  |
[37] | ||
| Weber's sailfin lizard | 27,245,000 |  |
[31] | ||
| Green iguana | 29,098,000 |  |
[31] | ||
| Argentine black and white tegu | 29,251,000 |  |
[31] | ||
| Cyclura nubila | 30,820,000 |  |
[31] | ||
| Gold tegu | 31,335,000 |  |
[31] | ||
| Varanus macraei | 33,091,000 | .JPG) |
[31] | ||
| Little free-tailed bat | 35,000,000 |  |
[38] | ||
| Smoky shrew | 36,000,000 |  |
[39] | ||
| Sand goanna | 50,253,000 |  |
[31] | ||
| Short-tailed shrew | 52,000,000 |  |
[39] | ||
| Pig-nosed turtle | 53,027,000 |  |
[31] | ||
| Common bent-wing bat | 56,000,000 | [38] | |||
| African sheath-tailed bat | 59,000,000 | [38] | |||
| Hottentot golden mole | 65,000,000 | _(8557402518).jpg) |
[40] | ||
| Woermann's bat | 66,000,000 | [38] | |||
| Zenker's fruit bat | 66,000,000 | [38] | |||
| Commerson's roundleaf bat | 67,000,000 | _(10291616316).jpg) |
[38] | ||
| Rufous trident bat | 70,000,000 | [38] | |||
| House mouse | 71,000,000 | ~1×1012 |  |
[41] | |
| Asian water monitor | 78,231,000 |  |
[31] | ||
| King quail | 80,478,000 | .jpg) |
[31] | ||
| Nile crocodile | 80,500,000 | .jpg) |
[42] | ||
| Heart-nosed bat | 81,000,000 |  |
[38] | ||
| Diamond dove | 87,879,000 |  |
[31] | ||
| Golden hamster | 90,000,000 |  |
[41] | ||
| Short-palated fruit bat | 99,000,000 | [38] | |||
| Ansell's mole-rat | 103,000,000 |  |
[43] | ||
| Mashona mole-rat | 113,000,000 | [43] | |||
| Common quail | 117,760,000 |  |
[31] | ||
| Hairy-tailed mole | 124,000,000 | _(7748318398).jpg) |
[40] | ||
| Eastern rock elephant shrew | 129,000,000 |  |
[40] | ||
| Star-nosed mole | 131,000,000 |  |
[39] | ||
| Zebra finch | 131,000,000 | Brain only | .jpg) |
[44] | |
| African collared dove | 139,271,000 |  |
[31] | ||
| Silvery mole-rat | 148,000,000 |  |
[43] | ||
| Northern bobwhite | 148,399,000 |  |
[31] | ||
| Four-toed elephant shrew | 157,000,000 |  |
[40] | ||
| Eurasian blackcap | 157,000,000 |  |
[44] | ||
| Wahlberg's epauletted fruit bat | 162,000,000 |  |
[38] | ||
| Goldcrest | 164,000,000 | .jpg) |
[44] | ||
| Cape mole-rat | 170,000,000 |  |
[43] | ||
| Grey partridge | 170,287,000 | .jpg) |
[31] | ||
| Egyptian fruit bat | 172,000,000 |  |
[38] | ||
| Mechow's mole-rat | 174,000,000 |  |
[43] | ||
| Damaraland mole-rat | 178,000,000 |  |
[43] | ||
| Franquet's epauletted fruit bat | 186,000,000 | [38] | |||
| Brown rat | 200,000,000 | ~4.48×1011 |  |
[45] | |
| Guyenne spiny rat | 202,000,000 | [40] | |||
| Eastern mole | 204,000,000 |  |
[39] | ||
| Elegant crested tinamou | 217,768,000 |  |
[31] | ||
| Red junglefowl | 221,000,000 |  |
[44] | ||
| Great tit | 226,000,000 |  |
[44] | ||
| Green-rumped parrotlet | 227,000,000 |  |
[44] | ||
| Quebracho crested tinamou | 235,671,000 | .jpg) |
[31] | ||
| Guinea pig | 240,000,000 |  |
[41] | ||
| Chilean tinamou | 241,374,000 |  |
[31] | ||
| Gray mouse lemur | 254,710,000 |  |
[46] | ||
| Common wood pigeon | 258,681,000 |  |
[31] | ||
| Common treeshrew | 261,000,000 |  |
[47] | ||
| Hammer-headed bat | 275,000,000 |  |
[38] | ||
| Wood duck | 305,816,000 |  |
[31] | ||
| Pigeon | 310,000,000 | Brain only |  |
[44] | |
| Budgerigar | 322,000,000 |  |
[44] | ||
| Pygmy falcon | 350,367,000 |  |
[31] | ||
| Cape dune mole-rat | 361,000,000 |  |
[43] | ||
| Mallard | 367,000,000 |  |
[31] | ||
| Eurasian teal | 375,409,000 | .jpg) |
[31] | ||
| Common blackbird | 379,000,000 |  |
[44] | ||
| Marbled duck | 386,920,000 |  |
[31] | ||
| Reeves's pheasant | 387,173,000 |  |
[31] | ||
| Eurasian sparrowhawk | 401,751,000 |  |
[31] | ||
| Ferret | 404,000,000 |  |
[48] | ||
| Cockatiel | 453,000,000 |  |
[44] | ||
| Gray squirrel | 453,660,000 | _02.jpg) |
[37] | ||
| Banded mongoose | 454,000,000 |  |
[48] | ||
| Prairie dog | 473,940,000 |  |
[37] | ||
| Red-breasted goose | 482,705,000 | _(3).JPG) |
[31] | ||
| Common starling | 483,000,000 |  |
[44] | ||
| Wild turkey | 492,873,000 | _strutting.jpg) |
[31] | ||
| European rabbit | 494,200,000 |  |
[37] | ||
| Octopus | 500,000,000 |  |
[49] | ||
| Western tree hyrax | 505,000,000 |  |
[40] | ||
| Eurasian pygmy owl | 533,263,000 | .jpg) |
[31] | ||
| Indian peafowl | 570,934,000 |  |
[31] | ||
| Victoria crowned pigeon | 578,697,000 |  |
[31] | ||
| Little owl | 585,923,000 |  |
[31] | ||
| Common kestrel | 624,582,000 |  |
[31] | ||
| Common marmoset | 636,000,000 |  |
[47] | ||
| Eastern rosella | 642,000,000 |  |
[44] | ||
| Yellow-knobbed curassow | 652,989,000 |  |
[31] | ||
| Barn owl | 690,000,000 | .jpg) |
[44] | ||
| Monk parakeet | 697,000,000 | .jpg) |
[44] | ||
| Greylag goose | 738,232,000 |  |
[31] | ||
| Azure-winged magpie | 741,000,000 |  |
[44] | ||
| Rock hyrax | 756,000,000 | _(7042223567).jpg) |
[40] | ||
| Cat | 760,000,000 | ~1×1013 |  |
[50] | |
| Black-rumped agouti | 857,000,000 | .jpg) |
[41] | ||
| Magpie | 897,000,000 |  |
[44] | ||
| Common hill myna | 906,000,000 |  |
[44] | ||
| Northern greater galago | 936,000,000 | [47] | |||
| Western jackdaw | 968,000,000 |  |
[44] | ||
| Long-eared owl | 991,310,000 |  |
[31] | ||
| Mute swan | 1.001×109 |  |
[31] | ||
| Common buzzard | 1.001×109 |  |
[31] | ||
| Black vulture | 1.009×109 |  |
[31] | ||
| Greater rhea | 1.03×109 |  |
[31] | ||
| Eurasian jay | 1.085×109 |  |
[44] | ||
| Alexandrine parakeet | 1.096×109 |  |
[44] | ||
| Raccoon dog | 1.16×109 | .jpg) |
[51] | ||
| Tanimbar corella | 1.161×109 |  |
[44] | ||
| Saker falcon | 1.204×109 |  |
[31] | ||
| Emu | 1.335×109 |  |
[44] | ||
| Three-striped night monkey | 1.468×109 | [47] | |||
| Rook | 1.509×109 |  |
[44] | ||
| Grey parrot | 1.566×109 |  |
[44] | ||
| Tawny owl | 1.58×109 | .jpg) |
[31] | ||
| Capybara | 1.6×109 |  |
[41] | ||
| Common ostrich | 1.62×109 | .jpg) |
[31] | ||
| White-tailed eagle | 1.65×109 |  |
[31] | ||
| Jackal | 1.73×109 |  |
[51] | ||
| Snowy owl | 1.807×109 | .jpeg) |
[31] | ||
| Eurasian eagle-owl | 1.897×109 |  |
[31] | ||
| Fox | 2.11×109 |  |
[51] | ||
| Sulphur-crested cockatoo | 2.122×109 |  |
[44] | ||
| Raccoon | 2.148×109 | .jpg) |
[48] | ||
| Kea | 2.149×109 |  |
[44] | ||
| Raven | 2.171×109 | Brain only | _(8).jpg) |
[44] | |
| Domestic pig | 2.22×109 |  |
[52] | ||
| Dog | 2.253×109 |  |
[48] | ||
| Chihuahua (dog) | 2.51×109 |  |
[51] | ||
| Dog (Chow Chow) | 2.61×109 |  |
[51] | ||
| Dog (Yorkshire Terrier) | 2.64×109 |  |
[51] | ||
| Springbok | 2.72×109 |  |
[52] | ||
| Dog (West Highland White Terrier) | 2.83×109 |  |
[51] | ||
| Blesbok | 3.06×109 |  |
[52] | ||
| Blue-and-yellow macaw | 3.136×109 | Brain only |  |
[44] | |
| Common squirrel monkey | 3.246×109 |  |
[47] | ||
| Crab-eating macaque | 3.44×109 |  |
[46] | ||
| Dog (German Shepherd) | 3.53×109 |  |
[51] | ||
| Tufted capuchin | 3.691×109 | _4.jpg) |
[47] | ||
| Bonnet macaque | 3.78×109 |  |
[46] | ||
| Striped hyena | 3.885×109 |  |
[48] | ||
| Dog (Komondor) | 3.99×109 | [51] | |||
| Dog (Transylvanian Hound) | 4.39×109 |  |
[51] | ||
| Lion | 4.667×109 |  |
[48] | ||
| Greater kudu | 4.91×109 |  |
[52] | ||
| Rhesus macaque | 6.376×109 |  |
[47] | ||
| Brown bear | 9.586×109 |  |
[48] | ||
| Giraffe | 1.075×1010 |  |
[52] | ||
| Yellow baboon | 1.095×1010 |  |
[46] | ||
| Chimpanzee | 2.8×1010 |  |
[53] | ||
| Orangutan | 3.26×1010 |  |
[54] | ||
| Gorilla | 3.34×1010 |  |
[54] | ||
| Common minke whale | 5.7 × 1010 | [55] | |||
| Human | 8.6×1010 | ~1.5×1014 | Neurons for average adult |  |
[56][57][58] |
| Short-finned pilot whale | 1.28 × 1011 | [55] | |||
| African elephant | 2.57×1011 |  |
[59][60] |
List of animal species by forebrain (cerebrum or pallium) neuron number
The question of what physical characteristic of an animal makes an animal intelligent has varied over the centuries. One early speculation was brain size (or weight, which provides the same ordering.) A second proposal was brain-to-body-mass ratio, and a third was encephalization quotient, sometimes referred to as EQ. The current best predictor is number of neurons in the forebrain, based on Herculano-Houzel's improved neuron counts.[1] It accounts most accurately for variations in dependence on the cerebellum. The elephant depends on its exceptionally large cerebellum, while birds make do with a much smaller one.
Differing methods have been used to count neurons and these may differ in degree of reliability. These are the optical fractionator, an application of stereology and the isotropic fractionator, a recent methodological innovation. Most numbers in the list are the result of studies using the newer isotropic fractionator.[1][37][26][41][42][44][45][46][47][52][53][54][56][57][59][61] A variation of the optical fractionator was responsible for the previous total human brain neuron count of 100,000,000,000 neurons, which has been revised down to 86,000,000,000 by the use of the isotropic fractionator. This is in part why it may be considered to be less reliable. Finally, some numbers are the result of estimations based on correlations observed between number of cortical neurons and brain mass within closely related taxa.
The following table gives information on the number of neurons estimated to be in the sensory-associative structure: the cerebral cortex (aka pallium) for mammals, the dorsal ventricular ridge ("DVR" or "hypopallium") of the pallium for birds, and the corpora pedunculata ("mushroom bodies") for insects.
| Common name | Average number of sensory-associative structure neurons[lower-alpha 1] | Intraspecific variation[lower-alpha 2] | Method[lower-alpha 3] | Sensory-associative structure | Binomial nomenclature | Image | Source |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Common fruit fly | 2,500* | Optical fractionator | Corpora pedunculata | Drosophila melanogaster |  |
[62] | |
| House cricket | 50,000* | Optical fractionator | Corpora pedunculata | Acheta domesticus |  |
[62] | |
| Honey bee | 170,000* | Optical fractionator | Corpora pedunculata | Genus: Apis |  |
[62] | |
| Common cockroach | 200,000* | Optical fractionator | Corpora pedunculata | Genus: Periplaneta |  |
[62] | |
| African sheath-tailed bat | 5,000,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (cortex) | Coleura afra | [38] | ||
| Rufous trident bat | 6,000,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (cortex) | Triaenops persicus | [38] | ||
| Naked mole-rat | 6,000,000 | ± 1,065,587[40] | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (cortex) | Heterocephalus glaber | |
[37] |
| Little free-tailed bat | 6,000,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (cortex) | Chaerephon pumilus | |
[38] | |
| Common bent-wing bat | 6,000,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (cortex) | Miniopterus schreibersii | [38] | ||
| Commerson's roundleaf bat | 8,000,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (cortex) | Hipposideros commersoni | |
[38] | |
| Heart-nosed bat | 10,000,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (cortex) | Cardioderma cor | |
[38] | |
| Ansell's mole-rat | 10,000,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (cortex) | Fukomys anselli | |
[43] | |
| Smoky shrew | 10,000,000 | ± 352,000[40] | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (cortex) | Sorex fumeus | |
[40] |
| Short-palated fruit bat | 10,000,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (cortex) | Casinycteris argynnis | [38] | ||
| Mashona mole-rat | 12,000,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (cortex) | Fukomys darlingi | [43] | ||
| Woermann's bat | 12,000,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (cortex) | Megaloglossus woermanni | [38] | ||
| Northern short-tailed shrew | 12,000,000 | ± 1,569,000[40] | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (cortex) | Blarina brevicauda |  |
[40] |
| Zenker's fruit bat | 13,000,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (cortex) | Scotonycteris zenkeri | [38] | ||
| House mouse | 14,000,000 | ± 2,242,257[40] | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (cortex) | Mus musculus |  |
[40] |
| Hairy-tailed mole | 16,000,000 | ± 2,611,000[40] | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (cortex) | Parascalops breweri | |
[40] |
| Star-nosed mole | 17,000,000 | ± 3,105,000[40] | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (cortex) | Condylura cristata | |
[40] |
| Golden hamster | 17,000,000 | ± 3,619,934[40] | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (cortex) | Mesocricetus auratus |  |
[40] |
| Diamond dove | 18,209,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (DVR) | Geopelia cuneata | |
[31] | |
| King quail | 20,523,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (DVR) | Synoicus chinensis | |
[31] | |
| Damaraland mole-rat | 21,000,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (cortex) | Fukomys damarensis | |
[43] | |
| Hottentot golden mole | 22,000,000 | ± 2,154,000[40] | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (cortex) | Amblysomus hottentotus | |
[40] |
| Gray mouse lemur | 22,310,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (cortex) | Microcebus murinus |  |
[46] | |
| Common quail | 22,568,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (DVR) | Coturnix coturnix |  |
[31] | |
| Mechow's mole-rat | 23,000,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (cortex) | Fukomys mechowii | |
[43] | |
| Franquet's epauletted fruit bat | 23,000,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (cortex) | Epomops franqueti | [38] | ||
| Hammer-headed bat | 24,000,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (cortex) | Hypsignathus mostrosus | [38] | ||
| Hedgehog | 24,000,000^ | Estimated | Pallium (cortex) | Subfamily Erinaceinae, various species |  |
[63] | |
| Silvery mole-rat | 25,000,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (cortex) | Heliophobius argenteocinereus | |
[43] | |
| Wahlberg's epauletted fruit bat | 26,000,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (cortex) | Epomophorus wahlbergi | |
[38] | |
| Cape mole-rat | 26,000,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (cortex) | Georychus capensis | |
[43] | |
| Guyenne spiny rat | 26,000,000 | ± 2,155,723[40] | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (cortex) | Proechimys cayennensis | [40] | |
| Eastern rock elephant shrew | 26,000,000 | ± 4,020,000[40] | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (cortex) | Elephantulus myurus | |
[40] |
| Eastern mole | 27,000,000 | ± 5,113,000[40] | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (cortex) | Scalopus aquaticus | |
[40] |
| Opossum | 27,000,000^ | Estimated | Pallium (cortex) | Didelphis virginiana |  |
[63] | |
| Egyptian fruit bat | 29,000,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (cortex) | Rousettus aegyptiacus | |
[38] | |
| Brown Rat | 31,000,000 | + 3,034,654[40] | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (cortex) | Rattus norvegicus |  |
[40] |
| Four-toed elephant shrew | 34,000,000 | ± 5,840,000[40] | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (cortex) | Petrodromus tetradactylus | |
[40] |
| Grey partridge | 36,882,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (DVR) | Perdix perdix | |
[31] | |
| Ferret | 38,950,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (cortex) | Mustela putorius furo |  |
[48] | |
| Northern bobwhite | 39,112,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (DVR) | Colinus virginianus | |
[31] | |
| African collared dove | 39,997,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (DVR) | Streptopelia roseogrisea |  |
[31] | |
| Cape dune mole-rat | 43,000,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (cortex) | Bathyergus suillus | |
[43] | |
| Guinea pig | 43,510,000 | ± 3,169,924[40] | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (cortex) | Cavia porcellus |  |
[37] |
| Quebracho crested tinamou | 48,292,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (DVR) | Eudromia formosa | |
[31] | |
| Common wood pigeon | 51,325,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (DVR) | Columba palumbus |  |
[31] | |
| Elegant crested tinamou | 51,384,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (DVR) | Eudromia elegans | |
[31] | |
| Eurasian blackcap | 52,000,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (DVR) | Sylvia atricapilla | |
[44] | |
| Prairie dog | 53,770,000 | ± 6,044,322[40] | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (cortex) | Genus:Cynomys |  |
[37] |
| Zebra finch | 55,000,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (DVR) | Taeniopygia guttata |  |
[44] | |
| Chilean tinamou | 59,130,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (DVR) | Nothoprocta perdicaria | |
[31] | |
| Common treeshrew | 60,000,000 | ± 26,510,000[40] | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (cortex) | Tupaia glis | |
[40] |
| Red junglefowl | 61,000,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (DVR) | Gallus gallus |  |
[44] | |
| Goldcrest | 64,000,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (DVR) | Regulus regulus |  |
[44] | |
| European rabbit | 71,450,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (cortex) | Oryctolagus cuniculus | |
[37] | |
| Rock dove | 72,000,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (DVR) | Columba livia |  |
[44] | |
| Eastern gray squirrel | 77,330,000 | ± 2,634,444[40] | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (cortex) | Sciurius carolinensis |  |
[37] |
| Reeves's pheasant | 80,688,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (DVR) | Syrmaticus reevesii |  |
[31] | |
| Great tit | 83,000,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (DVR) | Parus major | |
[44] | |
| Eurasian sparrowhawk | 87,832,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (DVR) | Accipiter nisus | |
[31] | |
| Western tree hyrax | 99,000,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (cortex) | Dendrohyrax dorsalis | |
[40] | |
| Green-rumped parrotlet | 103,000,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (DVR) | Forpus passerinus |  |
[44] | |
| Wild turkey | 105,654,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (DVR) | Meleagris gallopavo | |
[31] | |
| Mallard | 112,255,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (DVR) | Anas platyrhynchos | |
[31] | |
| Black-rumped agouti | 113,000,000 | ± 2,576,768[40] | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (cortex) | Dasyprocta prymnolopha | |
[1] |
| Banded mongoose | 115,770,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (cortex) | Mungos mungo |  |
[48] | |
| Victoria crowned pigeon | 118,445,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (DVR) | Goura victoria | |
[31] | |
| Yellow-knobbed curassow | 124,624,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (DVR) | Crax daubentoni |  |
[31] | |
| Indian peafowl | 129,621,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (DVR) | Pavo cristatus |  |
[31] | |
| Marbled duck | 130,142,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (DVR) | Marmaronetta angustirostris | |
[31] | |
| Pygmy falcon | 131,898,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (DVR) | Polihierax semitorquatus |  |
[31] | |
| Common blackbird | 136,000,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (DVR) | Turdus merula | |
[44] | |
| Wood duck | 138,206,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (DVR) | Aix sponsa |  |
[31] | |
| Red-breasted goose | 148,617,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (DVR) | Branta ruficollis | |
[31] | |
| Budgerigar | 149,000,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (DVR) | Melopsittacus undulatus |  |
[44] | |
| Eurasian teal | 167,287,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (DVR) | Anas crecca |  |
[31] | |
| Rock hyrax | 198,000,000 | ± 29,082,000[40] | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (cortex) | Procavia capensis | |
[40] |
| Northern greater galago | 226,000,000 | ± 87,570,000[40] | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (cortex) | Otolemur garnettii | .jpg) |
[40] |
| Common starling | 226,000,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (DVR) | Sturnus vulgaris |  |
[44] | |
| Common kestrel | 237,903,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (DVR) | Falco tinnunculus | |
[31] | |
| Raccoon dog | 240,180,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (cortex) | Nyctereutes procyonoides | .jpg) |
[51] | |
| Common marmoset | 245,000,000 | ± 81,180,000[40] | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (cortex) | Callithrix jacchus | |
[40] |
| House cat | 249,830,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (cortex) | Felis catus | |
[48] | |
| Brown bear | 250,970,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (cortex) | Ursus arctos | _running.jpg) |
[48] | |
| Cockatiel | 258,000,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (DVR) | Nymphicus hollandicus |  |
[44] | |
| Greylag goose | 258,650,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (DVR) | Anser anser | |
[31] | |
| Capybara | 306,500,000 | ± 62,726,120[40] | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (cortex) | Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris |  |
[37] |
| Tarsius | 310,000,000 | Estimated | Pallium (cortex) | Genus: Tarsius, unknown species |  |
[64] | |
| Mute swan | 323,661,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (DVR) | Cygnus olor | |
[31] | |
| Greater rhea | 330,342,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (DVR) | Rhea americana | |
[31] | |
| Eastern rosella | 333,000,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (DVR) | Platycercus eximius |  |
[44] | |
| Common buzzard | 351,700,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (DVR) | Buteo buteo |  |
[31] | |
| Red fox | 355,010,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (cortex) | Vulpes vulpes |  |
[51] | |
| Goeldi's marmoset | 357,130,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (cortex) | Callimico goeldii |  |
[46] | |
| Eurasian pygmy owl | 364,000,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (DVR) | Glaucidium passerinum | |
[31] | |
| Western grey kangaroo | 370,170,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (cortex) | Macropus fuliginosus |  |
[65] | |
| Golden jackal | 393,620,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (cortex) | Canis aureus |  |
[51] | |
| Monk parakeet | 396,000,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (DVR) | Myiopsitta monachus |  |
[44] | |
| Springbok | 396,900,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (cortex) | Antidorcas marsupialis | |
[52] | |
| Black vulture | 398,899,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (DVR) | Coragyps atratus |  |
[31] | |
| Azure-winged magpie | 400,000,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (DVR) | Cyanopica cyanus |  |
[44] | |
| Little owl | 400,822,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (DVR) | Athene noctua |  |
[31] | |
| Common hill myna | 410,000,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (DVR) | Gracula religiosa |  |
[44] | |
| Domesticated pig | 425,000,000* | Optical fractionator | Pallium (cortex) | Sus scrofa domesticus |  |
[66] | |
| Barn owl | 437,000,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (DVR) | Tyto alba |  |
[44] | |
| Emu | 439,000,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (DVR) | Dromaius novaehollandiae |  |
[44] | |
| West Highland White Terrier | 440,160,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (cortex) | Canis lupus familiaris |  |
[51] | |
| Three-striped night monkey | 442,000,000 | ± 111,310,000[40] | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (cortex) | Aotus trivirgatus |  |
[1] |
| Saker falcon | 442,946,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (DVR) | Falco cherrug | .jpg) |
[31] | |
| Eurasian magpie | 443,000,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (DVR) | Pica pica |  |
[44] | |
| Raccoon | 453,000,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (cortex) | Procyon lotor | .jpg) |
[61] | |
| Chow Chow | 471,500,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (cortex) | Canis lupus familiaris | |
[51] | |
| Common ostrich | 479,410,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (DVR) | Struthio camelus | ,_cabo_de_Buena_Esparanza,_Sud%C3%A1frica,_2018-07-23,_DD_87.jpg) |
[31] | |
| Western jackdaw | 492,000,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (DVR) | Coloeus monedula |  |
[44] | |
| Striped hyena | 495,280,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (cortex) | Hyaena hyaena |  |
[48] | |
| Chihuahua | 513,330,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (cortex) | Canis lupus familiaris | |
[51] | |
| Eurasian jay | 529,000,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (DVR) | Garrulus glandarius |  |
[44] | |
| White-tailed eagle | 542,926,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (DVR) | Haliaeetus albicilla | |
[31] | |
| Lion | 545,240,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (cortex) | Panthera leo |  |
[48] | |
| Blesbok | 570,670,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (cortex) | Damaliscus pygargus phillipsi |  |
[52] | |
| Yorkshire Terrier | 572,140,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (cortex) | Canis lupus familiaris |  |
[51] | |
| Alexandrine parakeet | 575,000,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (DVR) | Psittacula eupatria | ,_Jurong_Bird_Park,_Singapore_-_20090613.jpg) |
[44] | |
| Tanimbar corella | 599,000,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (DVR) | Cacatua goffiniana |  |
[44] | |
| Golden retriever | 627,000,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (cortex) | Canis lupus familiaris | .jpg) |
[48] | |
| Gracile capuchin monkey | 650,000,000^ | Estimated | Pallium (cortex) | Genus: Cebus |  |
[67] | |
| Long-eared owl | 673,000,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (DVR) | Asio otus | |
[31] | |
| Transylvanian Hound | 725,760,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (cortex) | Canis lupus familiaris |  |
[51] | |
| Greater kudu | 762,570,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (cortex) | Tragelaphus strepsiceros | |
[52] | |
| Crab-eating macaque | 800,960,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (cortex) | Macaca fascicularis |  |
[46] | |
| Rook | 820,000,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (DVR) | Corvus frugilegus |  |
[44] | |
| Beagle | 844,410,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (cortex) | Canis lupus familiaris |  |
[51] | |
| Grey parrot | 850,000,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (DVR) | Psittacus erithacus |  |
[44] | |
| Komondor | 883,380,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (cortex) | Canis lupus familiaris |  |
[51] | |
| German Shepherd | 885,460,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (cortex) | Canis lupus familiaris | |
[51] | |
| Sulphur-crested cockatoo | 1,135,000,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (DVR) | Cacatua galerita | |
[44] | |
| Tufted capuchin | 1,140,000,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (cortex) | Sapajus apella | |
[40][1] | |
| Tawny owl | 1,153,000,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (DVR) | Strix aluco |  |
[31] | |
| Harp seal | 1,168,000,000^
6,100,000,000* |
Estimated
Optical fractionator |
Pallium (cortex) | Pagophilus groenlandicus |  |
[68][69] | |
| Horse | 1,200,000,000* | Optical fractionator | Pallium (cortex) | Equus ferus caballus |  |
[70] | |
| Raven | 1,204,000,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (DVR) | Corvus corax |  |
[44] | |
| Snowy owl | 1,270,000,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (DVR) | Bubo scandiacus | |
[31] | |
| Kea | 1,281,000,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (DVR) | Nestor notabilis |  |
[44] | |
| Eurasian eagle-owl | 1,328,000,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (DVR) | Bubo bubo |  |
[31] | |
| Common squirrel monkey | 1,340,000,000 | ± 20,000,000[40] | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (cortex) | Saimiri sciureus |  |
[40] |
| Bonnet macaque | 1,660,000,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (cortex) | Macaca radiata | .jpg) |
[40] | |
| Rhesus macaque | 1,710,000,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (cortex) | Macaca mulatta | | ||
| Giraffe | 1,731,000,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (cortex) | Giraffa camelopardalis |  |
[52] | |
| Blue and yellow macaw | 1,900,000,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (DVR) | Ara ararauna | _Weltvogelpark_Walsrode_2010.jpg) |
[44] | |
| Pygmy sperm whale | 2,020,000,000* | Optical fractionator | Pallium (cortex) | Kogia breviceps |  |
[71] | |
| Leopard seal | 2,386,000,000^ | Estimated | Pallium (cortex) | Hydrurga leptonyx |  |
[68] | |
| Guenon | 2,500,000,000^ | Estimated | Pallium (cortex) | Genus: Cercopithecus, unknown species |  |
[64] | |
| Pigtail Macaque | 2,531,000,000^ | Estimated | Pallium (cortex) | Macaca nemestrina |  |
[68] | |
| Gelada baboon | 2,568,000,000^ | Estimated | Pallium (cortex) | Theropithecus gelada | _juvenile_male.jpg) |
[68] | |
| Red-and-green macaw | 2,646,000,000^ | Estimated | Pallium (DVR) | Ara chloropterus |  |
[68] | |
| Harbor porpoise | 2,750,000,000* | Optical fractionator | Pallium (cortex) | Phocoena phocoena | .jpg) |
[68][69] | |
| Yellow baboon | 2,880,000,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (cortex) | Papio cynocephalus |  |
[46] | |
| Hyacinth macaw | 2,944,000,000^ | Estimated | Pallium (DVR) | Anodorhynchus hyacinthinus | _feeding_on_palm_nuts_..._-_Flickr_-_berniedup.jpg) |
[68] | |
| Hamadryas baboon | 2,990,000,000^ | Estimated | Pallium (cortex) | Papio hamadryas | _female.jpg) |
[68] | |
| Mandrill | 3,102,000,000^ | Estimated | Pallium (cortex) | Mandrillus sphinx | ,_Berlin_Zoo.jpg) |
[68] | |
| Walrus | 3,929,000,000^ | Estimated | Pallium (cortex) | Odobenus rosmarus |  |
[68] | |
| Southern elephant seal | 3,994,000,000^ | Estimated | Pallium (cortex) | Mirounga leonina | .jpg) |
[68] | |
| African elephant | 5,600,000,000 | Isotropic fractionator | Pallium (cortex) | Loxodonta africana |  |
[59] | |
| Short-beaked common dolphin | 6,700,000,000* | Optical fractionator | Pallium (cortex) | Delphinus delphis | _(14825276609).jpg) |
[68][71] | |
| Asian elephant | 6,775,000,000^ | Estimated | Pallium (cortex) | Elephas maximus |  |
[68] | |
| Pygmy chimpanzee or bonobo | 7,250,000,000^ | Estimated | Pallium (cortex) | Pan paniscus |  |
[68] | |
| Chimpanzee | 7,400,000,000* | Optical fractionator | Pallium (cortex) | Pan troglodytes | _(7068198095)_(cropped).jpg) |
[72] | |
| Orangutan | 7,704,000,000^ - 8,900,000,000^ | Estimated | Pallium (cortex) | Genus: Pongo | |
[68][54] | |
| Western gorilla | 9,100,000,000^ | Estimated | Pallium (cortex) | Gorilla gorilla |  |
[68][54] | |
| Cuvier's beaked whale | 9,100,000,000* | Optical fractionator | Pallium (cortex) | Ziphius cavirostris | .jpg) |
[71] | |
| Beluga whale | 10,000,000,000^ | Estimated | Pallium (cortex) | Delphinapterus leucas |  |
[68] | |
| Bottlenose dolphin | 12,700,000,000* | Optical fractionator | Pallium (cortex) | Tursiops truncatus |  |
[68][71] | |
| Common minke whale | 3,134,000,000
12,800,000,000* |
Isotropic fractionator
Optical fractionator |
Pallium (cortex) | Balaenoptera acutorostrata | .jpg) |
[55][73] | |
| Fin whale | 15,000,000,000* | Optical fractionator | Pallium (cortex) | Balaenoptera physalus |  |
[68][74] | |
| Blue whale | 15,000,000,000^ | Estimated | Pallium (cortex) | Balaenoptera musculus |  |
[68] | |
| Human | 16,340,000,000
21,000,000,000* |
± 2,170,000,000[40] | Isotropic fractionator
Optical fractionator |
Pallium (cortex) | Homo sapiens | |
[40][56][1][75][76] |
| Risso's dolphin | 18,750,000,000^ | Estimated | Pallium (cortex) | Grampus griseus |  |
[68] | |
| Short-finned pilot whale | 11,850,000,000
35,000,000,000^ |
Isotropic fractionator
Estimated |
Pallium (cortex) | Globicephala macrorhynchus | _(8604841637).jpg) |
[68][55] | |
| Long-finned pilot whale | 37,200,000,000* | Optical fractionator | Pallium (cortex) | Globicephala melas |  |
[77] | |
| Orca | 43,100,000,000* | Optical fractionator | Pallium (cortex) | Orcinus orca |  |
[68][71] |
See also
- Lists of animals
- Theory of mind in animals
- Brain size
- Brain–body mass ratio
- Encephalization quotient
- Connectome
- Connectomics
- Cranial capacity
- :fr:Noogenèse
- Neuroscience and intelligence
Notes
References
- ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 "The human brain in numbers: a linearly scaled-up primate brain". Frontiers in Human Neuroscience 3: 31. 9 November 2009. doi:10.3389/neuro.09.031.2009. PMID 19915731.
- ↑ "How many neurons make a human brain? Billions fewer than we thought". The Guardian. 28 February 2012. https://www.theguardian.com/science/blog/2012/feb/28/how-many-neurons-human-brain.
- ↑ Eryomin, A. L. (2022). Biophysics of Evolution of Intellectual Systems. Biophysics, 67(2), 320-326.
- ↑ Sherwood L, Klandorf H and Yancey P (2012) Animal Physiology: From Genes to Organisms Cengage Learning, p. 150. ISBN:9781133709510.
- ↑ "Coordinated Feeding Behavior in Trichoplax, an Animal without Synapses". PLOS ONE 10 (9): e0136098. 2015. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0136098. PMID 26333190. Bibcode: 2015PLoSO..1036098S.
- Coordinated Feeding Behavior in Trichoplax, an Animal without Synapses. PLoS ONE. 2015 – via YouTube.
- ↑ "My favorite animal, Trichoplax adhaerens". BioEssays 27 (12): 1294–302. December 2005. doi:10.1002/bies.20320. PMID 16299758.
- ↑ Three-dimensional reconstruction from serial sections. International Review of Cytology. 40. 1975. pp. 325–440. doi:10.1016/S0074-7696(08)60956-0. ISBN 9780123643407.
- ↑ "The nervous and visual systems of onychophorans and tardigrades: learning about arthropod evolution from their closest relatives". Journal of Comparative Physiology A: Neuroethology, Sensory, Neural & Behavioral Physiology 203 (8): 565–590. August 2017. doi:10.1007/s00359-017-1186-4. PMID 28600600. http://bib-pubdb1.desy.de/record/401705/files/Martin_et_al.pdf.
- ↑ "The CNS connectome of a tadpole larva of Ciona intestinalis (L.) highlights sidedness in the brain of a chordate sibling". eLife 5: e16962. December 2016. doi:10.7554/eLife.16962. PMID 27921996.
- ↑ "The peripheral nervous system of the ascidian tadpole larva: Types of neurons and their synaptic networks". The Journal of Comparative Neurology 526 (4): 583–608. March 2018. doi:10.1002/cne.24353. PMID 29124768.
- ↑ "The structure of the nervous system of the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences 314 (1165): 1–340. November 1986. doi:10.1098/rstb.1986.0056. PMID 22462104. Bibcode: 1986RSPTB.314....1W.
- ↑ "Getting into the mind of a worm--a personal view". WormBook: 1–10. June 2013. doi:10.1895/wormbook.1.158.1. PMID 23801597.
- ↑ "The Connectome Debate: Is Mapping the Mind of a Worm Worth It?". Scientific American. 2012-10-02. https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/c-elegans-connectome/. Retrieved 2014-01-18.
- ↑ "Quantitative analysis of cell types during growth and morphogenesis in Hydra". Wilhelm Roux' Archiv für Entwicklungsmechanik der Organismen 171 (4): 269–285. December 1973. doi:10.1007/BF00577725. PMID 28304608. http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bvb:19-epub-3350-0.
- ↑ "The smallest insects evolve anucleate neurons". Arthropod Structure & Development 41 (1): 29–34. January 2012. doi:10.1016/j.asd.2011.09.001. PMID 22078364.
- ↑ "The ring nerve of the box jellyfish Tripedalia cystophora". Cell and Tissue Research 329 (1): 147–57. July 2007. doi:10.1007/s00441-007-0393-7. PMID 17340150.
- ↑ "Glia in the Leech Central Nervous System: Physiological Properties and Neuron-Glia Relationship". Journal of Neurophysiology 27 (2): 290–320. March 1964. doi:10.1152/jn.1964.27.2.290. PMID 14129773.
- ↑ "Evolution of the brain and intelligence". Trends in Cognitive Sciences 9 (5): 250–7. May 2005. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2005.03.005. PMID 15866152. as PDF
- ↑ "A quantitative analysis of the development of the central nervous system in juvenile Aplysia californica". Journal of Neurobiology 20 (1): 25–47. January 1989. doi:10.1002/neu.480200104. PMID 2921607.
- ↑ The Long Evolution of Brains and Minds. Springer Science & Business Media. 3 June 2013. p. 121. ISBN 978-94-007-6259-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=LWI_AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA121. Retrieved 9 December 2015.
- ↑ Alkaloids: Chemistry, Biology, Ecology, and Applications. Elsevier Science. 25 April 2015. p. 316. ISBN 978-0-444-59462-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=tQ6dBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA316. Retrieved 9 December 2015.
- ↑ Scientists Capture All The Neurons Firing Across A Fish's Brain On Video Popular Science, 19 March 2013.
- ↑ Azevedo, Anthony; Lesser, Ellen; Mark, Brandon; Phelps, Jasper; Elabbady, Leila; Kuroda, Sumiya; Sustar, Anne; Moussa, Anthony et al. (2022-12-15) (in en). Tools for comprehensive reconstruction and analysis of Drosophila motor circuits. pp. 2022.12.15.520299. doi:10.1101/2022.12.15.520299. https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2022.12.15.520299v1.
- ↑ "In a 'tour de force', researchers image an entire fly brain in minute detail". July 19, 2018. https://www.science.org/content/article/tour-de-force-researchers-image-entire-fly-brain-minute-detail.
- ↑ "Neuroanatomy of the central nervous system of the wandering spider, Cupiennius salei (Arachnida, Araneida)". Zoomorphology 104 (6): 344–359. 1984. doi:10.1007/BF00312185.
- ↑ 26.0 26.1 26.2 26.3 26.4 26.5 26.6 "Allometric analysis of brain cell number in Hymenoptera suggests ant brains diverge from general trends". Proceedings. Biological Sciences 288 (1947): 20210199. March 2021. doi:10.1098/rspb.2021.0199. PMID 33757353.
- ↑ John and Sarah Tefl. "Interesting Facts About Ants". http://www.lingolex.com/ants.htm.
- ↑ "Cognitive architecture of a mini-brain: the honeybee". Trends in Cognitive Sciences 5 (2): 62–71. February 2001. doi:10.1016/S1364-6613(00)01601-6. PMID 11166636.
- ↑ "A Strange Approach to Social Interaction, and Butterflies". Anthropology.net. January 10, 2007. http://anthropology.net/user/lexis2praxis/blog/2007/01/11/a_strange_approach_to_social_interaction_and_butterflies.
- ↑ "Brain architecture of the largest living land arthropod, the Giant Robber Crab Birgus latro (Crustacea, Anomura, Coenobitidae): evidence for a prominent central olfactory pathway?". Frontiers in Zoology 7 (1): 25. September 2010. doi:10.1186/1742-9994-7-25. PMID 20831795.
- ↑ 31.000 31.001 31.002 31.003 31.004 31.005 31.006 31.007 31.008 31.009 31.010 31.011 31.012 31.013 31.014 31.015 31.016 31.017 31.018 31.019 31.020 31.021 31.022 31.023 31.024 31.025 31.026 31.027 31.028 31.029 31.030 31.031 31.032 31.033 31.034 31.035 31.036 31.037 31.038 31.039 31.040 31.041 31.042 31.043 31.044 31.045 31.046 31.047 31.048 31.049 31.050 31.051 31.052 31.053 31.054 31.055 31.056 31.057 31.058 31.059 31.060 31.061 31.062 31.063 31.064 31.065 31.066 31.067 31.068 31.069 31.070 31.071 31.072 31.073 31.074 31.075 31.076 31.077 31.078 31.079 31.080 31.081 31.082 31.083 31.084 31.085 31.086 31.087 31.088 31.089 31.090 31.091 31.092 31.093 31.094 31.095 31.096 31.097 31.098 31.099 31.100 31.101 31.102 31.103 31.104 31.105 31.106 31.107 31.108 31.109 31.110 31.111 31.112 31.113 31.114 31.115 31.116 31.117 31.118 31.119 31.120 31.121 31.122 31.123 31.124 31.125 31.126 31.127 31.128 31.129 31.130 31.131 31.132 31.133 31.134 31.135 31.136 31.137 31.138 31.139 31.140 31.141 31.142 31.143 31.144 31.145 31.146 31.147 31.148 31.149 31.150 31.151 31.152 31.153 31.154 31.155 31.156 31.157 31.158 31.159 31.160 31.161 31.162 31.163 31.164 31.165 31.166 31.167 31.168 31.169 31.170 31.171 31.172 31.173 31.174 31.175 31.176 31.177 31.178 31.179 Kverková, Kristina; Marhounová, Lucie; Polonyiová, Alexandra; Kocourek, Martin; Zhang, Yicheng; Olkowicz, Seweryn; Straková, Barbora; Pavelková, Zuzana et al. (2022-03-15). "The evolution of brain neuron numbers in amniotes" (in en). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 119 (11): e2121624119. doi:10.1073/pnas.2121624119. ISSN 0027-8424. PMID 35254911. Bibcode: 2022PNAS..11921624K.
- ↑ 32.0 32.1 "Peeking Inside the Lizard Brain: Neuron Numbers in Anolis and Its Implications for Cognitive Performance and Vertebrate Brain Evolution". Integrative and Comparative Biology 63: 223–237. September 2020. doi:10.1093/icb/icaa129. PMID 33175153.
- ↑ "Artificial selection on brain size leads to matching changes in overall number of neurons". Evolution; International Journal of Organic Evolution 73 (9): 2003–2012. September 2019. doi:10.1111/evo.13805. PMID 31339177.
- ↑ "Individual and age-related variation of cellular brain composition in a squamate reptile". Biology Letters 16 (9): 20200280. September 2020. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2020.0280. PMID 32961085.
- ↑ "Generation and long-term persistence of new neurons in the adult zebrafish brain: a quantitative analysis". Neuroscience 146 (2): 679–96. May 2007. doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2007.01.071. PMID 17395385.
- ↑ "Frog Brain Neuron Number". http://www.neurocomputing.org/Amphibian.aspx.
- ↑ 37.00 37.01 37.02 37.03 37.04 37.05 37.06 37.07 37.08 37.09 37.10 "Updated neuronal scaling rules for the brains of Glires (rodents/lagomorphs)". Brain, Behavior and Evolution 78 (4): 302–14. 2011. doi:10.1159/000330825. PMID 21985803.
- ↑ 38.00 38.01 38.02 38.03 38.04 38.05 38.06 38.07 38.08 38.09 38.10 38.11 38.12 38.13 38.14 38.15 38.16 38.17 38.18 38.19 38.20 38.21 38.22 38.23 38.24 38.25 "Microchiropterans have a diminutive cerebral cortex, not an enlarged cerebellum, compared to megachiropterans and other mammals". The Journal of Comparative Neurology 528 (17): 2978–2993. December 2020. doi:10.1002/cne.24985. PMID 32656795.
- ↑ 39.0 39.1 39.2 39.3 Evolution of the Primate Brain: From Neuron to Behavior. Elsevier. 2 March 2012. p. 425. ISBN 978-0-444-53860-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=NZ19UiDPosEC&pg=PA425.
- ↑ 40.00 40.01 40.02 40.03 40.04 40.05 40.06 40.07 40.08 40.09 40.10 40.11 40.12 40.13 40.14 40.15 40.16 40.17 40.18 40.19 40.20 40.21 40.22 40.23 40.24 40.25 40.26 40.27 40.28 40.29 40.30 40.31 40.32 40.33 40.34 40.35 40.36 40.37 40.38 40.39 40.40 40.41 40.42 40.43 40.44 40.45 40.46 40.47 40.48 40.49 40.50 40.51 40.52 40.53 Cite error: Invalid
<ref>tag; no text was provided for refs namedH-Houzel2015 - ↑ 41.0 41.1 41.2 41.3 41.4 41.5 "Cellular scaling rules for rodent brains". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 103 (32): 12138–43. August 2006. doi:10.1073/pnas.0604911103. PMID 16880386. Bibcode: 2006PNAS..10312138H.
- ↑ 42.0 42.1 "Continued Growth of the Central Nervous System without Mandatory Addition of Neurons in the Nile Crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus)". Brain, Behavior and Evolution 87 (1): 19–38. 2016. doi:10.1159/000443201. PMID 26914769.
- ↑ 43.00 43.01 43.02 43.03 43.04 43.05 43.06 43.07 43.08 43.09 43.10 43.11 43.12 43.13 "Sociality does not drive the evolution of large brains in eusocial African mole-rats" (in En). Scientific Reports 8 (1): 9203. June 2018. doi:10.1038/s41598-018-26062-8. PMID 29907782. Bibcode: 2018NatSR...8.9203K.
- ↑ 44.00 44.01 44.02 44.03 44.04 44.05 44.06 44.07 44.08 44.09 44.10 44.11 44.12 44.13 44.14 44.15 44.16 44.17 44.18 44.19 44.20 44.21 44.22 44.23 44.24 44.25 44.26 44.27 44.28 44.29 44.30 44.31 44.32 44.33 44.34 44.35 44.36 44.37 44.38 44.39 44.40 44.41 44.42 44.43 44.44 44.45 44.46 44.47 44.48 44.49 44.50 44.51 44.52 44.53 44.54 44.55 44.56 "Birds have primate-like numbers of neurons in the forebrain". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 113 (26): 7255–60. June 2016. doi:10.1073/pnas.1517131113. PMID 27298365.
- ↑ 45.0 45.1 "Isotropic fractionator: a simple, rapid method for the quantification of total cell and neuron numbers in the brain". The Journal of Neuroscience 25 (10): 2518–21. March 2005. doi:10.1523/jneurosci.4526-04.2005. PMID 15758160.
- ↑ 46.0 46.1 46.2 46.3 46.4 46.5 46.6 46.7 46.8 "Cellular scaling rules for the brains of an extended number of primate species". Brain, Behavior and Evolution 76 (1): 32–44. 2010. doi:10.1159/000319872. PMID 20926854.
- ↑ 47.0 47.1 47.2 47.3 47.4 47.5 47.6 47.7 "Cellular scaling rules for primate brains". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 104 (9): 3562–7. February 2007. doi:10.1073/pnas.0611396104. PMID 17360682. Bibcode: 2007PNAS..104.3562H.
- ↑ 48.00 48.01 48.02 48.03 48.04 48.05 48.06 48.07 48.08 48.09 48.10 48.11 48.12 48.13 "Dogs Have the Most Neurons, Though Not the Largest Brain: Trade-Off between Body Mass and Number of Neurons in the Cerebral Cortex of Large Carnivoran Species". Frontiers in Neuroanatomy 11: 118. 2017. doi:10.3389/fnana.2017.00118. PMID 29311850.
- ↑ "Brain Facts and Figures". http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/facts.html.
- ↑ "The cat is out of the bag: cortical simulations with 109 neurons, 1013 synapses". Proceedings of the Conference on High Performance Computing Networking, Storage and Analysis - SC '09. 2009. pp. 1–12. doi:10.1145/1654059.1654124. ISBN 978-1-60558-744-8.
- ↑ 51.00 51.01 51.02 51.03 51.04 51.05 51.06 51.07 51.08 51.09 51.10 51.11 51.12 51.13 51.14 51.15 51.16 51.17 51.18 51.19 51.20 Salajková V (2020-02-03). Pravidla buněčného škálování mozku u psů: Efekt domestikace a miniaturizace psích plemen (Thesis) (in čeština). Univerzita Karlova.
- ↑ 52.0 52.1 52.2 52.3 52.4 52.5 52.6 52.7 52.8 52.9 "Corrigendum: Cellular scaling rules for the brain of Artiodactyla include a highly folded cortex with few neurons". Frontiers in Neuroanatomy 9: 39. 2015. doi:10.3389/fnana.2015.00039. PMID 25859187.
- ↑ 53.0 53.1 "The remarkable, yet not extraordinary, human brain as a scaled-up primate brain and its associated cost". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 109 (Suppl 1): 10661–8. June 2012. doi:10.1073/pnas.1201895109. PMID 22723358.
- ↑ 54.0 54.1 54.2 54.3 54.4 "Gorilla and orangutan brains conform to the primate cellular scaling rules: implications for human evolution". Brain, Behavior and Evolution 77 (1): 33–44. 2011. doi:10.1159/000322729. PMID 21228547.
- ↑ 55.0 55.1 55.2 55.3 "Plataforma Sucupira". https://sucupira.capes.gov.br/sucupira/public/consultas/coleta/trabalhoConclusao/viewTrabalhoConclusao.jsf?popup=true&id_trabalho=6349577.
- ↑ 56.0 56.1 56.2 "Equal numbers of neuronal and nonneuronal cells make the human brain an isometrically scaled-up primate brain". The Journal of Comparative Neurology 513 (5): 532–41. April 2009. doi:10.1002/cne.21974. PMID 19226510.
- ↑ 57.0 57.1 "The remarkable, yet not extraordinary, human brain as a scaled-up primate brain and its associated cost". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 109 Suppl 1 (Supplement_1): 10661–8. June 2012. doi:10.1073/pnas.1201895109. PMID 22723358.
- ↑ "Structural and functional organization of mammalian cerebral cortex; the correlation of neurone density with brain size; cortical neurone density in the fin whale (Balaenoptera physalus L.) with a note on the cortical neurone density in the Indian elephant". The Journal of Comparative Neurology 101 (1): 19–51. August 1954. doi:10.1002/cne.901010103. PMID 13211853.
- ↑ 59.0 59.1 59.2 "The elephant brain in numbers". Frontiers in Neuroanatomy 8: 46. 2014. doi:10.3389/fnana.2014.00046. PMID 24971054.
- ↑ "Searching For The Elephant's Genius Inside the Largest Brain on Land". Scientificamerica. 26 February 2014. http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/brainwaves/searching-for-the-elephants-genius-inside-the-largest-brain-on-land/.
- ↑ 61.0 61.1 "Behind the Mask: Neurobiological indicants of emotional resilience and cognitive function in wild raccoons (Procyon lotor)". Society for Neuroscience. 2014. http://www.abstractsonline.com/Plan/ViewAbstract.aspx?sKey=48d9bb42-832e-444b-82b8-8ea903069fa8&cKey=3d5be0a8-3a7b-4c7d-a18c-ce72d34b8b26&mKey=54c85d94-6d69-4b09-afaa-502c0e680ca7.
- ↑ 62.0 62.1 62.2 62.3 "What do the mushroom bodies do for the insect brain? an introduction". Learning & Memory 5 (1–2): 1–10. May 1998. doi:10.1101/lm.5.1.1. PMID 10454369.
- ↑ 63.0 63.1 The Theory of Evolution and Its Impact. Springer. 30 November 2011. p. 182. ISBN 978-88-470-1973-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=_zZ20TIownIC&pg=PA182.
- ↑ 64.0 64.1 The neurosciences. Rockefeller University Press. 1967. p. 732. GGKEY:DF21HXQKLNX. https://books.google.com/books?id=JJLqUvnKGSAC&pg=PA732.
- ↑ "Cellular Scaling Rules for the Brains of Marsupials: Not as "Primitive" as Expected". Brain, Behavior and Evolution 89 (1): 48–63. 2017. doi:10.1159/000452856. PMID 28125804. Table S1: Cellular composition of the Marsupial brains.
- ↑ Phillips, Kathryn (2006). "Learning from Pig Brains". Journal of Experimental Biology 209 (8): ii. doi:10.1242/jeb.02215. http://jeb.biologists.org/content/209/8/ii.full. Retrieved 15 July 2015.
- ↑ Evolution of the Primate Brain: From Neuron to Behavior. Elsevier. 2 March 2012. p. 424. ISBN 978-0-444-53867-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=aV3aTfHQQ1kC&pg=PA424.
- ↑ 68.00 68.01 68.02 68.03 68.04 68.05 68.06 68.07 68.08 68.09 68.10 68.11 68.12 68.13 68.14 68.15 68.16 68.17 68.18 68.19 68.20 68.21 68.22 "Longevity and sexual maturity vary across species with number of cortical neurons, and humans are no exception". The Journal of Comparative Neurology 527 (10): 1689–1705. July 2019. doi:10.1002/cne.24564. PMID 30350858.
- ↑ 69.0 69.1 "A neurological comparative study of the harp seal (Pagophilus groenlandicus) and harbor porpoise (Phocoena phocoena) brain". Anatomical Record 293 (12): 2129–35. December 2010. doi:10.1002/ar.21295. PMID 21077171.
- ↑ "Brain sizes, surfaces, and neuronal sizes of the cortex cerebri: a stereological investigation of man and his variability and a comparison with some mammals (primates, whales, marsupials, insectivores, and one elephant)". The American Journal of Anatomy 180 (2): 126–42. October 1987. doi:10.1002/aja.1001800203. PMID 3673918.
- ↑ 71.0 71.1 71.2 71.3 71.4 "Higher neuron densities in the cerebral cortex and larger cerebellums may limit dive times of delphinids compared to deep-diving toothed whales". PLOS ONE 14 (12): e0226206. 2019-12-16. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0226206. PMID 31841529. Bibcode: 2019PLoSO..1426206R. Note:Total number of neurons listed in "S1 Table: Values from the current studies compared to published values", which downloads when you click on the "Click here for additional data file" in the "Supporting information" section.
- ↑ "Cortical cell and neuron density estimates in one chimpanzee hemisphere". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 113 (3): 740–5. January 2016. doi:10.1073/pnas.1524208113. PMID 26729880. Bibcode: 2016PNAS..113..740C.
- ↑ "Total neocortical cell number in the mysticete brain". Anatomical Record 290 (1): 83–95. January 2007. doi:10.1002/ar.20404. PMID 17441201.
- ↑ Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Working Party on Marine Mammals (1978-01-01). Mammals in the Seas: Report. Food & Agriculture Org.. ISBN 9789251005132. https://books.google.com/books?id=BKaUpfo2XCUC.
- ↑ Steven M. Platek, ed (2009). Evolutionary Cognitive Neuroscience. MIT Press. p. 139. http://www.physiodigest.com/wp-content/uploads/2009/08/mit-press-evolutionary-cognitive-neuroscience-2007.pdf.
- ↑ "Neocortical neuron number in humans: effect of sex and age". The Journal of Comparative Neurology (Wiley‐Liss, Inc.) 384 (2): 312–20. July 1997. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1096-9861(19970728)384:2<312::AID-CNE10>3.0.CO;2-K. PMID 9215725.
- ↑ "Quantitative relationships in delphinid neocortex". Frontiers in Neuroanatomy 8: 132. 2014. doi:10.3389/fnana.2014.00132. PMID 25505387.
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