Biology:Betel

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Short description: Species of plant

Betel
Piper betle plant.jpg
Betel Piper betle.jpg
Scientific classification edit
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Magnoliids
Order: Piperales
Family: Piperaceae
Genus: Piper
Species:
P. betle
Binomial name
Piper betle

The betel, Piper betle, is a species of flowering plant in the pepper family Piperaceae, native to Southeast Asia. It is an evergreen, dioecious[1] vine, with glossy heart-shaped leaves and white catkins. Betel plants are cultivated for their leaves which are most commonly used as flavoring in chewing areca nut (betel nut chewing).

Etymology

The term betel was derived from the Tamil Vetrilai(வெற்றிலை) Malayalam word vettila via Portuguese.[2][3]

Distribution

Piper betle is originally native to Southeast Asia, from India , TamilNadu, Philippines , Timor-Leste and the Lesser Sunda Islands and Peninsular Malaysia to Indochina, Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos, Thailand, and Myanmar. Its cultivation has spread along with the Austronesian migrations and trade to other parts of Island Southeast Asia, Papua New Guinea and Melanesia, Micronesia, South Asia, the Maldives, Mauritius, Réunion Island, and Madagascar . It was introduced during the Colonial Era to the Caribbean.[4][5]

Cultivation

Betel leaf and Areca nut consumption in the world.

The betel leaf is cultivated mostly in South and Southeast Asia, from India [6] to Papua New Guinea.[7] It needs a compatible tree or a long pole for support. Betel requires well-drained fertile soil. Waterlogged, saline and alkali soils are unsuitable for its cultivation.[8]

In Bangladesh, farmers called barui[9] prepare a garden called a barouj in which to grow betel. The barouj is fenced with bamboo sticks and coconut leaves. The soil is plowed into furrows of 10 to 15 m length, 75 cm in width and 75 cm depth. Oil cakes, manure, and leaves are thoroughly incorporated with the topsoil of the furrows and wood ash. The cuttings are planted at the beginning of the monsoon season.

Betel plant cultivation in Bangladesh

Proper shade and irrigation are essential for the successful cultivation of this crop. Betel needs constantly moist soil, but there should not be excessive moisture. Irrigation is frequent and light, and standing water should not remain for more than half an hour.

Dried leaves and wood ash are applied to the furrows at fortnightly intervals and cow dung slurry is sprinkled. Application of different kinds of leaves at monthly intervals is believed advantageous for the growth of the betel. In three to six months, the vines reach 150 to 180 cm in height, and they will branch. Harvest begins with the farmer plucking the leaf and its petiole with his right thumb. The harvest lasts 15 days to one month. The betel plant has made its way to research labs of many Bangladesh chemical and food nutrition companies.

The harvested leaves are consumed locally and exported to other parts of Asia, the Middle East, Europe, and the Americas. Betel is grown and cultivated as an important crop in rural Bangladesh.[citation needed]

Cultural significance

Main page: Chemistry:Betel nut chewing

The primary use of betel leaf is as a wrapper for the chewing of areca nut, or in modern times, tobacco, where it is mainly used to add flavour. The practice originated in the Philippines around 5,000 years ago, where the oldest remains of areca nuts and calcium from crushed sea shells have been found in the Duyong Cave archaeological site. It spread along with the Austronesian migrations to the rest of Southeast Asia, Taiwan, South China, and South Asia. It is unknown when or why betel leaves were first combined with areca nuts, since areca nuts can be chewed alone.[5]

While the practice of chewing Betel leaf existed even before the common era, with attested references from at least the 3rd century CE, the ingredient mix (paan/ betel quid) it was chewed with changed over time.[10] Areca nut, Calcium hydroxide and catechu were the historic ingredients, as referenced in texts from 9th century CE. Tobacco started to feature in the 20th century.[10][11] The practice of chewing betel leaf is on the decline, and now quid consisting of tobacco, areca nut, and limewater, known as gutka, is more popular.[11]

In India and Sri Lanka, a sheaf of betel leaves is traditionally offered as a mark of respect and auspicious beginnings. Occasions include greeting elders at wedding ceremonies, celebrating the New Year, and offering payment to physicians and astrologers, to whom money and/or areca nut, placed on top of the sheaf of leaves, are offered in thanks for blessings. In Bengali weddings,the bride is brought to the groom,seated on a platform and her face covered in betel leaves.

In Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands, the inflorescence stalk of the betel tree, known as daka or "mustard stick", is consumed together with the leaves.[12][13]

It may also be used in cooking, usually raw, for its peppery taste. Use of binglang, or betel, has over a 300-year history in areas of China, where it was once promoted for medicinal use.[14]

Health effects

Epidemiological studies demonstrate a close association between the incidence of cancer in India and the chewing of betel quid containing tobacco, areca nut, limewater and betel leaf.[15] Chewing paan (betel quid) is strongly associated with a higher risk of developing head and neck cancer,[16] as well as oropharyngeal squamous cell carcinoma (OPSCC), a form of cancer that affects the mouth, tonsils, and throat.[17] Attempts have been made to confirm the carcinogenic/ mutagenic of betel quid or its ingredients. Betel leaf extract alone has not been shown to cause adverse effects. Smokeless tobacco products have been shown to exhibit mutagenic and carcinogenic behavior.[18][19]

A scientific study from Japan found that lab rats that ate a mixture of betel leaf and areca nuts had severe thickening of the upper digestive tract, whereas after a diet of betel leaves alone, only one laboratory rat developed a forestomach papilloma.[20] Multiple studies demonstrate that betel quid without added tobacco also causes esophageal cancer, and in some instances, liver cancer.[21]

In a cancer diagnosis patterns study with patients that chewed betel quid with different ingredient combinations, the risk was found to be the highest for those using any form of tobacco.[22] International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) and the World Health Organization (WHO) accept the scientific evidence that chewing tobacco and areca nut is carcinogenic to humans.[23][24][25][26] As with chewing tobacco, chewing betel quid with tobacco and areca nut is discouraged by preventive healthcare efforts.[17]

Reports suggest that betel leaf by itself has beneficial effects, in part because of its anti-mutagenic effects against mutagens (tobacco and areca nut) in betel quid.[15] While earlier studies hypothesized a potential mutagenic role for betel leaf in causing oral cancers, subsequent studies invalidated it by isolating compounds (eugenol and hydroxychavicol) in betel leaf that have anti-mutagenic roles.[27][15] These compounds were also found to reduce the carcinogenic burden imposed by tobacco and areca nut.[28][29][30] Hydroxychavicol is found to demonstrate anti-prostate cancer efficacy in an in vitro (human prostate cancer cells) and in vivo ( BALB/c nude mice) study.[31]

Chemical composition

Chemistry of betel leaf varies geographically and is mostly chavibetol dominant.[1][32] Safrole is a major component of Sri Lankan piper betle.[33] Eugenol, Isoeugenol, and Germacene D are other dominant compounds in other chemotypes.[34]

Leaves also contain eugenol, chavicol, hydroxychavicol[35][36] and caryophyllene[32]

Stems contain phytosterols (beta-sitosterol, beta-daucosterol, stigmasterol etc.), alkaloids (piperine, pellitorine, piperdardine, guineensine etc.), lignan (pinoresinol) and other bioactive components. Some of them are oleanolic acid, dehydropipernonaline, piperolein-B, Bornyl cis-4-Hydroxycinnamate and Bornyl p-Coumarate.[37][38][39][40]

Roots contain aristololactam A-II, a new phenylpropene, 4-allyl resorcinol and a diketosteroid stigmast-4-en-3,6-dione.[41]

Essential oil consisted of 50 different compounds, of which major components are eugenol, caryophyllene, terpinolene, terpinene, cadinene and 3-carene.[42]

Economics

Betel leaves for selling in the market
Betel in Bangladesh
A Bengali woman selling betel leaves in Howrah

Betel vines are cultivated throughout southeast Asia, in plots typically 20 to 2,000 square metres (0.005 to 0.5 acre) in size.

Malaysian farmers cultivate four types of betel plants: sirih India, sirih Melayu, sirih Cina and sirih Udang. The harvest is then sold in bundles of leaves, each bundle costing in 2011 between MYR 0.30 to 0.50 ($0.07 to $0.12).

In Sri Lanka, betel is grown all over the country. Commercial production of betel, with bigger leaves with dark green colour combined with thickness, known as “kalu bulath”, is confined to a few districts, such as Kurunagala, Gampaha, Kegalle, Kalutara and Colombo.[8] These are sold at a wholesaler in lots of 1,000 leaves. According to a report published by the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO),[43] a successful betel farm in Sri Lanka can provide a supplemental income to a farmer by providing six days of work every six months and net income when the leaf prices are attractive.[44]

The FAO study found the successful farm's yield to be 18,000 leaves per 150 square feet (14 m2). The additional salary and income to the Sri Lankan betel grower, assuming he or she provides all needed labor and keeps all net profit, is SL Rs. 1635 per 150 square feet (14 m2) of betel farm every 6 months ($90 per "decimal" per year, or $9000 per acre per year). If the farmer hires outside labor to tend the betel vines and harvest the crop, the net income to the betel farm owner was SL Rs. 735 per 150 square feet (14 m2) of betel farm every six months ($40 per decimal per year, or $4000 per acre per year). The market prices for betel leaves vary with the wet and dry seasons in Sri Lanka, and in 2010 averaged SL Rs. 200–400 per 1,000 leaves ($1.82 to $3.64 per 1000 leaves).[45] The FAO study assumes no losses from erratic weather and no losses during storage and transportation of perishable betel leaves. These losses are usually between 35% to 70%.[46]

In Bangladesh, betel leaf farming yields vary by region and vine variety. In one region where betel leaf cultivation is the main source of income for farmers, a total of 2,825 hectares of land is dedicated to betel vine farming.[47] The average production costs for these betel farms in Bangladesh are about Tk 300,000 per hectare ($4,000 per hectare, $16 per decimal). The farm owners can earn a profit of over Tk 100,000 per hectare ($1,334 per hectare, $5.34 per decimal).

In India, a 2006 research reported[46] betel vines being cultivated on about 55,000 hectares of farmland, with an annual production worth of about IN Rs. 9000 million ($200 million total, averaging $1,455 per acre). The betel farming industry, the report claims, supports about 400,000 – 500,000 agricultural families.

A March 2011 report claims that betel farming is on a decline in India.[48] While in ideal conditions some farms may gross annual incomes after expenses of over IN Rs. 26,000 per 10 decimal farm ($5,780 per acre), a betel farm's income is highly erratic from year to year, due to varying rainfall patterns, temperature, and spoilage rates of 35% to 70% during transport over poor infrastructure.[46] Simultaneously, the demand for betel leaves has been dropping in India due to acceptance of gutkha (chewing tobacco) by consumers over betel leaf-based ‘‘paan’’ preparation.[49] The report cites betel leaf trading has dropped by 65% from 2000 to 2010 and created an oversupply. As a result, the report claims Indian farmers do not find betel farming lucrative anymore.[48]

See also

Objects and Historical Representation

  • Assamese 'Paan-Tamul' tradition.

  • A Phoenix wing shaped- betel leaf plate in Vietnam.

  • Betel bag, New Guinea, nineteenth century MHNT.

  • A Chinese Peasant Selling Betel, 1793-1794, by William Alexander, Department of Prints and Drawings, National Gallery of Art, Washington D.C.

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Rimando, Agnes M.; Han, Byung Hoon; Park, Jeong Hill; Cantoria, Magdalena C. (1986). "Studies on the constituents of Philippine Piper betle leaves". Archives of Pharmacal Research 9 (2): 93–97. doi:10.1007/BF02857217. ISSN 0253-6269. 
  2. ↑ betel (3rd ed.), Oxford University Press, September 2005, http://oed.com/search?searchType=dictionary&q=betel  (Subscription or UK public library membership required.)
  3. ↑ Portuguese Vocables in Asiatic Languages: From the Portuguese Original of M S R Dalgado. New Delhi: Asian Educational Services. 1988. ISBN 812060413X. 
  4. ↑ "Piper betle L.". Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/680605-1. 
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Zumbroich, Thomas J. (2007–2008). "The origin and diffusion of betel chewing: a synthesis of evidence from South Asia, Southeast Asia and beyond". eJournal of Indian Medicine 1: 87–140. https://ugp.rug.nl/eJIM/article/download/24712/22162. 
  6. ↑ "Betel-leaf farming in coastal area". Dawn. 13 May 2002. http://www.dawn.com/news/33381/betel-leaf-farming-in-coastal-area. 
  7. ↑ Cassey, Brian (9 November 2013). "Chewing over a betel ban". Sydney Morning Herald. http://www.smh.com.au/world/chewing-over-a-betel-ban-20131108-2x6ra.html. 
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 Government of Sri Lanka. "Betel – Piper Betle L". http://www.exportagridept.gov.lk/web/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=126&Itemid=159&lang=ta. 
  9. ↑ Karim, ASM Enayet (2012). "Pan1". in Islam, Sirajul; Jamal, Ahmed A. Banglapedia: National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh (Second ed.). Asiatic Society of Bangladesh. http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Pan1. 
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 Gutierrez, Andrea (2015). "Modes of betel leaf consumption in early India.". Scripta Instituti Donneriani Aboensis 26: 114–34. doi:10.30674/scripta.67450. https://journal.fi/scripta/article/view/67450/27747. 
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 Toprani, Rajendra; Patel, Daxesh (2013). "Betel leaf: Revisiting the benefits of an ancient Indian herb". South Asian Journal of Cancer 2 (3): 140–141. doi:10.4103/2278-330X.114120. PMID 24455591. 
  12. ↑ "BICON - Import Conditions - Conditions". https://bicon.agriculture.gov.au/BiconWeb4.0/ImportConditions/Conditions?EvaluatableElementId=505572&Path=UNDEFINED&UserContext=External&EvaluationStateId=c07f9c08-7e77-4e40-922a-69f1723b0f6f&CaseElementPk=1426181&EvaluationPhase=ImportDefinition&HasAlerts=False&HasChangeNotices=False&IsAEP=False. Retrieved 11 March 2023. 
  13. ↑ "Making Lime for Betelnut Chewing in M'Buke, Manus, PNG". 25 July 2010. http://coraltriangle.blogs.panda.org/coral-reefs/making-lime-for-betelnut-chewing-in-mbuke-manus-png. Retrieved 11 March 2023. 
  14. ↑ Levin, Dan (19 August 2010). "Despite Risks, an Addictive Treat Fuels a Chinese City". The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2010/08/20/world/asia/20hunan.html. 
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 Amonkar, A.J.; Nagabhushan, M; D'Souza, A.V.; Bhide, S.V. (1986). "Hydroxychavicol: A new phenolic antimutagen from betel leaf". Food and Chemical Toxicology 24 (12): 1321–1324. doi:10.1016/0278-6915(86)90065-7. PMID 3100406. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0278691586900657#!. 
  16. ↑ "Head and Neck Cancers". 29 March 2017. https://www.cancer.gov/types/head-and-neck/head-neck-fact-sheet. 
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 A, Fatima; Zohaib, J (4 December 2020). "Oropharyngeal Squamous Cell Carcinoma". Definitions (Updated ed.). Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing. doi:10.32388/G6TG1L. Bookshelf ID: NBK563268. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK563268/. Retrieved 7 February 2021. 
  18. ↑ Guttenplan, Joseph B. (1987). "Mutagenic activity in smokeless tobacco products sold in the USA". Carcinogenesis 8 (5): 741–743. doi:10.1093/carcin/8.5.741. PMID 3581433. https://academic.oup.com/carcin/article/8/5/741/2478262?login=true. 
  19. ↑ Friedell, H.L.; Rosenthal, L.M. (1941). "The etiologic role of chewing tobacco in cancer of the mouth: Report of eight cases treated with radiation". JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association 116 (19): 2130–2135. doi:10.1001/jama.1941.02820190006002. https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/article-abstract/248673. 
  20. ↑ Mori, H.; Matsubara, N.; Ushimaru, Y.; Hirono, I. (1979). "Carcinogenicity examination of betel nuts and piper betel leaves". Experientia 35 (3): 384–5. doi:10.1007/BF01964368. PMID 446629. 
  21. ↑ Secretan, Béatrice; Straif, Kurt; Baan, Robert; Grosse, Yann; El Ghissassi, Fatiha; Bouvard, Véronique; Benbrahim-Tallaa, Lamia; Guha, Neela et al. (2009). "A review of human carcinogens—Part E: tobacco, areca nut, alcohol, coal smoke, and salted fish". The Lancet Oncology 10 (11): 1033–1034. doi:10.1016/S1470-2045(09)70326-2. PMID 19891056. https://academic.oup.com/carcin/article/8/5/741/2478262?login=true. 
  22. ↑ Phukan, R. K.; Ali, M. S.; Chetia, C. K.; Mahanta, J. (2001). "Betel nut and tobacco chewing; potential risk factors of cancer of oesophagus in Assam, India". British Journal of Cancer 85 (5): 661–667. doi:10.1054/bjoc.2001.1920. PMID 11531248. 
  23. ↑ IARC Working Group. Betel-quid and areca-nut chewing and some areca-nut-derived Nitrosamines. The World Health Organization. ISBN 9789283215851. http://monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Monographs/vol85/mono85.pdf. 
  24. ↑ WHO Report on the Global Tobacco Epidemic, 2008: the MPOWER package. Geneva: World Health Organization. 2008. ISBN 978-92-4-159628-2. https://www.who.int/tobacco/mpower/mpower_report_full_2008.pdf. 
  25. ↑ Warnakulasuriya, S.; Trivedy, C; Peters, TJ (2002). "Areca nut use: An independent risk factor for oral cancer". BMJ 324 (7341): 799–800. doi:10.1136/bmj.324.7341.799. PMID 11934759. 
  26. ↑ Dave, Bhavana J.; Trivedi, Amit H.; Adhvatyu, Siddharth G. (1992). "Role of areca nut consumption in the cause of oral cancers. A cytogenetic assessment". Cancer 70 (5): 1017–23. doi:10.1002/1097-0142(19920901)70:5<1017::AID-CNCR2820700502>3.0.CO;2-#. PMID 1515978. 
  27. ↑ Sadasivan, G.; Rani, Gulab; Kumari, C.Kusuma (1978). "Chromosome-damaging effect of betel leaf". Mutation Research/Fundamental and Molecular Mechanisms of Mutagenesis 57 (2): 183–5. doi:10.1016/0027-5107(78)90266-X. PMID 661839. 
  28. ↑ Padma, P.R; Lalitha, V.S.; Amonkar, A.J.; Bhide, S.V. (1989). "Anticarcinogenic effect of betel leaf extract against tobacco carcinogens". Cancer Letters 45 (3): 195–202. doi:10.1016/0304-3835(89)90077-3. PMID 2731162. https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0304-3835%2889%2990077-3. 
  29. ↑ Morton, J. F. (1992). Widespread tannin intake via stimulants and masticatories, especially guarana, kola nut, betel vine, and accessories (pp. 739–765). Springer USA
  30. ↑ Chang, Mei-Chi; Pan, Yu-Hwa; Wu, Hsyueh-Liang; Lu, Yi-Jie; Liao, Wan-Chuen; Yeh, Chien-Yang; Lee, Jang-Jaer; Jeng, Jiiang-Huei (2019). "Stimulation of MMP-9 of oral epithelial cells by areca nut extract is related to TGF-β/Smad2-dependent and –independent pathways and prevented by betel leaf extract, hydroxychavicol and melatonin". Aging (Albany NY) 11 (23): 11624–11639. doi:10.18632/aging.102565. PMID 31831717. 
  31. ↑ Reddy Gundalaa, Sushma; Yang, Chunhua; Mukkavilli, Rao; Paranjpe, Rutugandha; Brahmbhatt, Meera; Pannu, Vaishali; Cheng, Alice; Reid, Michelle D. et al. (2014). "Hydroxychavicol, a betel leaf component, inhibits prostate cancer through ROS-driven DNA damage and apoptosis". Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology 280 (1): 86–96. doi:10.1016/j.taap.2014.07.012. PMID 25064160. 
  32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 Chemical Composition and Biological Activities of Nepalese Piper betle L.. https://aromaticplant.org/pdfs/piper-betle.pdf. Retrieved 11 March 2023. 
  33. ↑ "Investigations on Piper betle grown in Sri Lanka". Pharmacognosy Reviews 5 (10): 159–63. July 2011. doi:10.4103/0973-7847.91111. PMID 22279373. 
  34. ↑ Dwivedi, Vandana; Tripathi, Shalini (2014). "Review study on potential activity of Piper betle". Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry 3: 93–98. https://www.phytojournal.com/archives/2014/vol3issue4/PartB/17.1.pdf. Retrieved 27 September 2021. 
  35. ↑ "Hydroxychavicol: a potent xanthine oxidase inhibitor obtained from the leaves of betel, Piper betle". Journal of Natural Medicines 63 (3): 355–9. July 2009. doi:10.1007/s11418-009-0331-y. PMID 19387769. 
  36. ↑ "The new ether derivative of phenylpropanoid and bioactivity was investigated from the leaves of Piper betle L". Natural Product Research 34 (5): 638–645. March 2020. doi:10.1080/14786419.2018.1495634. PMID 30169967. https://figshare.com/articles/journal_contribution/7037525. 
  37. ↑ "[Studies on the chemical constituents of the stems of Piper betle]" (in Chinese). Zhong Yao Cai = Zhongyaocai = Journal of Chinese Medicinal Materials 32 (6): 887–90. June 2009. PMID 19764326. 
  38. ↑ "[Alkaloids and lignans from stems of Piper betle]" (in Chinese). Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za Zhi = Zhongguo Zhongyao Zazhi = China Journal of Chinese Materia Medica 35 (17): 2285–8. September 2010. PMID 21137339. 
  39. ↑ "(+)-Bornyl p-Coumarate Extracted from Stem of Piper betle Induced Apoptosis and Autophagy in Melanoma Cells". International Journal of Molecular Sciences 21 (10): 3737. May 2020. doi:10.3390/ijms21103737. PMID 32466337. 
  40. ↑ "The Effect of Bornyl cis-4-Hydroxycinnamate on Melanoma Cell Apoptosis Is Associated with Mitochondrial Dysfunction and Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress". International Journal of Molecular Sciences 19 (5): 1370. May 2018. doi:10.3390/ijms19051370. PMID 29734677. 
  41. ↑ "Chemical constituents of Piper betle Linn. (Piperaceae) roots". Molecules (Basel, Switzerland) 10 (7): 798–802. August 2005. doi:10.3390/10070798. PMID 18007349. 
  42. ↑ Das, Suryasnata; Parida, Reena; Sandeep, I. Sriram; Kar, Basudev; Nayak, Sanghamitra; Mohanty, Sujata (2016). "Chemical composition and antioxidant activity of some important betel vine landraces". Biologia 71 (2): 128–132. doi:10.1515/biolog-2016-0030. ISSN 1336-9563. 
  43. ↑ Jan B. Orsini. "Success Case Replication – A Manual for Increasing Farmer Household Income, see case study 12 in the report". http://www.fao.org/docrep/004/AC159E/ac159e00.HTM. 
  44. ↑ "Life in the hill country of Sri Lanka". The Food and Agriculture Organization of United Nations. http://www.fao.org/getinvolved/telefood/telefood-projects/slideshows/life-in-the-hill-country-of-sri-lanka/en/. 
  45. ↑ "Life in the hill country of Sri Lanka". The Food and Agriculture Organization of United Nations. http://www.fao.org/getinvolved/telefood/telefood-projects/slideshows/life-in-the-hill-country-of-sri-lanka/en/. 
  46. ↑ 46.0 46.1 46.2 P. Guha (2006). Betel Leaf – The neglected green gold of India. 19. pp. 87–93. http://www.krepublishers.com/02-Journals/JHE/JHE-19-0-000-000-2006-Web/JHE-19-2-000-000-2006-Abstract-PDF/JHE-19-2-087-093-2006-1405-Guha-P/JHE-19-2-087-093-2006-1405-Guha-P-Text.pdf#search=%22betel%20leaf%20neglected%20gold%22. 
  47. ↑ "Betel-leaf farming benefiting farmers". The Independent (Dhaka). 6 May 2011. http://theindependentbd.com/national/48153-betel-leaf-farming-benefiting-farmers.html. 
  48. ↑ 48.0 48.1 "Too costly to grow". CSE. http://www.downtoearth.org.in/content/too-costly-grow. 
  49. ↑ "Paan loses flavour". CSE. http://www.downtoearth.org.in/content/paan-loses-flavour. 

Further reading

External links

Wikidata ☰ Q159532 entry



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