Biology:Bitter orange

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Short description: Hybrid citrus plant

Citrus × aurantium
Citrus aurantium.jpg
Scientific classification edit
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Rosids
Order: Sapindales
Family: Rutaceae
Genus: Citrus
Species:
C. × aurantium
Binomial name
Citrus × aurantium
L., 1753[1]
Synonyms[2]

Bitter orange, sour orange, Seville orange, bigarade orange, or marmalade orange is in a narrow sense the citrus tree Citrus × aurantium[lower-alpha 1] and its fruit. It is native to Southeast Asia and has been spread by humans to many parts of the world.[3] It is probably a cross between the pomelo, Citrus maxima, and the mandarin orange, Citrus reticulata.

Citrus aurantium in the broadest sense

In some new systems, the species Citrus × aurantium includes not only the bitter orange proper (Citrus × aurantium), but also all other crosses between the pomelo (Citrus maxima) and the wild mandarin (Citrus reticulata sensu stricto, other name: Citrus daoxianensis), i.e. mainly:

  • the sweet orange (Citrus × aurantium Sweet Orange Group, other names: Citrus × aurantium var. sinensis, Citrus sinensis)
  • the grapefruit (Citrus × aurantium Grapefruit Group, other names: Citrus × aurantium var. paradisi, Citrus paradisi)
  • and all cultivated mandarins (Citrus × aurantium Mandarin Group and Tangerine Group and Satsuma Group etc., other names: Citrus × aurantium var. tangerina and var. deliciosa and var. nobilis and var. unshiu etc., Citrus × aurantium f. deliciosa, Citrus reticulata sensu lato [pro parte majore, i.e. exluding the wild mandarins]).[4][5][6]

The following text of this article only deals with the bitter orange proper.

History

The bitter orange spread from Southeast Asia via India and Iran to the Islamic world as early as 700 C.E.[7]

The bitter orange was introduced to Spain in the 10th century by the Moors.[8][9]

It was introduced to Florida and the Bahamas from Spain ,[3] and wild trees are found near small streams in generally secluded and wooded areas.

Identification

Citrus × aurantium can be identified through its orange fruit with a distinctly bitter or sour taste. The tree has alternate simple leaves and thorns on its petiole.

Usage

Many varieties of bitter orange are used for their essential oil, and are found in perfume, used as a flavoring or as a solvent, and also for consumption. The Seville orange variety is used in the production of marmalade and also used to make French bigarade.[10]

Bitter orange is also employed in herbal medicine as a stimulant and appetite suppressant, due to its active ingredient, synephrine.[11][12] Bitter orange supplements have been linked to a number of serious side effects and deaths, and consumer groups advocate that people avoid using the fruit medically.[13][14] Whether bitter orange affects medical conditions of heart and cardiovascular organs, by itself or in formulae with other substances, is inconclusive.[15] Standard reference materials are released concerning the properties in bitter orange by the National Institute of Standards and Technology for ground fruit, extract, and solid oral dosage form, along with those packaged together into one item.[16][17]

Varieties

  • Citrus × aurantium subsp. amara is a spiny evergreen tree native to southern Vietnam, and widely cultivated. It is used as grafting stock for citrus trees, in marmalade, and in liqueur such as triple sec, Grand Marnier, and Curaçao. It is also cultivated for the essential oil expressed from the fruit, and for neroli oil and orange flower water, which are distilled from the flowers.
  • Citrus × aurantium var. myrtifolia is sometimes considered a separate species, Citrus myrtifolia, the myrtle-leaved orange. The 'Chinotto' cultivar is used to make the Italian soda beverage also called Chinotto.[18]
  • Citrus × aurantium var. daidai, daidai, is used in Chinese medicine and Japanese New Year celebrations. The aromatic flowers are added to tea.[3]
  • Citrus × aurantium subsp. currassuviencis, laraha, grows on the Caribbean island of Curaçao. The dried peels are used in the creation of Curaçao liqueur.

Related species

  • Citrus bergamia, the Bergamot orange, is probably a bitter orange and limetta hybrid; it is cultivated in Italy for the production of bergamot oil, a component of many brands of perfume and tea, especially Earl Grey tea.[19]

Cooking

While the raw pulp is not edible,[20] bitter orange is widely used in cooking.

English marmalade is traditionally homemade in the winter

The Seville orange (the usual name in this context) is prized for making British orange marmalade, being higher in pectin than the sweet orange, and therefore giving a better set and a higher yield. Once a year, oranges of this variety are collected from trees in Seville and shipped to United Kingdom to be used in marmalade.[21] However, the fruit is rarely consumed locally in Andalusia.[22] This reflects the historic Atlantic trading relationship with Portugal and Spain; the earliest recipe for 'marmelat of oranges' dates from 1677.[23][page needed]

Bitter orange—bigarade—was used in all early recipes for duck à l'orange, originally called canard à la bigarade.[24]

The bitter orange, whole and sectioned

It is also used in compotes and for orange-flavored liqueurs. The peel can be used in the production of bitters. The unripe fruit, called narthangai, is commonly used in Southern Indian cuisine, especially in Tamil cuisine. It is pickled by cutting it into spirals or small wedges and stuffing it with salt. The pickle is usually consumed with yoghurt rice called thayir sadam. The fresh fruit is also used frequently in pachadis.

The Belgian Witbier (white beer) is often spiced with the peel of the bitter orange.

In Finland and Sweden, bitter orange peel is used in dried, ground form (called pomeranssi in Finnish, pomerans in Swedish) in gingerbread (pepparkakor), some Christmas bread, and mämmi. In Denmark, the candied peel (Danish pomeransskal) is used in various desserts and cakes like Christmas Cake (julekage) and Brown Cake (brunekager). It is also used in the Nordic glögi.

In Greece and Cyprus, the nerántzi or κιτρομηλο, respectively, is one of the most prized fruits used for spoon sweets, and the C. aurantium tree (nerantziá or kitromiliá) is a popular ornamental tree. In Albania as well, nerënxa or portokalli i hidhur is used commonly in spoon sweets.

In Malta, bitter oranges are known as larinġ tal-bakkaljaw, and are used for marmalade and as root-stock for other citrus trees. [25][26] The Maltese soft drink Kinnie is also made from bitter oranges.

In Turkey, juice of the ripe fruits can be used as salad dressing, especially in Çukurova region. However, in Iraqi cuisine, a bitter orange or raranj in Iraqi is used to complement dishes such as charred fish (samak or simach maskouf, tomato stew morgat tamata, qeema, a dish that has the same ingredients as an Iraqi tomato stew with the addition of minced meat, boiled chickpeas lablabi, salads, as a dressing, and on essentially any dish one might desire to accompany bitter orange. Iraqis also consume it as a citrus fruit or juice it to make bitter orange juice 'aseer raranj. Throughout Iran (where the fruit is commonly known as narenj), the juice is popularly used as a salad dressing, souring agent in stews and pickles or as a marinade. The blossoms are collected fresh to make a prized sweet-smelling aromatic jam (bitter orange blossom jam, morabba bahar-narenj), or added to brewing tea.

In the Americas, the juice from the ripe fruit is used as a marinade for meat in Nicaraguan, Cuban, Dominican, and Haitian cooking, as it is in Peruvian ceviche. In Yucatán (Mexico), it is a main ingredient of the cochinita pibil. In Cuba, a traditional Christmas time dessert is made with the peel of the bitter orange cooked in syrup and eaten with cheese and buñuelos. In Suriname, its juice is also used in the well-known dish pom.

Herbal stimulant

Bitter oranges

The extract of bitter orange (and bitter orange peel) has been marketed as dietary supplement purported to act as a weight-loss aid and appetite suppressant. Bitter orange contains the tyramine metabolites N-methyltyramine, octopamine, and synephrine,[27] substances similar to epinephrine, which act on the α1 adrenergic receptor to constrict blood vessels and increase blood pressure and heart rate.[28][29] Several low-quality clinical trials have had results of p-synephrine (alone or in combination with caffeine or some other substances) increasing weight loss slightly.[30]

Similarities to ephedra

Following bans on the herbal stimulant ephedra in the United States , Canada , and elsewhere, bitter orange has been substituted into "ephedra-free" herbal weight-loss products by dietary supplement manufacturers.[31] Like most dietary supplement ingredients, bitter orange has not undergone formal safety testing, but it is believed to cause the same spectrum of adverse events (harmful side effects) as ephedra.[32] The U.S. National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health found, "currently little evidence [shows] that bitter orange is safer to use than ephedra."[12]

Case reports have linked bitter orange supplements to strokes,[33][34] angina,[27] and ischemic colitis.[35] Following an incident in which a healthy young man suffered a heart attack linked to bitter orange, a case study found that dietary supplement manufacturers had replaced ephedra with its analogs from bitter orange.[36]

Drug interactions

Bitter orange may have serious interactions with drugs such as statins (to lower cholesterol), nifedipines (to lower blood pressure), some anti-anxiety drugs, some antihistamines, etc., in a similar way to grapefruit (see grapefruit–drug interactions).[37]

Other uses

This orange is used as a rootstock in groves of sweet orange.[3] The fruit and leaves make lather and can be used as soap.[3] The hard, white or light-yellow wood is used in woodworking and made into baseball bats in Cuba.[3]

Notes

  1. ↑ The multiplication sign ⟨×⟩ denotes a hybrid of two species.

References

  1. ↑ {{citation | mode = cs1 | title = Bitter orange | work = Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN) | url = | publisher = [[Organization:Agricultural Research ServAgricultural Research Service (ARS), United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) | access-date = 2010-01-05 }}
  2. ↑ "The Plant List: A Working List of All Plant Species". http://www.theplantlist.org/tpl1.1/record/kew-2723957. 
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 C. aurantium. Purdue Horticulture.
  4. ↑ Talon, M.; Caruso, M.; Gmitter, F.G. (2020). The Genus Citrus. Elsevier Science. ISBN 978-0-12-812217-4.  p. 69-70
  5. ↑ David J. Mabberley. A classification for edible citrus: an update, with a note on Murraya (Rutaceae). Journal of Plant Systematics. Volume 25: 271–284. Publication date: 6 September 2022.
  6. ↑ "Citrus × aurantium L. | Plants of the World Online | Kew Science" (in en). https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:59600-2. 
  7. ↑ Andrew M. Watson, Agricultural Innovation in the Early Islamic World: The Diffusion of Crops and Farming Techniques 700-1100 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), 81.
  8. ↑ Morton, Julia (1987). Fruits of warm climates.. Miami: Morton, J. 1987. Sour Orange. p. 130–133. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami, FL.. pp. 130–133. ISBN 0-9610184-1-0. 
  9. ↑ Trillo San Jose, Carmen (2004). Agua y Paisaje en Granada: Una Herencia de Al-Andalus. Granada, Spain: DIP. PROV. de Granada. ISBN 9788478073528. https://www.casadellibro.com/libro-agua-y-paisaje-en-granada-una-herencia-de-al-andalus/9788478073528/924436. 
  10. ↑ Turgeon, Charlotte Snyder. The new Larousse gastronomique: the encyclopedia of food, wine & cookery. 
  11. ↑ "Availability of weight-loss supplements: Results of an audit of retail outlets in a southeastern city". Journal of the American Dietetic Association 106 (12): 2045–51. December 2006. doi:10.1016/j.jada.2006.09.014. PMID 17126636. 
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 "Bitter Orange". National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health. April 2008. http://nccih.nih.gov/health/bitterorange/. 
  13. ↑ Sources are claimed to be the Natural Medicines Comprehensive Database 2007 and Consumers Union's medical and research consultants on the latter’s website. "Dietary supplements to avoid: Hazardous ingredients". Consumers Union of U.S., Inc. January 2008. http://www.consumerreports.org:80/health/natural-health/dietary-supplements-to-avoid-1-08/hazardous-ingredients/risky-ingredients-hazardous.htm. 
  14. ↑ "Dangerous Supplements: Twelve Supplements You Should Avoid". Consumer Reports Magazine. September 2010. http://www.consumerreports.org/cro/magazine-archive/2010/september/health/dangerous-supplements/supplements-to-avoid/index.htm. 
  15. ↑ "Bitter Orange: What Do We Know About Safety?". National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health (NCCIH). https://nccih.nih.gov/health/bitterorange#hed4. 
  16. ↑ "NIST Bitter Orange Reference Material Now Available". National Institute of Health. https://ods.od.nih.gov/Headlines/NIST_Bitter_Orange_References.aspx. 
  17. ↑ "Material Details: SRM 3261 - Bitter Orange Dietary Supplemental Suite". National Institute of Standards and Technology. https://www-s.nist.gov/srmors/view_detail.cfm?srm=3261. 
  18. ↑ Roger M. Grace. "Cadbury Schweppes Reigns Supreme Over Orange Soda Market". metnews.com. http://www.metnews.com/articles/2006/reminiscing062206.htm. 
  19. ↑ {{citation | mode = cs1 | title = Citrus bergamia | work = Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN) | url = https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxonomydetail.aspx?10698 | publisher = [[Organization:Agricultural Research ServAgricultural Research Service (ARS), United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) | access-date = 2017-12-12 }}
  20. ↑ Little, Elbert L. (1994). The Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Trees: Western Region (Chanticleer Press ed.). Knopf. p. 510. ISBN 0394507614. 
  21. ↑ Campaña de recogida de la naranja amarga.[yes|permanent dead link|dead link}}] sevilla.org.
  22. ↑ Apenas se aprovechará la naranja que se recoja en la capital este año. 20minutos.es.
  23. ↑ Henry, Diana (2012). Salt sugar smoke : how to preserve fruit, vegetables, meat and fish. London: Mitchell Beazley. ISBN 978-1845336752. 
  24. ↑ Louis Eustache Ude, The French Cook, 6th ed, 1819 p. 212
  25. ↑ MCA (2021-04-19). "Orange Marmalade" (in en). https://www.mcamalta.com/post/orange-marmalade. 
  26. ↑ "Ċitru f'Malta" (in en). 2021-05-03. https://agrikoltura.wordpress.com/2021/05/03/citru-fmalta/. 
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 "Variant angina associated with bitter orange in a dietary supplement". Mayo Clinic Proceedings 81 (4): 545–8. April 2006. doi:10.4065/81.4.545. PMID 16610576. 
  28. ↑ "Blood pressure and heart rate effects following a single dose of bitter orange". The Annals of Pharmacotherapy 40 (1): 53–7. January 2006. doi:10.1345/aph.1G488. PMID 16317106. 
  29. ↑ "Potential for toxicity with use of bitter orange extract and guarana for weight loss". The Annals of Pharmacotherapy 39 (3): 574–5. March 2005. doi:10.1345/aph.1E249. PMID 15657116. 
  30. ↑ "A review of the human clinical studies involving Citrus aurantium (bitter orange) extract and its primary protoalkaloid p-synephrine.". Int J Med Sci 9 (7): 527–538. August 2012. doi:10.7150/ijms.4446. PMID 22991491. 
  31. ↑ Duenwald, Mary (2005-10-11). "Bitter Orange Under Scrutiny as New Ephedra". The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2005/10/11/health/policy/11cons.html. 
  32. ↑ "Products containing bitter orange or synephrine: suspected cardiovascular adverse reactions" (pdf). Canadian Medical Association Journal 171 (8): 993–4. October 2004. PMID 15497209. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/8220292. 
  33. ↑ "Ischemic stroke associated with use of an ephedra-free dietary supplement containing synephrine". Mayo Clinic Proceedings 80 (4): 541–5. April 2005. doi:10.4065/80.4.541. PMID 15819293. 
  34. ↑ "Vasospasm and stroke attributable to ephedra-free xenadrine: case report". Military Medicine 173 (7): 708–10. July 2008. doi:10.7205/milmed.173.7.708. PMID 18700609. 
  35. ↑ "Ischemic colitis associated with use of a bitter orange-containing dietary weight-loss supplement". Mayo Clinic Proceedings 81 (12): 1630–1. December 2006. doi:10.4065/81.12.1630. PMID 17165643. 
  36. ↑ "STEMI in a 24-Year-Old Man after Use of a Synephrine-Containing Dietary Supplement: A Case Report and Review of the Literature". Tex. Heart Inst. J. 36 (6): 586–90. 2009. PMID 20069086. 
  37. ↑ "Grapefruit Juice and Some Drugs Don't Mix". FDA. 14 July 2021. https://www.fda.gov/consumers/consumer-updates/grapefruit-juice-and-some-drugs-dont-mix. 

External links

Wikidata ☰ Q147096 entry



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