Earth:Climate change and infectious diseases

From HandWiki
Short description: none

Template:Climate change and health

Climate change is altering the geographic range and seasonality of some insects that can carry diseases, for example Aedes aegypti, the mosquito that is the vector for dengue transmission.

Climate change is influencing the transmission and burden of many infectious diseases worldwide.[1] Rising temperatures, shifting rainfall patterns, and more frequent extreme weather events affect how pathogens, vectors and disease hosts interact. These changes are altering the geographic ranges and seasonal activity of disease-carrying organisms such as mosquitoes and ticks, and influence the growth and survival of bacteria and other pathogens in food and water systems.[1][2][3]: 9 

Infectious diseases that are sensitive to climate can be grouped into: vector-borne diseases (transmitted via mosquitos, ticks etc.), waterborne diseases (transmitted through viruses or bacteria in water), and food-borne diseases (spread through pathogens in food).[4]: 1107  In 2022 scientists stated a clear observation that "the occurrence of climate-related food-borne and waterborne diseases has increased."[2]: 11 

Vector-borne diseases like dengue fever, malaria, tick-borne diseases, leishmaniasis, zika fever, chikungunya and Ebola are especially sensitive to climatic conditions. Warmer and wetter conditions expand suitable habitats for vectors, enabling them to survive in areas that were previously too cold or dry.[4]: 1045 [3] As temperatures rise at higher elevations and latitudes, transmission risks are expected to increase in parts of North America, Europe, and highland regions of Africa and Asia.[4]: 1094  [5] For example, the range of ticks that transmit Lyme disease and tick-borne encephalitis has expanded, and further warming could lengthen their active seasons.[4]: 1094 

Climate change also affects waterborne and food-borne diseases by influencing water quality, sanitation, and microbial ecology. Warmer waters and increased flooding promote the growth and spread of bacteria such as Vibrio cholerae, which causes cholera, and other pathogens responsible for gastroenteritis and wound infections. Drought and poor access to clean water increase the risk of contamination and exposure to diarrheal diseases, typhoid, and hepatitis A.[4]: 1107 [3]: 12 

The health impacts of these climate-related risks are unevenly distributed. Low-income countries and communities with high socio-economic constraints and limited healthcare, infrastructure and sanitation are the most vulnerable.[6] Nearly one in three people globally lack access to safe drinking water, which amplifies exposure to waterborne pathogens and related illnesses.[7] These conditions can also affect mental and social well-being and place additional strain on public health systems.

Without mitigation and adaptation measures, climate-related infectious disease risks will continue to rise. Limiting greenhouse gas emissions, strengthening disease surveillance, vector control, vaccination, water and sanitation services, and climate-resilient healthcare infrastructure is seen as essential to reducing these impacts.[8]

Background

The World Health Organization considers climate change as one of the greatest threats to human health.[9] Global warming, increased rainfall, flooding and drought are some of the consequences of climate change that are leading to the escalation of vector, food and water-borne diseases.[10] Climate change can make it easier for infectious diseases to spread to new regions and surge in areas where they were previously under control. As a result, diseases that have never previously infected humans (Disease X) may 'spill over' from animals and become a threat to humans too.[10][11] More than half (218 out of 375) of infectious diseases that affect humans worldwide have already been worsened by climate change.[12][13]

Mechanisms and pathways

The successful emergence or reemergence of infectious diseases depend on people coming into contact with the pathogen (for example a virus) but also on the extent to which peoples' resistance is weakened, or the pathogen is strengthened, by changes in the environment.[13]

Climate change can increase the spread of infectious diseases through multiple possible pathways, including:[13]

  • climatic hazards (such as heatwaves, wildfires, or floods) bringing the disease closer to people (e.g. shifts in the geographical range of species),
  • climatic hazards bringing people closer to the disease (e.g. heatwaves bringing more people to recreational water activities),
  • disease strengthened by climatic hazards (e.g. "improved climate suitability for reproduction, acceleration of the life cycle, increasing seasons/length of likely exposure", for example ocean warming can lead to increased Vibriosis outbreaks),
  • people impaired by climatic hazards (e.g. from malnutrition due to drought conditions)
  • climatic hazards forcing people to leave their homes (climate migration) and live in unsanitary circumstances and dense living situations such as refugee camps,[14]
  • increased occupational exposure to climate and climate extremes (e.g. agricultural work, construction work, disaster response work).[15]

Infectious diseases that are sensitive to climate can be grouped into:

  • water-borne diseases (transmitted via viruses or bacteria, e.g.: E. Coli),
  • vector-borne diseases (transmitted via mosquitos, ticks etc.), and
  • food-borne diseases (e.g. Salmonella bacteria, causing Salmonellosis).[4]: 1107 

Climate change is affecting the distribution of these diseases due to the expanding geographic range and seasonality of these diseases and their vectors.[16]: 9 

Though many infectious diseases are affected by changes in climate, vector-borne diseases, such as malaria, dengue fever and leishmaniasis, present the strongest causal relationship. One reason for that is that temperature and rainfall play a key role in the distribution, magnitude, and viral capacity of mosquitoes, who are primary vectors for many vectors borne diseases. Observation and research detect a shift of pests and pathogens in the distribution away from the equator and towards Earth's poles.[17]

Changes to vector distribution

See also: Biology:Disease vector and Mosquito-borne disease

Climate change affects vector-borne diseases by affecting the survival, distribution and behavior of vectors such as mosquitoes, ticks and rodents.[18]: 29  The viruses, bacteria and protozoa are carried by these vectors transferring them from one carrier to another.[19] Vectors and pathogens can adapt to the climate fluctuations by shifting and expanding their geographic ranges, which alter the rate of new cases of disease depending on vector-host interaction, host immunity and pathogen evolution.[20] This means that climate change affects infectious diseases by changing the length of the transmission season and their geographical range.[9]

Climate change is leading to latitudinal and altitudinal temperature increases. Global warming projections indicate that surface air warming for a "high scenario" is 4 C, with a likely range of 2.4–6.4 C by 2100.[21] A temperature increase of this size would alter the biology and the ecology of many mosquito vectors and the dynamics of the diseases they transmit such as malaria.

Changes in climate and global warming have significant influences on the biology and distribution of vector-borne diseases, parasites, fungi, and their associated illnesses. Regional changes resulting from changing weather conditions and patterns within temperate climates will stimulate the reproduction of certain insect species that are vectors for disease.

The vectors of transmission are the major reason for the increased ranges and infection of these diseases. If the vector has a range shift, so do the associated diseases; if the vector increases in activity due to changes in climate, then there is an effect on the transmission of disease.[22] However it will be hard to classify exactly why the range shifts or an increase in infection rates occurs as there are many other factors to consider besides climate change, such as human migration, poverty, infrastructure quality, and land usage; but climate change is still potentially a key factor.[23]

Mosquitoes

One major disease-spreading insect is the mosquito, which can transmit diseases like malaria, West Nile virus, and dengue fever. With regional temperatures changing due to climate change, the range of mosquitos will change as well.[24] The range of mosquitoes and disease transmission will move farther north and south, and places will have a longer period of mosquito habitability than at present, leading to an increase in the mosquito population in these areas.[25] This range shift has already been seen in highland Africa. Since 1970, the incidence of malaria in high-elevation areas in East Africa has increased greatly. This has been proven to be caused by the warming of regional climates.[22][26]

Many major cities in Africa (e.g.: Nairobi, Harare) were sited above the mosquito breeding-transmission altitude, but due to increasing temperatures mosquitos are now more likely to thrive in these areas as well. In Europe, Dengue cases were transmitted by populations of mosquitoes established in France and Italy.[27]

Environmental changes, climate variability, and climate change are factors that could affect biology and disease ecology of Anopheles mosquitoes and their disease transmission potential.[28] When the temperature rises, the larvae take a shorter time to mature[29] and, consequently, a greater capacity to produce more offspring. In turn this leads to an increase in malaria transmission to humans.

Environmental changes such as deforestation could also increase local temperatures in the highlands thus could enhance the vector capacity of the anopheles.[28] Anopheles mosquitoes are responsible for the transmission of a number of diseases in the world, such as, malaria, lymphatic filariasis and viral fevers such as the O'nyong'nyong virus.[28]

Environmental change and zoonotic disease emergence

Climate change is considered a significant driver of zoonotic disease emergence due to its effects on ecosystems, wildlife distribution, and patterns of human–animal interaction. Increases in global temperature, changes in precipitation, and the growing frequency of extreme weather events can disrupt ecological systems and contribute to shifts in species ranges. Such changes may increase contact between wildlife, livestock, and human populations, thereby elevating the risk of cross-species pathogen transmission.[30]

The geographic distribution of vector-borne diseases is also influenced by climatic factors. Variations in temperature and precipitation can extend the habitat range and seasonal activity of vectors such as mosquitoes and ticks. Consequently, diseases including dengue fever and Lyme disease have been reported in regions where they were previously uncommon, particularly at higher latitudes and elevations.[31] These shifts present challenges for public health systems in affected areas.

Environmental changes associated with climate change, including deforestation, habitat fragmentation, and biodiversity loss, further contribute to zoonotic disease risk. Alterations in ecosystems may favor species that serve as efficient reservoirs for infectious agents, while increased human encroachment into natural habitats can facilitate pathogen transmission between species.[32]

A number of zoonotic diseases have been linked to environmental change. For example, Ebola virus disease has been associated with forest disturbance and increased human–wildlife interaction, while the incidence of tick-borne diseases such as Lyme disease has increased in regions experiencing milder winters. Similarly, the distribution of mosquito-borne diseases such as dengue continues to shift in response to changing climatic conditions.[33]

Mitigating the health impacts of climate change requires a One Health approach that recognizes the interdependence of human, animal, and environmental health. Integrated surveillance systems, interdisciplinary collaboration, and policies addressing environmental sustainability are considered important components of efforts to reduce zoonotic disease risk.

Increased water temperature

High temperatures can alter the survival, replication, and virulence of a pathogen.[34] Higher temperatures can also increase the pathogen yields in animal reservoirs. An increase in yield of bacteria from drinking water delivery systems has been recorded in warmer summer months. During periods of warmer temperatures water consumption rates are also typically higher. Together these increase the probability of pathogen ingestion and infection.[35]

With an increase in both temperature as well as higher nutrient concentrations due to runoff there will be an increase in cyanobacterial blooms.[36]

This section is an excerpt from Effects of climate change on human health#Harmful algal blooms in oceans and lakes[ edit ]

Changes in precipitation and water cycle

Climate change is forecast to have substantial effects on the water cycle, with an increase in both frequency and intensity of droughts and heavy precipitation events.[34]

There is generally an increase in diarrheal disease (except for viral diarrheal disease) during or after elevated ambient temperature, heavy rainfall, and flooding.[37] These three weather conditions are predicted to increase or intensify with climate change in future. A high current baseline rate of the diarrheal diseases is already present in developing countries. Climate change therefore poses a real risk of an increase of these diseases in those regions.[37]

Increased psychological stress

The climate crisis can cause psychological stress for populations threatened by changing weather patterns.[38] The climate crisis can cause stress especially in people living in areas where flooding is increasing, severe storms are destroying homes and they are being forced to move away.[38] Climate change can also impact people's mental health through affect their workplaces and livelihoods. For example, farmers are particularly under stress because of the reducing capability of climate-affected land to produce crops and animal feed.[39] Stress increases the level of stress-hormone cortisol in blood, a suppressor of the immune mechanisms responsible for protection against infections and cancers.[40] This leads to humans becoming inherently less able to resist new infections because of the climate crisis.[41]

One proven mitigation against psychological stress is interaction with the natural environment[42] but the climate crisis is also a nature and biodiversity crisis[43] and the human race is becoming less able to find natural spaces to relax and to release the stresses of modern day living.[44]

Infectious diseases in humans

Malaria

Deaths due to malaria per million persons in 2012
  0–0
  1–2
  3–54
  55–325
  326–679
  680–949
  950–1,358
Past and current malaria prevalence in 2009

Malaria is a mosquito-borne disease that infects humans and other animals caused by microorganisms in the Plasmodium family. It begins with a bite from an infected female mosquito, which introduces the parasite through its saliva and into the infected host's circulatory system. It then travels through the bloodstream into the liver, where it can mature and reproduce.[45]

Climate is an influential driving force of diseases such as malaria, which kills about 300,000 children annually. Malaria is especially susceptible to the effects of climate change because mosquitoes lack the mechanisms to regulate their internal temperature.[46] This implies that there is a limited range of climatic conditions within which the pathogen (malaria) and vector (a mosquito) can survive, reproduce, and infect hosts.[47] Increased rainfall and temperatures could increase the number of mosquitos indirectly by creating better environments for survival and reproduction, expand larval habitat and food supply.[46][47] There will also be greater risks of outbreaks of malaria due to increased flooding events, especially affecting the drier areas of the tropics, such as the Sahel and East Africa.[48][49][50]

Conservative estimates suggest that the risk of malaria will increase 5–15% by 2100 due to climate change.[51] In Africa alone, there is a projected increase of 16–28% in person-month exposures to malaria by 2100.[52][53]

Dengue fever

This figure shows how the Flavivirus is carried by mosquitos in the West Nile virus and Dengue fever. The mosquito would be considered a disease vector.

Dengue fever is an infectious disease caused by dengue viruses found in tropical and sub-tropical regions.[54] It is transmitted through bites from female mosquitos in the genus Aedes, primarily A. aegypti.[55] Dengue fever can be fatal.[56][54]

The cases of dengue fever have been increasing dramatically and is projected to continue to do so with changing climate conditions.[57] In just the past 50 years, transmission has increased drastically with new cases of the disease (incidence) increasing 30-fold.[54][58] The number of reported cases of dengue has increased from 505 430 cases in 2000 to 14.6 million in 2024. However, dengue cases are under-reported and it is estimated that there might be 100–400 million infections occurring each year.[58]

High temperatures, increased precipitation, and humidity all increase the risk of dengue infection.[59][60] The presence and number of Aedes aegypti mosquitoes is strongly influenced by the amount of water-bearing containers in the home and rubbish such as tin cans and tires contributing to pockets of stagnant water in an area. The species is also influenced by daily temperature and variation in temperature, moisture, and solar radiation.[53]

Climate change is altering the geographic range and seasonality of the mosquito that can carry dengue.[58][61] While dengue fever is primarily considered a tropical and subtropical disease, the geographic ranges of the Aedes aegypti are expanding with dengue cases reported in European and Eastern Mediterranean regions.[27][54] Climate change also contributed to the spread of distinct variants of the disease to new areas.

Tick borne disease

The deer tick, a vector for Lyme disease pathogens

Tick-borne disease, which affect humans and other animals, are caused by infectious agents transmitted by tick bites. Diseases spread by ticks include tick-borne encephalitis, Lyme disease, anaplasmosis, babesiosis, ehrlichiosis and spotted fever rickettsiosis.[62]

Climate, especially temperature and precipitation, affects the life-cycle, population size and geographic range of ticks.[63] A high humidity of greater than 85% is ideal for a tick to start and finish its life cycle.[64] Higher maximum temperatures play the most influential role in sustaining tick populations.[65] Tick life cycles span multiple seasons as they mature from larva to nymph to adult, and infection and spread of diseases such as Lyme disease can happen across the multiple stages and different species of animal hosts.[66]

The expansion of tick populations is concurrent with global climate change. Species distribution models of recent years indicate that the deer tick (Ixodes scapularis) is pushing its distribution to higher latitudes in Europe, Canada and Northeastern United States, and pushing and maintaining populations in the South Central and Northern Midwest regions of the United States.[67][68] Climate models project further expansion of tick habit north into Canada as progressing Northwest from the Northeastern United States. Additionally, however, tick populations are expected to retreat from the Southeastern coast of the U.S., but this has not yet been observed.[69] It's estimated that coinciding with this expansion, increased average temperatures may double tick populations by 2020 as well as bring an earlier start to the tick exposure season.[70][68] In Europe, expansion of tick-borne diseases to the north due to climate change has already been observed, especially for Lyme disease and tick-borne encephalitis.[71]

Leishmaniasis

Leishmaniasis is a neglected tropical disease, caused by parasites of the genus Leishmania and primarily transmitted by Phelbotomus sand flies. It is distributed mostly in tropical and subtropical regions around the world, wherever the sand flies and suitable animal hosts are present.[72] Around 12 million people around the world are living with leishmaniasis.[72] Risk factors that increase the spread of this disease include poverty, urbanization, deforestation, and climate change.[73][74]

As in other vector-borne diseases, one of the reasons climate changes can affect the incidence of leishmaniasis is the susceptibility of the sandfly vectors to changes in temperature, rainfall and humidity. These conditions alter their range of distribution and seasonality.[73] For example, climate change could increase the suitable conditions for Phlebotomus sandfly species in Central Europe[75][76] and Lutzomyia longipalpis in the Amazon Basin.[77] Parasite development inside the sand for some species of Leishmania can also be affected by temperature changes.[78]

Ebola virus

Ebola

The Ebola virus has caused periodic outbreaks across several African countries. With an average fatality rate of about 40%, the disease has led to more than 28,600 reported cases and 11,310 deaths.[79] Areas undergoing deforestation are among the most likely places for outbreaks due to changes in the landscape bringing wildlife into closer contact with humans.[80][81]

Climate change may indirectly contribute to the rise in Ebola cases. Extreme weather events such as droughts, strong winds, thunderstorms, heat waves, floods, landslides, and shifting rainfall patterns can disrupt wildlife migration, pushing animals out of their natural habitats and nearer to human settlements.[82] For instance, a severe drought in Central Africa intensified food insecurity, leading some West African communities to hunt and consume infected animals such as bats, which likely fueled an Ebola outbreak.[80]

Zika fever

Zika virus, a vector-borne virus, was historically presented in cluster outbreaks in the tropical regions of Africa and Asia.[83] Zika fever is mainly spread via the bite of mosquitoes of the Aedes type, which is expanding its range.[84] Zika fever epidemics have affected larger populations including Micronesia and South Pacific Islands in 2007, and the Americas in 2013.[85] Brazil experienced one of the largest outbreaks of Zika virus with approximately 1.5 million cases reported in 2015.[86] Pregnant women infected with Zika virus are at a higher risk of giving birth to children with birth defects, including microcephaly.[87]

It is predicted that Zika virus will expose more than 1.3 billion new people by 2050 due to climate change. This increase is largely due to the expansion of habitats conducive to vector growth and life cycles, particularly areas with temperatures ranging from 23.9 °C to 34 °C.[88] Rising temperatures also influence mosquito behavior, leading to higher breeding and biting rates.[89] Extreme climate patterns, such as drought, floods and heatwaves further enhance mosquito breeding conditions and as a result escalate the rate of virus-borne diseases.[90]

Hantavirus

Hantavirus are a genus of zoonotic viruses that causes two fatal diseases: hantavirus pulmonary syndrome (HPS) and hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome (HFRS). These diseases were transmitted to humans mainly by infected rodents. As the climate warms, extreme weather events (such as floods, intense storms or droughts) alters the availability of food and shelter for rodents, which in turn causes their populations to grow as well as intensifying the fluctuation of population cycles, directly increasing the threat of hantavirus outbreaks in some regions specifically Latin America and the Caribbean.[91][92] A notable example is the 1993 Four Corners hantavirus outbreak.[91] Preceding the outbreak, The 1992–1993 El Niño brought a dramatic increase in rainfall, which expanded food supplies and caused rodent numbers to grow 20-fold. The event led to rodent infestations in human buildings, thus increasing the risk of an infection.[93]

Rising temperatures causes the range expansion of rodents into previously uninhabited zones, like higher altitudes, establishing newly, high-risk area for hantavirus transmission.[94] In Europe, expanding geographic range of hantavirus is linked to milder winters driven by climate change, aswell as other factors such as the decline of small-mammal diversity and frequent masting cycles.[95]

COVID-19

There is no direct evidence that the spread of COVID-19 is worsened or caused by climate change, although investigations continue. As of 2020, the World Health Organization summarized the current knowledge about the issue as follows: "There is no evidence of a direct connection between climate change and the emergence or transmission of COVID-19 disease. [...] However, climate change may indirectly affect the COVID-19 response, as it undermines environmental determinants of health, and places additional stress on health systems."[96]

A 2021 study found possible links between climate change and transmission of COVID-19 by bats.[97] The authors found that climate-driven changes in the distribution and richness of bat species increased the likelihood of bat-borne coronaviruses in the Yunnan province, Myanmar, and Laos.[97] This region was also the habitat of Sunda pangolins and masked palm civits which were suspected as intermediate hosts of COVID-19 between bats and humans.[97] The authors suggest, therefore, that climate change possibly contributed to some extent to the emergence of the pandemic.[97][98]

Climate change might induce changes to bat habitats which may have driven them closer to populated areas.[99] Increased aridity and drought periods are predicted to push bats out of their endemic areas and into populated areas.[99] This creates a knock-on effect of increasing their interactions with humans and hence the likelihood of zoonotic disease transfer.[99]

HIV/AIDS

There is a growing impact of the climate crisis in driving HIV risk which is affecting the availability of and access to services for HIV treatment, prevention and care.[100] 3.6 billion people live in regions highly susceptible to climate change, and many of those populations are disproportionately affected by HIV.[101][102] Increased migration and population displacement, food insecurity, economic stress, conflict, communicable diseases, and the erosion of health infrastructure can increase the rates of HIV infection and worsen the health and wellbeing of people with HIV.[100]

The climate crisis can impact HIV programmes and people with HIV in various ways, for example reducing access to prevention, testing, and treatment services, contributing to poor nutrition, impaired immunity, and poor adherence to treatment.[102] It can also increase the risk of contracting HIV, for example through food insecurity forcing people to engage in transactional sex, and can worsen the discrimination of populations most affected by HIV.[102][103] Reductions in international aid reductions, the discontinuation of the US President's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief (PEPFAR) could cause around 4–11 million new HIV infections and 1–3 million HIV-related deaths between 2025 and 2030.[104]

Based on mathematical models, if there is no reduction in carbon emissions it is expected that there will be an increase of between 11 million and 16 million HIV cases in countries in sub-Saharan Africa by 2050 as a result of increasing temperatures due to climate change.[105]

HIV outcomes may be affected by the increased spread of vector-borne pathogens to which immunocompromised individuals are more susceptible, notably malaria and fungal diseases such as cryptococcal disease, histoplasmosis, and talaromycosis.[102] The Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS emphasized that it is essential that HIV programmes consider and monitor the potential effects of climate change.[100]

Diarrheal diseases

See also: Medicine:Diarrhea
People who bathe in the Ganges River in India may be at risk of hepatitis, typhoid, cholera, amoebic dysentery, other waterborne diseases, and various skin afflictions.

Diarrheal diseases are caused by bacteria, viruses and protozoans. These diseases are transmitted mainly by the feces of an infected individual passing to the mouth of another individual (fecal–oral route), due to limited access to water, sanitation and hygiene.[106] They are the most common waterborne diseases,[34] transmitted through unsafe drinking water or recreational water contact.[36]

Diarrhoeal diseases are the third greatest cause of death in children under 5 years killing around 444,000 children every year.[106] They are also the second leading cause of death in low and middle income countries. Diarrhea diseases account for an estimated 1.4–1.9 million deaths in all ages worldwide.[35]

Diarrhoeal diseases due to bacteria increase with ambient temperature, and increase following heavy rainfall and flooding events. Heavy rainfall and flooding can also affect pathogen transmission via impacts on sanitation and/or drinking water treatment infrastructure, contaminating drinking water sources or food products. Floods can overwhelm water systems, causing backflows that lead to contamination of groundwater and other drinking water sources. Investing in the prevention of diarrheal diseases through improvements in Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WaSH) systems and other proven diarrhea prevention strategies should be a global priority. A key diarrhoeal disease is cholera.[35]

Public cholera prevention signage in Lusaka, Zambia.
Rapid Diagnostic Testing for cholera in Haiti.

Cholera and other vibrio infections

See also: Medicine:Cholera and Vibrio

Disease outbreaks caused by vibrio (in particular the bacterium that causes cholera, called Vibrio cholerae) are increasing in occurrence and intensity.[4]: 1107  Vibrio illnesses are waterborne disease that were prevalent especially in Asia and Africa, but they are increasing worldwide as well as, being reported where historically they did not occur. Vibrio infections are caused by consuming contaminated water, raw or undercooked seafood, or by exposing an open wound to contaminated sea water. Vibrio infections are most likely to occur during the warm seasons.[107]

The warming climate plays a substantial role in the increase in cases and area of occurrence.[108][109] Even modest temperature increases substantially amplify disease transmission. For example, a 1°C warming in Zanzibar was associated with a doubling of confirmed cholera cases.[109] Furthermore, prolonged water scarcity concentrates Vibrio cholerae in limited freshwater supplies, while intense precipitation events compromise sanitation infrastructure and create conditions favorable for the spread of the disease.[109][4]: 1045  The area of coastline with suitable conditions for vibrio bacteria has increased due to changes in sea surface temperature and sea surface salinity caused by climate change.[16]: 12  These pathogens can cause gastroenteritis, cholera, wound infections, and sepsis. It has been observed that in the period of 2011–21, the "area of coastline suitable for Vibrio bacterial transmission has increased by 35% in the Baltics, 25% in the Atlantic Northeast, and 4% in the Pacific Northwest.[16]: 12 

Skin rashes

Rising temperatures and humidity increase the growth of skin-associated bacteria and alter the geographical distribution of other organisms that infect humans. The various microorganisms that make up the skin microflora each have different optimal temperature ranges for survival and growth. Staphylococcus aureus and Corynebacterium sp. amongst others are more tolerant to rising temperatures and higher salt conditions compared to other, non-commensal bacteria.[110]

Fungal infections

Fungal infections will also see an increase due to the warming of certain climates.[22] For example, the fungus Cryptococcus gattii is normally found in warmer climates such as in Australia, but has now been found in Canada. There are now two strains of this fungus in the northwestern part of North America, affecting many terrestrial animals. The spread of this fungus is hypothesized to be linked to climate change.[23]

Naegleria fowleri (brain-eating amoeba)

Naegleria fowleri lifecycle stages.

Naegleria fowleri, a percolozoan, thrives as a free-living, thermophilic amoeba in warm freshwater environments such as lakes, rivers, ponds and hot springs.[111] Although infection is still considered rare, cases are becoming more prevalent each year as freshwater temperatures continue to rise. Exposure to this pathogen is commonly caused by recreational water activities, such as swimming or diving, in freshwater where the organism is present.[111] Humans can become infected when water enters the nasal canal. From there the amoebae penetrate the olfactory mucosa and travel to the brain, creating inflammation and eventually causing primary amoebic meningoenephilitis (PAM);[111] which is almost always fatal.

Emergence of new infectious diseases

There is concern about the emergence of new diseases from the fungal kingdom. Mammals have endothermy and homeothermy, which allows them to maintain elevated body temperature through life; but it can be defeated if the fungi were to adapt to higher temperatures and survive in the body.[112] Fungi are able to adapt rapidly to higher temperatures. The emergence of Candida auris on three continents is proposed to be as a result of global warming and has raised the danger that increased warmth by itself will trigger adaptations on certain microbes to make them pathogenic for humans.[113]

It is projected that interspecies viral sharing, that can lead to novel viral spillovers, will increase due to ongoing climate change-caused geographic range-shifts of mammals (most importantly bats). Risk hotspots would mainly be located at "high elevations, in biodiversity hotspots, and in areas of high human population density in Asia and Africa".[114]

Climate change may also lead to new infectious diseases due to changes in microbial and vector geographic range. Microbes that are harmful to humans can adapt to higher temperatures, which will allow them to build better tolerance against human endothermy defences.[112]

Infectious diseases in wild animals

Climate change and increasing temperatures will also impact the health of wildlife animals. Climate change will impact wildlife disease, specifically affecting "geographic range and distribution of wildlife diseases, plant and animal phenology, wildlife host-pathogen interactions, and disease patterns in wildlife".[115]

The health of wild animals, particularly birds, is assumed to be an indicator of early climate change effects because very little or no control measures are undertaken to protect them.[9]

Geographic range and distribution

Avian malaria life cycle.

Geographic shifts of disease vectors and parasitic disease in the Northern Hemisphere have likely been due to global warming. The range of Parelaphostrongylus odocoilei, a lung parasite that impacts ungulates like caribou and mountain goats, has been shifting northward since 1995, as has a tick vector for Lyme disease and other tick-borne zoonotic diseases known as Ixodes scapularis.

It is predicted that climate warming will also lead to changes in disease distribution at certain altitudes. At high elevation in the Hawaiian Islands, for example, it is expected that climate warming will allow for year-round transmission of avian malaria. This increased opportunity for transmission will likely be devastating to endangered native Hawaiian birds that have little or no resistance to the disease.[115]

Predicting the impact of climate change on disease patterns in different geographic regions can be difficult, because its effects likely have high variability. This has been more evident in marine ecosystems than terrestrial environments, where massive decline in coral reefs has been observed due to disease spread.[115]

Phenology

Phenology is the study of seasonal cycles, and with climate change the seasonal biologic cycles of many animals have already been affected. For example, the transmission of tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) is higher to humans when early spring temperatures are warmer. The warmer temperatures result in an overlap in feeding activity of ticks who are infected with the virus (nymphal) with ticks who aren't (larval). This overlapped feeding leads to more uninfected larval ticks acquiring the infection and therefore increases the risk of humans being infected with TBE. Conversely, cooler spring temperatures would result in less overlapped feeding activity and would therefore decrease the risk of zoonotic transmission of TBE.[115]

Wildlife host-to-pathogen interaction

The transmission of pathogens happens through either direct contact from a diseased animal to another, or indirectly through a host like infected prey or a vector. Higher temperatures as a result of climate change results in an increased presence of disease producing agents in hosts and vectors, and also increases the "survival of animals that harbor disease".[115] Survival of Parelaphostrongylus tenuis, a brain worm of white-tailed deer that affects moose, could be increased due to the higher temperatures and milder winters caused by climate change. In moose this worm causes fatal neurological disease. Moose are already facing heat stress due to climate change, and may have increased susceptibility to parasitic and infectious diseases like the brain worm.[115]

Infectious diseases in domestic animals and livestock

Vector-borne diseases seriously affect the health of domestic animals and livestock (e.g., trypanosomiasis, Rift Valley Fever, and bluetongue). Climate change will also indirectly affect the health of humans through its multifaceted impacts on food security, including livestock and plant crops.[9]

This section is an excerpt from Effects of climate change on livestock#Pathogens and parasites[ edit ]

Tropical diseases will likely migrate and become endemic in many other ecosystems due to an increase in mosquito range.[116] Other diseases carried by mosquitoes, such as Dirofilaria immitis (heartworm) which affects dogs, will be able to spread to new areas.[117] Heartworm larvae also need temperatures above 14°C for maturation within mosquitos. As climate change increases the temperature, heartworm will be able to expand the geographical range where it is able to mature and transmit.[118]

Responses

Global efforts focus on disease surveillance and research, adaptation strategies, and interdisciplinary collaboration to counter climate change's role in expanding vector-borne diseases like malaria and dengue. Organisations like the IPCC and WHO emphasise developing resilient health systems, early warning mechanisms, and vector control to mitigate risks from shifting pathogen ranges and extreme weather.[119][120][121] Enacting policy that will reduce greenhouse gas emissions will mitigate climate change.[122]

Vector control, prevention and treatment

Traditional vector-control measures like bed nets, indoor residual spraying, and improved water and sanitation remain central disease prevention strategies. Investment in vaccines and therapeutics for climate-sensitive diseases has increased, including malaria and dengue vaccine development and deployment. Climate considerations are increasingly incorporated into pandemic preparedness and research agendas, with emphasis on anticipating shifts in disease burden driven by warming temperatures and changing ecosystems.[119]

Surveillance and research

An Anopheles stephensi mosquito shortly after obtaining blood from a human (the droplet of blood is expelled as a surplus). This mosquito is a vector of malaria, and mosquito control is an effective way of reducing its incidence.

Significant progress has been achieved in surveillance systems, disease and vector control measures, vaccine development, diagnostic tests, and mathematical risk modeling/mapping in recent decades.[9] However, a 2023 review found that existing climate change and infectious diseases research does not adequately represent different populations or regions of the world, and tends to focus on a narrow set of diseases. Due to these gaps, our understanding of how climate change impacts human health is incomplete.[123]

Scientists conduct attribution studies to determine the degree to which climate change affects the spread of infectious diseases. There is also a need for scenario modeling which can help further our understanding of future climate change consequences on infectious disease rates.[124] Disease surveillance systems are used to forecast outbreaks of climate-sensitive infectious diseases, enabling earlier public-health responses and targeted interventions.[122][125][126] Governments should accurately model changes in vector populations as well as the burden of disease, educate the public on ways to mitigate infection and prepare health systems for the increasing disease load.

A tool that has been used to predict disease distribution trends is the Dynamic Mosquito Simulation Process (DyMSiM). DyMSiM uses epidemiological and entomological data and practices to model future mosquito distributions based upon climate conditions and mosquitos living in the area.[127] This modeling technique helps identify the distribution of specific species of mosquito, some of which are more susceptible to viral infection than others.

Policy

The policy implications of climate change and infectious diseases fall into three categories:[122]

  1. Enacting policy that will reduce greenhouse gas emissions, thus mitigating climate change,
  2. Adapting to problems that have already arisen, and will continue to develop, due to climate change,
  3. Developing more accessible and affordable treatments for poor and marginalised patient populations.

Addressing all three of these areas is critical, and those in the poorest countries face the greatest burden. Additionally, when countries are forced to contend with a disease like malaria (for example), their prospects for self-sufficiency and prosperity are slowed. This contributes to continued and worsening global inequality.[124]

Policies and implementation are required that will significantly increase investments in public health in developing countries. This achieves two goals, the first being better outcomes related to diseases like malaria in the affected area, and the second being an overall better health environment for populations.[122]

As many climate-sensitive infectious diseases are zoonotic or vector-borne there has been increased adoption of the One Health approach which integrates human, animal, and environmental health.[122] The United Nations Environment Programme states that: "The most fundamental way to protect ourselves from zoonotic diseases is to prevent destruction of nature. Where ecosystems are healthy and biodiverse, they are resilient, adaptable and help to regulate diseases."[128] Governance responses need to incorporate more holistic and intersectoral understandings of the relationship between infectious diseases, climate change and environmental degradation, as in the concept of planetary health.[129] These responses particularly require pro-active participation, leadership and ownership from indigenous communities and other local groups whose voices are often marginalised and sidelined in decision-making processes at the national, regional, international and global levels.[130][131]

The challenges posed by infectious diseases require increased cross-border and transnational cooperation involving a wide range of relevant stakeholders, such as universities, pharmaceutical laboratories, non-governmental organisations and national governments. This cooperation should coordinate initiatives and policy approaches across different governance levels (from local to global) and develop transnational responses that reflect the transnational reality of climate-sensitive infectious diseases.[132]

See also

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Van de Vuurst, Paige; Escobar, Luis E. (2023). "Climate change and infectious disease: a review of evidence and research trends". Infectious Diseases of Poverty 12 (1): 51. doi:10.1186/s40249-023-01102-2. PMID 37194092. 
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 IPCC, 2022: Summary for Policymakers [H.-O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, E.S. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, M. Tignor, A. Alegría, M. Craig, S. Langsdorf, S. Löschke, V. Möller, A. Okem (eds.)]. In: Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [H.-O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, M. Tignor, E.S. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Craig, S. Langsdorf, S. Löschke, V. Möller, A. Okem, B. Rama (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA, pp. 3–33, doi:10.1017/9781009325844.001.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 Romanello, Marina; McGushin, Alice; Di Napoli, Claudia; Drummond, Paul; Hughes, Nick; Jamart, Louis; Kennard, Harry; Lampard, Pete et al. (October 2021). "The 2021 report of the Lancet Countdown on health and climate change: code red for a healthy future". The Lancet 398 (10311): 1619–1662. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(21)01787-6. PMID 34687662. PMC 7616807. http://sro.sussex.ac.uk/id/eprint/102413/1/2021%20Report%20of%20the%20Lancet%20Countdown%20revised%20_no%20refs%20ES_clean.pdf. 
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 Cissé, G., R. McLeman, H. Adams, P. Aldunce, K. Bowen, D. Campbell-Lendrum, S. Clayton, K.L. Ebi, J. Hess, C. Huang, Q. Liu, G. McGregor, J. Semenza, and M.C. Tirado, 2022: Chapter 7: Health, Wellbeing, and the Changing Structure of Communities. In: Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [H.-O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, M. Tignor, E.S. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Craig, S. Langsdorf, S. Löschke, V. Möller, A. Okem, B. Rama (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA, pp. 1041–1170, doi:10.1017/9781009325844.009.
  5. ↑ Silburn, Alan; Arndell, Joel (2024-12-01). "The impact of dengue viruses: Surveillance, response, and public health implications in Queensland, Australia". Public Health in Practice 8. doi:10.1016/j.puhip.2024.100529. ISSN 2666-5352. PMID 39071864. 
  6. ↑ Dimitrova, Anna; Gershunov, Alexander; Levy, Morgan C.; Benmarhnia, Tarik (2023-01-17). "Uncovering social and environmental factors that increase the burden of climate-sensitive diarrheal infections on children" (in en). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 120 (3). doi:10.1073/pnas.2119409120. ISSN 0027-8424. PMID 36623190. Bibcode: 2023PNAS..12019409D. 
  7. ↑ WHO (18 June 2019). "1 in 3 people globally do not have access to safe drinking water – UNICEF, WHO" (in en). https://www.who.int/news/item/18-06-2019-1-in-3-people-globally-do-not-have-access-to-safe-drinking-water-unicef-who. 
  8. ↑ WHO (12 October 2023). "Climate change" (in en). https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/climate-change-and-health. 
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 "Impact of recent and future climate change on vector-borne diseases". Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1436 (1): 157–173. January 2019. doi:10.1111/nyas.13950. PMID 30120891. Bibcode: 2019NYASA1436..157C.  50x50px Text was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) (2023-06-22). Climate Change 2022 – Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability: Working Group II Contribution to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (1 ed.). Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781009325844. ISBN 978-1-009-32584-4. https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/9781009325844/type/book. 
  11. ↑ "What is the link between climate change and infectious disease? | PreventionWeb" (in en). 2023-12-01. https://www.preventionweb.net/news/what-link-between-climate-change-and-infectious-disease. 
  12. ↑ "Climate impacts have worsened vast range of human diseases" (in en). The Guardian. 8 August 2022. https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2022/aug/08/climate-crisis-study-human-diseases. 
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 "Over half of known human pathogenic diseases can be aggravated by climate change". Nature Climate Change 12 (9): 869–875. September 2022. doi:10.1038/s41558-022-01426-1. PMID 35968032. Bibcode: 2022NatCC..12..869M. 
  14. ↑ Choi, Soo H.; Beer, Jacob; Charrow, Alexandra (13 March 2023). "Climate change and the displaced person: how vectors and climate are changing the landscape of infectious diseases among displaced and migrant populations" (in en). International Journal of Dermatology 62 (5): 681–684. doi:10.1111/ijd.16636. ISSN 0011-9059. PMID 36912708. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ijd.16636. 
  15. ↑ Ansah, Edward W.; Ankomah-Appiah, Emmanuel; Amoadu, Mustapha; Sarfo, Jacob O. (2 August 2021). "Climate change, health and safety of workers in developing economies: A scoping review" (in en). The Journal of Climate Change and Health 3. doi:10.1016/j.joclim.2021.100034. Bibcode: 2021JCCH....300034A. https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2667278221000316. 
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 Romanello, Marina; McGushin, Alice; Di Napoli, Claudia; Drummond, Paul; Hughes, Nick; Jamart, Louis; Kennard, Harry; Lampard, Pete et al. (October 2021). "The 2021 report of the Lancet Countdown on health and climate change: code red for a healthy future". The Lancet 398 (10311): 1619–1662. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(21)01787-6. PMID 34687662. PMC 7616807. http://sro.sussex.ac.uk/id/eprint/102413/1/2021%20Report%20of%20the%20Lancet%20Countdown%20revised%20_no%20refs%20ES_clean.pdf. 
  17. ↑ "Crop pests and pathogens move polewards in a warming world". Nature Climate Change 3 (11): 985–988. 2013. doi:10.1038/nclimate1990. Bibcode: 2013NatCC...3..985B. 
  18. ↑ "Ch. 1: Introduction: Climate Change and Human Health". The Impacts of Climate Change on Human Health in the United States: A Scientific Assessment. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Global Change Research Program. 2016. doi:10.7930/J0VX0DFW. https://health2016.globalchange.gov/high/ClimateHealth2016_01_Introduction.pdf. Retrieved 28 June 2020. 
  19. ↑ "Ch. 5: Vectorborne Diseases. The Impacts of Climate Change on Human Health in the United States: A Scientific Assessment". Climate and Health Assessment. 2016. doi:10.7930/j0765c7v. https://health2016.globalchange.gov/downloads#vectorborne-diseases. 
  20. ↑ "Climate Change and Public Health – Disease Vectors | CDC" (in en-us). 9 September 2019. https://www.cdc.gov/climateandhealth/effects/vectors.htm. 
  21. ↑ IPCC (2007). Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability.. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.. http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/publications_ipcc_fourth_assessment_report_wg2_report_impacts_adaptation_and_vulnerability.htm. Retrieved 30 April 2021. 
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 22.2 "Climate change and the distribution and intensity of infectious diseases". Ecology 90 (4): 903–905. April 2009. doi:10.1890/08-0659.1. PMID 19449683. Bibcode: 2009Ecol...90..903O. 
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 "Climate change & infectious disease: is the future here?". Environmental Health Perspectives 119 (9): a394–a397. September 2011. doi:10.1289/ehp.119-a394. PMID 21885367. Bibcode: 2011EnvHP.119.a394C. 
  24. ↑ "How dose climate change affect disease". March 15, 2019. https://earth.stanford.edu/news/how-does-climate-change-affect-disease#gs.04lyyi. 
  25. ↑ Future Earth; The Earth League; WCRP (2025-10-30) (in en). 10 New Insights in Climate Science 2025/2026 (Report). Future Earth, The Earth League, World Climate Research Programme. doi:10.5281/zenodo.17328963. https://zenodo.org/doi/10.5281/zenodo.17328963. 
  26. ↑ "The Effect of Climate Change on Mosquito-Borne Diseases". The American Biology Teacher 79 (3): 169–173. 2017. doi:10.1525/abt.2017.79.3.169. ISSN 0002-7685. 
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 Fleischmann, Wim A.; Cao, Le Chi; Nurjadi, Dennis; Velavan, Thirumalaisamy P. (19 October 2024). "Addressing the rise of autochthonous vector-borne diseases in a warming Europe" (in en). International Journal of Infectious Diseases 149. doi:10.1016/j.ijid.2024.107275. PMID 39427704. 
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 28.2 "The ecology of Anopheles mosquitoes under climate change: case studies from the effects of deforestation in East African highlands". Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1249 (1): 204–210. February 2012. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.2011.06432.x. PMID 22320421. Bibcode: 2012NYASA1249..204A. 
  29. ↑ "Survivorship of immature stages of Anopheles gambiae s.l. (Diptera: Culicidae) in natural habitats in western Kenya highlands". Journal of Medical Entomology 44 (5): 758–764. September 2007. doi:10.1603/0022-2585(2007)44[758:SOISOA2.0.CO;2]. PMID 17915505. 
  30. ↑ Carlson, Colin J.; Albery, Gregory F.; Merow, Cory (2022). "Climate change increases cross-species viral transmission risk". Nature 607 (7919): 555–562. doi:10.1038/s41586-022-04788-w. PMID 35483403. Bibcode: 2022Natur.607..555C. 
  31. ↑ Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability (Report). Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. 2022. 
  32. ↑ "Climate change and health". World Health Organization. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/climate-change-and-health. 
  33. ↑ "Climate Effects on Health". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. https://www.cdc.gov/climateandhealth/effects. 
  34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 34.2 "Climate Change Impacts on Waterborne Diseases: Moving Toward Designing Interventions". Current Environmental Health Reports 5 (2): 272–282. June 2018. doi:10.1007/s40572-018-0199-7. PMID 29721700. Bibcode: 2018CEHR....5..272L. 
  35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 35.2 "Untangling the Impacts of Climate Change on Waterborne Diseases: a Systematic Review of Relationships between Diarrheal Diseases and Temperature, Rainfall, Flooding, and Drought". Environmental Science & Technology 50 (10): 4905–4922. May 2016. doi:10.1021/acs.est.5b06186. PMID 27058059. Bibcode: 2016EnST...50.4905L. 
  36. ↑ 36.0 36.1 "Climate change and waterborne and vector-borne disease". Journal of Applied Microbiology 94 (s1): 37S–46S. 2003. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2672.94.s1.5.x. PMID 12675935. 
  37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 "Untangling the Impacts of Climate Change on Waterborne Diseases: a Systematic Review of Relationships between Diarrheal Diseases and Temperature, Rainfall, Flooding, and Drought". Environmental Science & Technology 50 (10): 4905–4922. May 2016. doi:10.1021/acs.est.5b06186. PMID 27058059. Bibcode: 2016EnST...50.4905L. 
  38. ↑ 38.0 38.1 Clayton, Susan (26 June 2020). "Climate anxiety: Psychological responses to climate change" (in en). Journal of Anxiety Disorders 74. doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2020.102263. PMID 32623280. 
  39. ↑ Linder, Julia; Jackson-Smith, Douglas; Inwood, Shoshanah; Woods, Tiffany (30 October 2025). "Impacts of Extreme Weather on Farmer Mental Health" (in en). Rural Sociology 90 (4). doi:10.1111/ruso.70027. ISSN 0036-0112. 
  40. ↑ Alotiby, Amna (2024-10-25). "Immunology of Stress: A Review Article" (in en). Journal of Clinical Medicine 13 (21): 6394. doi:10.3390/jcm13216394. ISSN 2077-0383. PMID 39518533. 
  41. ↑ Imberti, Luisa; Tiecco, Giorgio; Logiudice, Jacopo; Castelli, Francesco; Quiros-Roldan, Eugenia (18 April 2025). "Effects of Climate Change on the Immune System: A Narrative Review" (in en). Health Science Reports 8 (4). doi:10.1002/hsr2.70627. ISSN 2398-8835. PMID 40256129. 
  42. ↑ Yao, Wenfei; Zhang, Xiaofeng; Gong, Qi (16 December 2020). "The effect of exposure to the natural environment on stress reduction: A meta-analysis" (in en). Urban Forestry & Urban Greening 57. doi:10.1016/j.ufug.2020.126932. 
  43. ↑ Habibullah, Muzafar Shah; Din, Badariah Haji; Tan, Siow-Hooi; Zahid, Hasan (3 August 2021). "Impact of climate change on biodiversity loss: global evidence" (in en). Environmental Science and Pollution Research 29 (1): 1073–1086. doi:10.1007/s11356-021-15702-8. ISSN 0944-1344. PMID 34341937. https://link.springer.com/10.1007/s11356-021-15702-8. 
  44. ↑ Ewert, Alan; Chang, Yun (2018-05-17). "Levels of Nature and Stress Response" (in en). Behavioral Sciences 8 (5): 49. doi:10.3390/bs8050049. ISSN 2076-328X. PMID 29772763. 
  45. ↑ "Malaria". Lancet 365 (9469): 1487–1498. 23 April 2005. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(05)66420-3. PMID 15850634. 
  46. ↑ 46.0 46.1 "Malaria risk and temperature: influences from global climate change and local land use practices". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 103 (15): 5635–5636. April 2006. doi:10.1073/pnas.0601493103. PMID 16595623. Bibcode: 2006PNAS..103.5635P. 
  47. ↑ 47.0 47.1 "Malaria and Climate Change: Discussion on Economic Impacts". American Journal of Environmental Sciences 7 (1): 65–74. 2010. doi:10.3844/ajessp.2011.73.82. 
  48. ↑ Suhr, Friederike; Steinert, Janina Isabel (February 2022). "Epidemiology of floods in sub-Saharan Africa: a systematic review of health outcomes" (in en). BMC Public Health 22 (1). doi:10.1186/s12889-022-12584-4. ISSN 1471-2458. PMID 35144560. 
  49. ↑ Ayanlade, Ayansina; Sergi, Consolato M.; Sakdapolrak, Patrick; Ayanlade, Oluwatoyin S.; Di Carlo, Paola; Babatimehin, Oyekanmi I.; Weldemariam, Lemlem F.; Jegede, Margaret O. (29 July 2022). "Climate change engenders a better Early Warning System development across Sub-Saharan Africa: The malaria case" (in en). Resources, Environment and Sustainability 10. doi:10.1016/j.resenv.2022.100080. Bibcode: 2022REnvS..1000080A. https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2666916122000299. 
  50. ↑ Djedanem, Médard; Sale, Noura Mamane; Aminou, Elhadji Yacoudima Y.M.; Descroix, Luc; Testa, Jean; Jambou, Ronan (24 June 2025). "Intense rainfalls and floods reshape malaria transmission in Niger" (in en). Acta Tropica 268. doi:10.1016/j.actatropica.2025.107699. PMID 40527405. https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0001706X25001755. 
  51. ↑ "Climate Change and Malaria in India". Current Science 90 (3): 369–375. 2006. 
  52. ↑ "Nigeria: Duration of the Malaria Transmission Season". mara.org.za. MARA/ARMA (Mapping Malaria Risk in Africa / Atlas du Risque de la Malaria en Afrique). July 2001. http://www.mara.org.za/pdfmaps/NgaSeasonality.PDF. 
  53. ↑ 53.0 53.1 "Impact of regional climate change on human health". Nature 438 (7066): 310–317. November 2005. doi:10.1038/nature04188. PMID 16292302. Bibcode: 2005Natur.438..310P. 
  54. ↑ 54.0 54.1 54.2 54.3 "Dengue" (in en). https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/dengue-and-severe-dengue. 
  55. ↑ "Dengue". The New England Journal of Medicine 366 (15): 1423–1432. April 2012. doi:10.1056/NEJMra1110265. PMID 22494122. 
  56. ↑ Guzman, Maria G.; Gubler, Duane J.; Izquierdo, Alienys; Martinez, Eric; Halstead, Scott B. (2016-08-18). "Dengue infection" (in en). Nature Reviews Disease Primers 2 (1). doi:10.1038/nrdp.2016.55. ISSN 2056-676X. PMID 27534439. https://www.nature.com/articles/nrdp201655. 
  57. ↑ "Projecting the impact of climate change on dengue transmission in Dhaka, Bangladesh". Environment International 63: 137–42. February 2014. doi:10.1016/j.envint.2013.11.002. PMID 24291765. Bibcode: 2014EnInt..63..137B. https://eprints.qut.edu.au/67037/10/67037d.pdf. 
  58. ↑ 58.0 58.1 58.2 "Dengue in a changing climate". Environmental Research 151: 115–123. November 2016. doi:10.1016/j.envres.2016.07.026. PMID 27475051. Bibcode: 2016ER....151..115E. 
  59. ↑ Damtew, Yohannes Tefera; Tong, Michael; Varghese, Blesson Mathew; Anikeeva, Olga; Hansen, Alana; Dear, Keith; Zhang, Ying; Morgan, Geoffrey et al. (21 April 2023). "Effects of high temperatures and heatwaves on dengue fever: a systematic review and meta-analysis" (in en). eBioMedicine 91. doi:10.1016/j.ebiom.2023.104582. PMID 37088034. 
  60. ↑ Abdullah, Nur Athen Mohd Hardy; Dom, Nazri Che; Salleh, Siti Aekball; Salim, Hasber; Precha, Nopadol (31 October 2022). "The association between dengue case and climate: A systematic review and meta-analysis" (in en). One Health 15. doi:10.1016/j.onehlt.2022.100452. PMID 36561711. 
  61. ↑ "Human and Medical Virology: Dengue Viruses". Desk Encyclopedia of Human and Medical Virology. Academic Press. 2010. pp. 372–382. ISBN 978-0-12-378559-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=nsh48WKIbhQC&pg=PA372. 
  62. ↑ Gong, Lingling; Diao, Luteng; Lv, Tianbao; Liu, Yilin; Liu, Jiuxi; Zhang, Wenlong; Xie, Xufeng; Cao, Yongguo (21 May 2025). "A comprehensive review of tick-borne disease epidemiology, clinical manifestations, pathogenesis, and prevention" (in en). Animals and Zoonoses 1 (3): 254–265. doi:10.1016/j.azn.2025.05.004. https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2950248925000379. 
  63. ↑ Boulanger, Nathalie; Iijima, Hayato; Doi, Kandai; Watari, Yuya; Kwak, Mackenzie; Nakao, Ryo; Wikel, Stephen (2025-08-08). "Ticks and tick-borne diseases in the northern hemisphere affecting humans". Frontiers in Microbiology 16. doi:10.3389/fmicb.2025.1632832. ISSN 1664-302X. PMID 40862142. 
  64. ↑ "What makes ticks tick? Climate change, ticks, and tick-borne diseases". Journal of Travel Medicine 15 (1): 39–45. 1 January 2008. doi:10.1111/j.1708-8305.2007.00176.x. PMID 18217868. 
  65. ↑ "A climate-based model predicts the spatial distribution of the Lyme disease vector Ixodes scapularis in the United States". Environmental Health Perspectives 111 (9): 1152–1157. July 2003. doi:10.1289/ehp.6052. PMID 12842766. Bibcode: 2003EnvHP.111.1152B. 
  66. ↑ USGCRP. "Life Cycle of Blacklegged Ticks, Ixodes scapularis" (in en). https://health2016.globalchange.gov/climate-and-health-assessment/vectorborne-diseases/boxes/life-cycle-blacklegged-ticks-ixodes. 
  67. ↑ Boulanger, Nathalie; Iijima, Hayato; Doi, Kandai; Watari, Yuya; Kwak, Mackenzie; Nakao, Ryo; Wikel, Stephen (2025-08-08). "Ticks and tick-borne diseases in the northern hemisphere affecting humans". Frontiers in Microbiology 16. doi:10.3389/fmicb.2025.1632832. ISSN 1664-302X. PMID 40862142. 
  68. ↑ 68.0 68.1 "Translating Ecology, Physiology, Biochemistry, and Population Genetics Research to Meet the Challenge of Tick and Tick-Borne Diseases in North America". Archives of Insect Biochemistry and Physiology 92 (1): 38–64. May 2016. doi:10.1002/arch.21327. PMID 27062414. 
  69. ↑ (in en) Global Climate Change and Human Health: From Science to Practice. John Wiley & Sons. 2 November 2015. ISBN 978-1-118-50557-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=U0E1CAAAQBAJ&q=luber+lemry+climate+health&pg=PR11. 
  70. ↑ "Climate change influences on the annual onset of Lyme disease in the United States". Ticks and Tick-Borne Diseases 6 (5): 615–622. July 2015. doi:10.1016/j.ttbdis.2015.05.005. PMID 26025268. Bibcode: 2015AGUFMGC13L..07M. 
  71. ↑ Cao, Bo; Bai, Chengke; Wu, Kunyi; La, Ting; Chen, Wenwen; Liu, Lianjin; Zhou, Xiaofang; Chen, Chong et al. (16 January 2025). "Ticks jump in a warmer world: Global distribution shifts of main pathogenic ticks are associated with future climate change" (in en). Journal of Environmental Management 374. doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2025.124129. PMID 39823935. Bibcode: 2025JEnvM.37424129C. https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0301479725001057. 
  72. ↑ 72.0 72.1 "Report on Global Surveillance of Epidemic-prone Infectious Diseases – Leishmaniasis". https://www.who.int/csr/resources/publications/CSR_ISR_2000_1leish/en/. 
  73. ↑ 73.0 73.1 "Leishmaniasis". March 2020. https://www.who.int/en/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/leishmaniasis. 
  74. ↑ "Climate change and risk of leishmaniasis in north america: predictions from ecological niche models of vector and reservoir species". PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases 4 (1). January 2010. doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0000585. PMID 20098495. 
  75. ↑ "Combining climatic projections and dispersal ability: a method for estimating the responses of sandfly vector species to climate change". PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases 5 (11). November 2011. doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0001407. PMID 22140590. 
  76. ↑ "Modeling the climatic suitability of leishmaniasis vector species in Europe". Scientific Reports 7 (1). October 2017. doi:10.1038/s41598-017-13822-1. PMID 29042642. Bibcode: 2017NatSR...713325K. 
  77. ↑ "Influences of climate change on the potential distribution of Lutzomyia longipalpis sensu lato (Psychodidae: Phlebotominae)". International Journal for Parasitology 47 (10–11): 667–674. September 2017. doi:10.1016/j.ijpara.2017.04.007. PMID 28668326. 
  78. ↑ "The effect of temperature on Leishmania (Kinetoplastida: Trypanosomatidae) development in sand flies". Journal of Medical Entomology 50 (5): 955–958. September 2013. doi:10.1603/ME13053. PMID 24180098. 
  79. ↑ "Ebola (Ebola Virus Disease) | CDC" (in en-us). 5 February 2020. https://www.cdc.gov/vhf/ebola/index.html. 
  80. ↑ 80.0 80.1 "Climate crisis raises risk of more Ebola outbreaks". 15 October 2019. https://www.cnn.com/2019/10/15/health/climate-crisis-ebola-risks/index.html. 
  81. ↑ Telford, Carson T.; Amman, Brian R.; Towner, Jonathan S.; Montgomery, Joel M.; Lessler, Justin; Shoemaker, Trevor (April 2025). "Predictive Model for Estimating Annual Ebolavirus Spillover Potential". Emerging Infectious Diseases 31 (4): 689–698. doi:10.3201/eid3104.241193. ISSN 1080-6040. PMID 40133032. PMC 11950271. https://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/31/4/24-1193_article. 
  82. ↑ "Ebola and Climate Change: How Are They Connected?" (in en). 14 August 2014. https://www.ecowatch.com/ebola-and-climate-change-how-are-they-connected-1881942860.html. 
  83. ↑ "A Literature Review of Zika Virus". Emerging Infectious Diseases 22 (7): 1185–1192. July 2016. doi:10.3201/eid2207.151990. PMID 27070380. 
  84. ↑ Chen, Lin H.; Hamer, Davidson H. (2016-05-03). "Zika Virus: Rapid Spread in the Western Hemisphere" (in en). Annals of Internal Medicine 164 (9): 613–615. doi:10.7326/M16-0150. ISSN 0003-4819. PMID 26832396. https://www.acpjournals.org/doi/10.7326/M16-0150. 
  85. ↑ "Spread of Zika virus in the Americas". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 114 (22): E4334–E4343. May 2017. doi:10.1073/pnas.1620161114. PMID 28442561. Bibcode: 2017PNAS..114E4334Z. 
  86. ↑ "Zika virus: A review of literature" (in en). Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Biomedicine 6 (12): 989–994. 1 December 2016. doi:10.1016/j.apjtb.2016.09.007. ISSN 2221-1691. 
  87. ↑ "Zika virus" (in en). https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/zika-virus. 
  88. ↑ Ryan, Sadie J.; Carlson, Colin J.; Tesla, Blanka; Bonds, Matthew H.; Ngonghala, Calistus N.; Mordecai, Erin A.; Johnson, Leah R.; Murdock, Courtney C. (9 October 2020). "Warming temperatures could expose more than 1.3 billion new people to Zika virus risk by 2050" (in en). Global Change Biology 27 (1): 84–93. doi:10.1111/gcb.15384. ISSN 1354-1013. PMID 33037740. 
  89. ↑ "Climate change and human health". The New England Journal of Medicine 353 (14): 1433–1436. October 2005. doi:10.1056/NEJMp058079. PMID 16207843. 
  90. ↑ "Explainer: How climate change is amplifying mosquito-borne diseases" (in en). 22 April 2022. https://www.worldmosquitoprogram.org/en/news-stories/stories/explainer-how-climate-change-amplifying-mosquito-borne-diseases. 
  91. ↑ 91.0 91.1 Douglas, Kirk Osmond; Payne, Karl; Sabino-Santos, Gilberto; Agard, John (2021-12-23). "Influence of Climatic Factors on Human Hantavirus Infections in Latin America and the Caribbean: A Systematic Review" (in en). Pathogens 11 (1): 15. doi:10.3390/pathogens11010015. ISSN 2076-0817. PMID 35055965. 
  92. ↑ YATES, TERRY L.; MILLS, JAMES N.; PARMENTER, CHERYL A.; KSIAZEK, THOMAS G.; PARMENTER, ROBERT R.; VANDE CASTLE, JOHN R.; CALISHER, CHARLES H.; NICHOL, STUART T. et al. (2002). [0989:teaeho2.0.co;2 "The Ecology and Evolutionary History of an Emergent Disease: Hantavirus Pulmonary Syndrome"]. BioScience 52 (11): 989. doi:10.1641/0006-3568(2002)052[0989:teaeho2.0.co;2]. ISSN 0006-3568. http://dx.doi.org/10.1641/0006-3568(2002)052[0989:teaeho]2.0.co;2. 
  93. ↑ Klempa, B. (2009-06-01). "Hantaviruses and climate change". Clinical Microbiology and Infection 15 (6): 518–523. doi:10.1111/j.1469-0691.2009.02848.x. ISSN 1198-743X. PMID 19604276. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1198743X14604390. 
  94. ↑ Zell, Roland (2004-04-01). "Global climate change and the emergence/re-emergence of infectious diseases". International Journal of Medical Microbiology Supplements 293: 16–26. doi:10.1016/S1433-1128(04)80005-6. ISSN 1433-1128. PMID 15146981. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1433112804800056?fr=RR-7&ref=pdf_download&rr=8da42854dcbb818f. 
  95. ↑ Fabbri, Daniele; Mirolo, Monica; Tagliapietra, Valentina; Ludlow, Martin; Osterhaus, Albert; Beraldo, Paola (2025-03-26). "Ecological determinants driving orthohantavirus prevalence in small mammals of Europe: a systematic review" (in en). One Health Outlook 7 (1): 15. doi:10.1186/s42522-025-00136-w. ISSN 2524-4655. PMID 40134030. 
  96. ↑ "Coronavirus disease (COVID-19): Climate change". https://www.who.int/news-room/q-a-detail/coronavirus-disease-covid-19-climate-change#:~:text=Will%20climate%20change%20make%20COVID,reducing%20transmission%20and%20treating%20patients.. 
  97. ↑ 97.0 97.1 97.2 97.3 "Shifts in global bat diversity suggest a possible role of climate change in the emergence of SARS-CoV-1 and SARS-CoV-2". The Science of the Total Environment 767. May 2021. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.145413. PMID 33558040. Bibcode: 2021ScTEn.76745413B. 
  98. ↑ "Climate Change Could Have Played A Role In The Covid-19 Outbreak". https://www.forbes.com/sites/davidbressan/2021/02/08/climate-change-could-have-played-a-role-in-the-covid-19-outbreak/. 
  99. ↑ 99.0 99.1 99.2 "Can the One Health Approach Save Us from the Emergence and Reemergence of Infectious Pathogens in the Era of Climate Change: Implications for Antimicrobial Resistance?". Antibiotics 9 (9): 599. September 2020. doi:10.3390/antibiotics9090599. PMID 32937739. 
  100. ↑ 100.0 100.1 100.2 The Climate Crisis and Its Impact on HIV: A Policy Brief from UNDP and UNAIDS. Geneva: Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS. 2024. https://www.unaids.org/sites/default/files/media_asset/climate-crisis-HIV-policy-brief_en.pdf. 
  101. ↑ "Climate change" (in en). https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/climate-change-and-health. 
  102. ↑ 102.0 102.1 102.2 102.3 The Lancet HIV (February 2024). "Effect of climate change on the HIV response" (in en). The Lancet HIV 11 (2): e63. doi:10.1016/S2352-3018(24)00009-2. PMID 38296360. https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2352301824000092. 
  103. ↑ Roberts, Lillian; Pretorius, Linda; Pretorius, Lillian Roberts and Linda (2023-12-14). "Taken by storm: Why climate change will make transactional sex more common" (in en-US). https://bhekisisa.org/special-reports/2023-12-14-taken-by-storm-why-climate-change-will-make-transactional-sex-more-common/. 
  104. ↑ Brink, Debra ten; Martin-Hughes, Rowan; Bowring, Anna L; Wulan, Nisaa; Burke, Kelvin; Tidhar, Tom; Dalal, Shona; Scott, Nick (26 March 2025). "Impact of an international HIV funding crisis on HIV infections and mortality in low-income and middle-income countries: a modelling study" (in en). The Lancet HIV 12 (5): e346–e354. doi:10.1016/S2352-3018(25)00074-8. PMID 40157378. https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2352301825000748. 
  105. ↑ HIV and The Climate Crisis: Safeguarding Health in a Changing World. A Frontline AIDS Evidence Brief. Frontline AIDS. December 2023. https://frontlineaids.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/12/Climate-HIV-Briefing-Paper_update_v1.pdf. 
  106. ↑ 106.0 106.1 "Diarrhoeal disease" (in en). https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/diarrhoeal-disease. 
  107. ↑ "Vibrio Species Causing Vibriosis | Vibrio Illness (Vibriosis) | CDC" (in en-us). 2019-03-08. https://www.cdc.gov/vibrio/index.html. 
  108. ↑ "The influence of climate change on waterborne disease and Legionella: a review". Perspectives in Public Health 138 (5): 282–286. September 2018. doi:10.1177/1757913918791198. PMID 30156484. 
  109. ↑ 109.0 109.1 109.2 Bekele, Bezawit Kassahun; Uwishema, Olivier; Bisetegn, Lydia Daniel; Moubarak, Antonia; Charline, Mugeniwayesu; Sibomana, Pacifique; Onyeaka, Chinyere Vivian Patrick (2025-04-30). "Cholera in Africa: A Climate Change Crisis" (in en). Journal of Epidemiology and Global Health 15 (1). doi:10.1007/s44197-025-00386-x. ISSN 2210-6014. PMID 40304931. 
  110. ↑ "Managing the health effects of climate change: Lancet and University College London Institute for Global Health Commission". Lancet 373 (9676): 1693–1733. May 2009. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(09)60935-1. PMID 19447250. 
  111. ↑ 111.0 111.1 111.2 Stahl, Leigha M; Olson, Julie B (2020-12-30). "Environmental abiotic and biotic factors affecting the distribution and abundance of Naegleria fowleri" (in en). FEMS Microbiology Ecology 97 (1). doi:10.1093/femsec/fiaa238. ISSN 1574-6941. PMID 33242082. 
  112. ↑ 112.0 112.1 "Climate change brings the specter of new infectious diseases". The Journal of Clinical Investigation 130 (2): 553–555. February 2020. doi:10.1172/JCI135003. PMID 31904588. 
  113. ↑ "Simultaneous Emergence of Multidrug-Resistant Candida auris on 3 Continents Confirmed by Whole-Genome Sequencing and Epidemiological Analyses". Clinical Infectious Diseases 64 (2): 134–140. January 2017. doi:10.1093/cid/ciw691. PMID 27988485. 
  114. ↑ "Climate change increases cross-species viral transmission risk". Nature 607 (7919): 555–562. July 2022. doi:10.1038/s41586-022-04788-w. PMID 35483403. Bibcode: 2022Natur.607..555C. 
  115. ↑ 115.0 115.1 115.2 115.3 115.4 115.5 "Climate change and wildlife health: direct and indirect effects". Fact Sheet: 4. 2010. doi:10.3133/fs20103017. ISSN 2327-6932. Bibcode: 2010usgs.rept...10H. 
  116. ↑ "Impact of climate change on animal health and welfare". Animal Frontiers 9 (1): 26–31. January 2019. doi:10.1093/af/vfy030. PMID 32002236. 
  117. ↑ Hattendorf, Carolin; Lühken, Renke (2025-07-02). "Vectors, host range, and spatial distribution of Dirofilaria immitis and D. repens in Europe: a systematic review" (in en). Infectious Diseases of Poverty 14 (1). doi:10.1186/s40249-025-01328-2. ISSN 2049-9957. PMID 40604914. 
  118. ↑ Atkinson, Peter Jonathon; Nielsen, Torben Dahl; Caraguel, Charles (15 December 2025). "Historical and Projected Impact of Global Climate Change on the Extrinsic Incubation of Dirofilaria immitis" (in en). Ecology and Evolution 15 (12). doi:10.1002/ece3.72525. ISSN 2045-7758. PMID 41409073. Bibcode: 2025EcoEv..1572525A. 
  119. ↑ 119.0 119.1 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) (2023-06-22). "Chapter 7: Health, Wellbeing and the Changing Structure of Communities". Climate Change 2022 – Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability: Working Group II Contribution to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (1 ed.). Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781009325844. ISBN 978-1-009-32584-4. https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/9781009325844/type/book. 
  120. ↑ World Health Organisations (12 October 2023). "Climate change" (in en). https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/climate-change-and-health. 
  121. ↑ World Health Organisation (9 November 2023) (in en). Operational framework for building climate resilient and low carbon health systems. World Health Organization. ISBN 978-92-4-008188-8. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240081888. Retrieved 2025-12-16. 
  122. ↑ 122.0 122.1 122.2 122.3 122.4 "Health and climate change: policy responses to protect public health". Lancet 386 (10006): 1861–1914. November 2015. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(15)60854-6. PMID 26111439. 
  123. ↑ Van de Vuurst, Paige; Escobar, Luis E. (2023-05-16). "Climate change and infectious disease: a review of evidence and research trends". Infectious Diseases of Poverty 12 (1): 51. doi:10.1186/s40249-023-01102-2. ISSN 2049-9957. PMID 37194092. 
  124. ↑ 124.0 124.1 "Climate change and vector-borne diseases: what are the implications for public health research and policy?". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences 370 (1665). April 2015. doi:10.1098/rstb.2013.0552. PMID 25688013. 
  125. ↑ Rocklöv, Joacim; Dubrow, Robert (2020-04-20). "Climate change: an enduring challenge for vector-borne disease prevention and control". Nature Immunology 21 (5): 479–483. doi:10.1038/s41590-020-0648-y. ISSN 1529-2908. PMID 32313242. 
  126. ↑ World Health Organization. "Disease surveillance" (in en). https://www.who.int/westernpacific/emergencies/surveillance. 
  127. ↑ "An Analysis of the Potential Impact of Climate Change on Dengue Transmission in the Southeastern United States". Environmental Health Perspectives 125 (4): 579–585. April 2017. doi:10.1289/EHP218. PMID 27713106. Bibcode: 2017EnvHP.125..579B. 
  128. ↑ "Science points to causes of COVID-19". United Nations. 22 May 2020. https://www.unenvironment.org/news-and-stories/story/science-points-causes-covid-19. 
  129. ↑ Pongsiri, Montira J; Bickersteth, Sam; Colón, Cristina; DeFries, Ruth; Dhaliwal, Mandeep; Georgeson, Lucien; Haines, Andrew; Linou, Natalia et al. (October 2019). "Planetary health: from concept to decisive action" (in en). The Lancet Planetary Health 3 (10): e402–e404. doi:10.1016/S2542-5196(19)30190-1. PMID 31625509. https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2542519619301901. 
  130. ↑ Redvers, Nicole; Aubrey, Paula; Celidwen, Yuria; Hill, Kyle (2023-10-13). Pai, Madhukar. ed. "Indigenous Peoples: Traditional knowledges, climate change, and health" (in en). PLOS Global Public Health 3 (10). doi:10.1371/journal.pgph.0002474. ISSN 2767-3375. PMID 37831713. 
  131. ↑ Johnson, Danielle; Parsons, Meg; Fisher, Karen (2021-04-03). "Engaging Indigenous perspectives on health, wellbeing and climate change. A new research agenda for holistic climate action in Aotearoa and beyond" (in en). Local Environment 26 (4): 477–503. doi:10.1080/13549839.2021.1901266. ISSN 1354-9839. Bibcode: 2021LoEnv..26..477J. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13549839.2021.1901266. 
  132. ↑ Romanello, Marina; Walawender, Maria; Hsu, Shih-Che; Moskeland, Annalyse; Palmeiro-Silva, Yasna; Scamman, Daniel; Ali, Zakari; Ameli, Nadia et al. (2024-11-09). "The 2024 report of the Lancet Countdown on health and climate change: facing record-breaking threats from delayed action" (in English). The Lancet 404 (10465): 1847–1896. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(24)01822-1. ISSN 0140-6736. PMID 39488222. 

Template:Concepts in infectious disease



Retrieved from "https://handwiki.org/wiki/index.php?title=Earth:Climate_change_and_infectious_diseases&oldid=4578339"