Engineering:Dream Chaser

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Short description: US reusable automated cargo lifting-body spaceplane
Dream Chaser
Dream Chaser flight test vehicle in 2013
Dream Chaser flight test vehicle in 2013
ManufacturerSierra Space
Country of originUnited States
OperatorNASA
ApplicationsISS resupply
Specifications
Spacecraft typeRobotic cargo vehicle
Crewed orbital spaceplane
Payload capacity5,000 kg (5.0 t; 11,000 lb) pressurized, 500 kg (0.50 t; 1,100 lb) unpressurized
Crew capacity0 (cargo)
3-7 (crew)
RegimeLEO
Production
StatusIn development
Built3
Launched0 (4 atmospheric tests)
Operational1
Related spacecraft
Derived fromHL-20 Personnel Launch System

Dream Chaser is an American reusable lifting-body spaceplane being developed by Sierra Space. Originally intended as a crewed vehicle, the Dream Chaser Space System is set to be produced after the Dream Chaser Cargo System cargo variant is operational. The crewed variant is planned to carry up to seven people and cargo to and from low Earth orbit.[1]

The cargo Dream Chaser is designed to resupply the International Space Station with both pressurized and unpressurized cargo. It is intended to launch vertically on the Vulcan Centaur rocket[2] and autonomously land horizontally on coventional runways.[3] A proposed version to be operated by ESA would launch on an Arianespace vehicle.

Spacecraft

The Dream Chaser spaceplane is designed to be launched on the top of a typical rocket and land like an airplane on a runway. The design has heritage going back decades. Currently, the Dream Chaser will resupply the ISS with cargo. Per the companies website, a crew version is planned for a later date

Sierra Space is currently contracted under CRS-2 to perform resupply missions to the ISS over the next few years. [4]

Dream Chaser engineering test article, being driven along the runway after an atmospheric test.

Propulsion

On-orbit propulsion of the Dream Chaser was originally proposed to be provided by twin hybrid rocket engines capable of repeated starts and throttling. At the time, SNC Space Systems was also developing a similar hybrid rocket for Virgin Galactic's SpaceShipTwo.[5] In May 2014, SNC involvement in the SpaceShipTwo program ended.[6]

After the acquisition of Orbitec LLC in July 2014, Sierra Nevada Corporation announced a major change to the propulsion system. The hybrid rocket engine design was dropped in favor of a cluster of Orbitec's Vortex engines. The new engines would use propane and nitrous oxide as propellants.[7]

Thermal protection system

Its thermal protection system (TPS) is made up of silica-based tiles (for most of the belly and upper portion of the heat shield), and a new composite material called Toughened Unipiece Fibrous Reusable Oxidation Resistant Ceramic (TUFROC) to cover the nose and leading edges.[8][9]

Shooting Star module

In 2019, it was announced that an expendable Shooting Star cargo module would be part of the Dream Chaser cargo system for CRS-2 flights.[10][11][12] The module is a 15-foot-long (4.6 m) attachment to Dream Chaser that will allow the spacecraft to carry an additional 10,000 pounds (4,500 kg) of pressurized and unpressurized cargo to ISS. The module supports disposal of unwanted cargo by burning up upon re-entry.

In addition to carrying cargo, the Shooting Star module includes solar panels that supply up to 6 kW of electrical power. It also supplies active and passive thermal management; provides Dream Chaser translation and rotation capability via six mounted thrusters; and supports berthing or docking (in different configurations) to the ISS. Access from ISS to Dream Chaser will involve crew passing through Shooting Star (which supports a shirt-sleeve environment) and through a hatch that separates Shooting Star from Dream Chaser. Sierra Nevada says the module is capable of additional types of missions in LEO or to cis-lunar destinations; they have developed a free-flying variant with additional capabilities.[13]

In July 2020, Sierra Nevada announced a contract with the Defense Innovation Unit (DIU) to use its Shooting Star expendable cargo vehicle as a possible commercial solution for a high-powered uncrewed orbital outpost.[14]

Technology partners

In 2010, the following organizations were named as technology partners for the original passenger Dream Chaser:[15]

History

The Dream Chaser design is derived from NASA's HL-20 Personnel Launch System spaceplane concept,[18][19] which in turn is descended from a series of test vehicles, including the X-20 Dyna-Soar, Northrop M2-F2, Northrop M2-F3, Northrop HL-10, Martin X-24A and X-24B,[20][21][22] and Martin X-23 PRIME.[23]

The name "Dream Chaser" had been previously used for two separate space vehicle concepts. The first was planned to be an orbital vehicle based on the HL-20, with the second suborbital vehicle proposed by the Benson Space Company for the purposes of space tourism.[24]

The Dream Chaser was publicly announced on September 20, 2004.[25] In April 2007, SpaceDev announced that it had partnered with the United Launch Alliance to pursue the possibility of using the Atlas V booster rocket as the Dream Chaser's launch vehicle.[26] In June 2007, SpaceDev signed a Space Act agreement with NASA.[27]

On 21 October 2008, SpaceDev with Dream Chaser was acquired by the Sierra Nevada Corporation for US$38 million.[28]

CCDev phase 1

On 1 February 2010, Sierra Nevada Corporation was awarded $20 million in seed money under NASA's Commercial Crew Development (CCDev) phase 1 program for the development of the Dream Chaser.[29][30] SNC completed the four planned milestones on time, including hybrid rocket test fires and the preliminary structure design.[31] Further initial Dream Chaser tests included the drop test of a 15% scaled version at the NASA Dryden Flight Research Center.[32]

CCDev phase 2

Sierra Nevada proposed Dream Chaser for the CCDev phase 2 solicitation by NASA in October 2010, with an estimated project cost of less than $1 billion.[33][34] On 18 April 2011, NASA awarded $80 million to Sierra Nevada Corporation for Dream Chaser.[35] Since then, nearly a dozen further milestones have been completed under that Space Act Agreement. Some of these milestones included testing of an improved airfoil fin shape, integrated flight software and hardware, landing gear, a full-scale captive carry flight test, and a Systems Requirement Review (SRR).[36][37]

By February 2012, Sierra Nevada Corporation stated that it had completed the assembly and delivery of the primary structure of the first Dream Chaser flight test vehicle. With this, SNC completed all 11 of its CCDev milestones that were scheduled up to that point. SNC stated in a press release that it was "on time and on budget."[38]

On 29 May 2012, the Dream Chaser Engineering Test Article (ETA) was lifted by an Erickson Skycrane helicopter in a captive carry test to better determine its aerodynamic properties.[39][40] In May 2013, the ETA was shipped to the Dryden Flight Research Center in California for a series of ground tests and aerodynamic flight tests.[41] A second captive carry flight test was completed on 22 August 2013.[42]

On 12 June 2012, SNC announced the commemoration of its fifth year as a NASA Langley partner in the design and development of Dream Chaser.[43] The NASA/SNC team had worked on aerodynamic and aerothermal analysis of Dream Chaser, as well as guidance, navigation, and control systems. Together with ULA, the NASA/SNC team performed buffet tests on the Dream Chaser and Atlas V stack.[43]

On 11 July 2012, SNC announced that it successfully completed testing of the nose landing gear for Dream Chaser.[44] This milestone evaluated the impact to the landing gear during simulated approach and landing tests as well as the impact of future orbital flights. The main landing gear was tested in a similar way in February 2012. The nose gear landing test was the last milestone to be completed before the free flight approach and landing tests scheduled for later in 2012.[44] In August 2012, SNC completed CCiCap Milestone 1, or the 'Program Implementation Plan Review'. This included creating a plan for implementing design, development, testing, and evaluation activities through the duration of CCiCap funding.[45] By October 2012 the "Integrated System Baseline Review", or CCiCap Milestone 2, had been completed. This review demonstrated the maturity of the Dream Chaser Space System as well as the integration and support of the Atlas V launch vehicle, mission systems, and ground systems.[45]

CCiCap

On 3 August 2012, NASA announced the award of $212.5 million to Sierra Nevada Corporation to continue work on the Dream Chaser under the Commercial Crew Integrated Capability (CCiCap) Program.[46] On 30 January 2013, SNC announced a new partnership with Lockheed Martin. Under the agreement, SNC will pay Lockheed Martin $10 million to build the second airframe at its Michoud facility in New Orleans, Louisiana. This second airframe is slated to be the first orbital test vehicle, with orbital flight testing planned to begin within the next two years.[16]

In January 2013, Sierra Nevada announced that the second captive carry and first unpowered drop test of Dream Chaser would take place at Edwards Air Force Base, California in March 2013. The spaceplane release would occur at 12,000 feet (3,700 m) altitude and would be followed by an autonomous robotic landing.[16][17]

On 13 March 2013, NASA announced that former Space Shuttle commander Lee Archambault was leaving the agency in order to join SNC. Archambault, a former combat pilot and 15-year NASA veteran who flew on Atlantis and Discovery, will work on the Dream Chaser program as a systems engineer and test pilot.[47][48]

On October 26, 2013, the first free-flight occurred. The test vehicle was released from the helicopter and flew the correct flightpath to touchdown less than a minute later. Just prior to landing, the left main landing gear failed to deploy resulting in a crash landing.[49] The vehicle skidded off the runway in a cloud of dust, but was found upright with the crew compartment intact and all systems inside still in working order.[50][51]

In January 2014, SNC announced it had signed a launch contract to fly the first orbital test vehicle on a robotically controlled orbital test flight in November 2016.[52]

Dream Chaser model being tested at NASA Langley, aboard an Atlas V mock-up.

In early 2014, Sierra Nevada completed its wind tunnel testing as part of its CCiCAP Milestone 8. The wind tunnel testing involved analyzing the flight dynamics characteristics that the vehicle will experience during orbital ascent and re-entry. Wind tunnel testing was also completed for the Dream Chaser Atlas V integrated launch system. These tests were completed at NASA Ames Research Center at Moffett Field, California, CALSPAN Transonic Wind Tunnel in New York, and at NASA Langley Research Center Unitary Plan Wind Tunnel in Hampton, Virginia.[53]

On 1 August 2014, the first completed piece of the orbital Flight Test Article (FTA) composite airframe was unveiled at a Lockheed Martin facility.[54]

CCtCap

On 16 September 2014, NASA did not select the Dream Chaser for CCtCap, the next phase of the Commercial Crew Program. This occurred despite previous Commercial Crew Development awards in every phase since 2009,[55] due to lack of maturity.[56]

On 26 September, Sierra Nevada filed a protest to the US Government Accountability Office (GAO).[57] On 22 October 2014, a Federal Judge ruled the contract awards to Boeing and SpaceX valid, allowing NASA to proceed.[58]

On 29 September 2014, Sierra Nevada introduced the "Dream Chaser Global Project" which would provide customized access to low Earth orbit to global customers.[59]

Despite not being selected to continue forward under NASA's Commercial Crew transportation Capability (CCtCap) phase of the effort to send crews to orbit via private companies, SNC completed the milestones assigned under earlier phases of the CCP.[60] On December 2, 2014, SNC announced that it completed NASA's CCiCap Milestone 5a related to propulsion risk reduction for the Dream Chaser space system.[61]

By late December, details had emerged that "a high-ranking agency official"—"William Gerstenmaier, the agency's top human exploration official and the one who made the final decision"—"opted to rank Boeing's proposal higher than a previous panel of agency procurement experts." More specifically, Sierra Nevada asserted in their filings with the GAO that Gerstenmaier may have "overstepped his authority by unilaterally changing the scoring criteria."[62]

On January 5, 2015, the GAO denied Sierra Nevada's CCtCap challenge, stating that NASA made the proper decision when it decided to award Boeing $4.2 billion and SpaceX $2.6 billion to develop their vehicles. Ralph White, the GAO's managing associate counsel, announced that NASA "recognized Boeing's higher price but also considered Boeing's proposal to be the strongest of all three proposals in terms of technical approach, management approach and past performance, and to offer the crew transportation system with most utility and highest value to the government." Furthermore, the agency found "several favorable features" in SNC's proposal "but ultimately concluded that SpaceX's lower price made it a better value."[63]

CRS-2 selection

Further information: Astronomy:Commercial Resupply Services

In December 2014, Sierra Nevada proposed Dream Chaser for CRS-2 consideration.[64] In January 2016, NASA announced that Dream Chaser had been awarded one of the CRS-2 contracts and committed to purchasing a minimum of six resupply missions to the ISS.[65] The cargo spacecraft will fly alongside spacecraft from the existing CRS-1 contract holders SpaceX and Northrop Grumman Innovation Systems.[66]

In October 2015, the thermal protection system was installed on the Engineering Test Article (ETA) for the next phase of atmospheric flight testing. The orbital cabin assembly of the Flight Test Article (FTA) was also completed by contractor Lockheed Martin.[67]

In 2015, the ETA had reportedly been given the name Eagle,[41] while the FTA was originally named Ascalon before being changed to Ascension.[68]

On 11 November 2017, the Dream Chaser ETA was released from an altitude of 3,700 m and successfully landed at Edwards AFB.[69][70]

In March 2019, completion of NASA's Integrated Review Milestone 5 (IR5) confirmed that development was still on schedule.[71][72] In August 2019, SNC announced the first ISS flight of the Dream Chaser, known as SNC Demo-1, was planned for 2021.[2] However, on November 17, 2020, SNC announced it would be delayed until early 2022.[73] In May 2022, it was announced by the deputy manager of ISS, Dana Weigel, that the mission was scheduled for February 2023.[74] The mission has then been furtherly delayed to April 2024.[75]

Variants

Crewed version

File:Dream Chaser Atlas V Integrated Launch Configuration.tif The originally planned Dream Chaser Space System is a human-rated version designed to carry from three to seven people and cargo to orbital destinations such as the International Space Station.[76] It was to have a built-in launch escape system[5] and could fly autonomously if needed.[77] Although it could use any suitable launch vehicle, it was planned to be launched on a human-rated Atlas V N12 rocket.[77][78] The vehicle will be able to return from space by gliding (typically experiencing less than 1.5 g on re-entry) and landing on any airport runway that handles commercial air traffic.[79][15] Its reaction control system thrusters burned ethanol-based fuel,[77][79] which is not an explosively volatile material, nor toxic like hydrazine, allowing the Dream Chaser to be handled immediately after landing, unlike the Space Shuttle.[77]

As of 2020, the Sierra Nevada Corporation says it still plans to produce a crewed version of the spacecraft within the next 5 years. The company says it "never stopped working" on the crewed version and fully intends to launch it after the cargo version,[80] and is still committed to the crewed version as of 2021.[81] In November 2021, Sierra Nevada Corporation reported that it received a $1.4 billion investment in Series A funding, which it will use to develop a crewed version of Dream Chaser and fly astronauts by 2025.[82]

On 25 October 2021, Blue Origin and Sierra Nevada Corporation's Sierra Space subsidiary for commercial space activities and space tourism, released their plan for a commercial space station.[83] The station, called Orbital Reef, is intended as a "mixed-use business park".[84] Sierra Nevada Corporation's Dream Chaser was chosen as one of the commercial spacecraft to transport commercial crew to and from the space station, along with Boeing's Starliner.[85]

CRS-2 cargo version

Artist's conception of the crewed Dream Chaser docked to International Space Station.

The cargo version of the SNC Dream Chaser is called the Dream Chaser Cargo System (DCCS) and after development is completed, will fly resupply flights to the ISS under NASA's Commercial Resupply Services-2 program. Featuring an expendable cargo module mounting solar panels, the spacecraft will be capable of returning 1,750 kg (3,860 lb) to Earth while undergoing maximum re-entry forces of 1.5G.[86][87]

To meet CRS-2 guidelines, the cargo Dream Chaser will have folding wings and fit within a 5 m diameter payload fairing, in contrast to the Crewed Dream Chaser, which is intended to launch without a fairing. The ability to fit into a payload fairing allows the cargo version to launch on any sufficiently capable vehicle, such as Ariane 5 as well as Atlas V. An expendable cargo module will launch attached to the back of the spacecraft, expanding the cargo uplift capacity and supporting the disposal of up to 3,250 kg (7,170 lb) of trash. Total uplift is planned for 5,000 kg (11,000 lb) pressurized and 500 kg (1,100 lb) unpressurized, with a downlift of 1,750 kg (3,860 lb) contained within the spaceplane.[88] The expendable cargo module is called "Shooting Star".[1]

On August 14, 2019, it was announced that all six Dream Chaser CRS-2 flights would be carried into orbit by ULA's Vulcan launch vehicle, with the first Dream Chaser flight being the second Vulcan flight in late 2021.[2][89] However, on February 9, 2022, Ken Shields, Sierra Space's Director of Commercial Market Development, announced that the first flight would be pushed to January 2023.[90] The launch has been further delayed, and as of October 2023 is scheduled for April 2024.[75]

National Security version

On November 19, 2021, Sierra Space announced that it is considering a third Dream Chaser version specialized for National Security missions, though it declined to comment on what the differences compared with other versions would be.[91]

Dream Chaser Global Project

In December 2013, the German Aerospace Center (DLR) announced a funded study to investigate ways in which Europe might take advantage of the Dream Chaser crewed spaceplane technology. Named the DC4EU (Dream Chaser for European Utilization), the project will study using it for sending crews and cargo to the ISS and on missions not involving the ISS, particularly in orbits of substantially greater altitude than the ISS can reach.[92]

In January 2014, the European Space Agency (ESA) agreed to be a partner on the DC4EU project, and will also investigate whether the Dream Chaser can use ESA avionics and docking mechanisms. ESA will also study launching options for the "Europeanized" Dream Chaser, particularly whether it can be launched from the Guiana Space Centre, within the Ariane 5's large aerodynamic cargo fairing – or, like the Atlas V, without it. In order to fit within the fairing, the Dream Chaser's wing length will have to be reduced slightly, which is thought to be easier than going through a full aerodynamic test program to evaluate and prove it along with the Ariane for flight without the fairing.[93] The Ariane 5 launch vehicle was designed from its inception to be crew rated, in order to launch the Hermes Spaceplane, an ESA crewed vehicle which was proposed in the 1980s and 1990s, but was cancelled.

In late January 2014, it was announced that the Dream Chaser orbital test vehicle was under contract to be launched on an initial orbital test flight, using an Atlas V rocket, from Kennedy Space Center in November 2016. This was a privately arranged commercial agreement, and was funded directly by Sierra Nevada and was not a part of any existing NASA contract.[52]

In September 2014, SNC announced that it would, with global partners, use the Dream Chaser as the baseline spacecraft for orbital access for a variety of programs, specializing the craft as needed.[94]

On 5 November 2014, SNC's Space Systems team publicly presented the challenges and opportunities related to landing the Dream Chaser spacecraft at public-use airports.[95] Dream Chaser uses standard landing aids and non-toxic propellants that require no special handling.[96]

Dream Chaser for European Utilization

On February 3, 2015, the Sierra Nevada Corporation's (SNC) Space Systems and OHB System AG (OHB) in Germany announced the completion of the initial Dream Chaser for European Utilization (DC4EU) study.[97] The study found that Dream Chaser is suitable for a broad range of space applications and could be used to advance European interests in space.[98] The cooperation was renewed in April 2015 for an additional two years.[98] [needs update]

United Nations

The United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs (UNOOSA) selected the cargo Dream Chaser for its first space launch. This launch is intended to last for at least two weeks in freeflight to provide space access to United Nations member states that have no space programs of their own.[99]

In 2019, the launch date for the proposed mission, expected to carry up to 35 payloads, was set for 2024.[100]

List of vehicles

Dream Chaser vehicles[101]
Type Serial Name Status Flights Time in flight Notes Cat.
Prototype ETA Eagle Retired 4 ~5 minutes Engineering Test Article (ETA) used for captive carry and atmospheric drop tests
Prototype FTA Ascension Active 0 None Flight Test Article (FTA) to be used for atmospheric tests
Cargo DC101[102] Tenacity Completed[103] 0 None Spacecraft to be flown on SNC Demo-1 mission.
Cargo DC102 TBA Under construction 0 None Sierra Nevada vague in response to NASA OIG report.[104][105]
Crewed DC201 TBA Unknown 0 None Appeared in a Sierra Nevada social media post along with Tenacity. The Aviation Week article that was linked indicated that "For the next-generation crewed DC-200 series, Sierra Space is studying a twin-tail, fixed-wing design". No other details were provided.[106]
  Test vehicle   Spaceflight vehicle

Missions

List only includes manifested missions. A demonstration and six missions are currently planned to be launched from Cape Canaveral SLC-41 on Vulcan Centaur, and one more flight has been ordered to fly from Guiana Space Center [citation needed] for the United Nations on board an Arianespace vehicle.

Dream Chaser flights
Mission Patch Spacecraft Launch date Landing date Launch vehicle Description Outcome
Captive Test 1 ETA Eagle 29 May 2012 29 May 2012 Erickson Skycrane[lower-alpha 1] 1st atmospheric test. Success
Captive Test 2 ETA Eagle 22 August 2013 22 August 2013 Erickson Skycrane 2nd atmospheric test. Success
Drop Test 1 ETA Eagle 26 October 2013 26 October 2013 Erickson Skycrane 1st free flight test. Partial success
Drop Test 2 ETA Eagle 11 November 2017 11 November 2017 Boeing-Vertol Model 234 (Commercial Chinook variant) 2nd free flight test. Success
SNC Demo-1 DC01 Tenacity April 2024[75] 2024 Vulcan Centaur[lower-alpha 2] First orbital flight, second Vulcan launch, demonstration flight of Dream Chaser to ISS for NASA. Duration of ~82 days. Planned
SNC CRS-1 TBA NET 2024 NET 2024 Vulcan Centaur 1st contracted CRS mission for NASA. Planned
SNC CRS-2 TBA NET 2024 NET 2024 Vulcan Centaur 2nd contracted CRS mission for NASA. Planned
SNC CRS-3 TBA NET 2025 NET 2025 Vulcan Centaur 3rd contracted CRS mission for NASA. Planned
SNC CRS-4 TBA NET 2025 NET 2025 Vulcan Centaur 4th contracted CRS mission for NASA. Planned
DC UNOOSA-1 TBA NET 2025 NET 2025 Arianespace vehicle Carry 35 payloads for the United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs.[100] Planned
SNC CRS-5 TBA NET 2026 NET 2026 Vulcan Centaur 5th contracted CRS mission for NASA. Planned
SNC CRS-6 TBA NET 2026 NET 2026 Vulcan Centaur 6th contracted CRS mission for NASA. Planned
  1. ↑ A helicopter used for lifting the vehicle
  2. ↑ Orbital flights of Dream Chaser were first planned to use Atlas V, but switched to Vulcan. Future flights on Ariane 6 are also proposed.

See also

Spaceplanes

Other ISS cargo vehicles:

Other ISS crew vehicles:

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Foust, Jeff (14 January 2020). "Sierra Nevada explores other uses of Dream Chaser". https://spacenews.com/sierra-nevada-explores-other-uses-of-dream-chaser/. 
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 "SNC Selects ULA for Dream Chaser® Spacecraft Launches". Sierra Nevada Corporation (Press release). August 14, 2019. Retrieved August 14, 2019.
  3. ↑ "Dream Chaser Model Drops in at NASA Dryden" (Press release). Dryden Flight Research Center: NASA. December 17, 2010. Archived from the original on January 6, 2014. Retrieved August 29, 2012.
  4. ↑ SNC, Sierra Nevada Corporation |. "NASA Selects Sierra Nevada Corporation’s Dream Chaser® Spacecraft for Commercial Resupply Services 2 Contract" (in en). https://www.sncorp.com/news-archive/nasa-selects-sierra-nevada-corporation-s-dream-chaser-spacecraft-for-commercial-resupply-services-2-contract/. 
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Klingler, Dave (September 6, 2012). "50 years to orbit: Dream Chaser's crazy Cold War backstory: The reusable mini-spaceplane is back from the dead—again—and prepping for space". Ars Technica (Boston: Conde Nast): p. 3. https://arstechnica.com/science/2012/09/the-long-complicated-voyage-of-the-dream-chaser-may-yet-end-in-space/3/. 
  6. ↑ Doug Messier (May 24, 2014). "Virgin Galactic Hails RocketMotorTwo Milestone". ParabolicArc. http://www.parabolicarc.com/2014/05/24/virgin-galactic-hails-rocketmotortwo-milestone/. 
  7. ↑ Messier, Doug (August 19, 2014). "SNC Abandons Own Hybrid Motors on Dream Chaser". Parabolic Arc. http://www.parabolicarc.com/2014/08/19/snc-abandons-hybrid-motors-dream-chaser/. 
  8. ↑ "Tile Shop Prepping Heat Shields for Future Flights". 2015. https://blogs.nasa.gov/commercialcrew/2015/06/26/tile-shop-prepping-heat-shields-for-future-flights/. 
  9. ↑ "Toughened Uni-piece Fibrous Reinforced Oxidation-Resistant Composite (TUFROC)". NASA. https://technology.nasa.gov/patent/TOP2-187. 
  10. ↑ Thompson, Amy (November 21, 2019). "Sierra Nevada Unveils 'Shooting Star' Cargo Module for Dream Chaser Space Plane". https://www.space.com/dream-chaser-shooting-star-cargo-module.html. 
  11. ↑ Jelen, Bill. "Sierra Nevada Corporation Shows Off "Shooting Star" Cargo Module at KSC". https://wereportspace.com/2019/11/19/sierra-nevada-corporation-shows-off-shooting-star-cargo-module-at-ksc/. 
  12. ↑ "SNC'S "SHOOTING STAR" ARRIVES AT NASA'S KENNEDY SPACE CENTER". Sierra Nevada Corporation. https://www.sncorp.com/press-releases/snc-shooting-star-arrives-nasa-kennedy-space-center/. 
  13. ↑ "SNC Shooting Star Transport Vehicle". Sierra Nevada Corporation. https://www.sncorp.com/media/2922/snc_shootingstartransportvehicle_brochure_2020.pdf. 
  14. ↑ Ben, Evans (July 17, 2020). "SNC Shooting Star Wins Contract for Unmanned Orbital Outpost". https://www.americaspace.com/2020/07/17/snc-shooting-star-wins-contract-for-unmanned-orbital-outpost/. 
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 {{cite news |title = Sierra Nevada Building On NASA Design |publisher = Aviation Week |author = Frank Morring, Jr |date = February 19, 2010 |url = http://www.aviationweek.com/aw/generic/story_generic.jsp?channel=awst&id=news/awst/2010/02/22/AW_02_22_2010_p53-204735.xml&headline=Sierra%20Nevada%20Building%20On%20NASA%20Design
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 Rosenberg, Zach (January 30, 2013). "Lockheed to build second Dream Chaser airframe for Sierra Nevada". Flightglobal (Sutton, Surrey, UK). https://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/lockheed-to-build-second-dream-chaser-airframe-for-sierra-nevada-381679/. 
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 Dean, James (January 30, 2013). "Sierra Nevada's Dream Chaser will get Lockheed Martin's help". Florida Today (Melbourne, Florida). http://www.floridatoday.com/article/20130131/NEWS01/301310028/Sierra-Nevada-s-Dream-Chaser-will-get-Lockheed-Martin-s-help. 
  18. ↑ De Chiara, Giuseppe (2012-11-19). "From HL-20 to Dream Chaser The Long story of a little spaceplane" (in en). NASASpaceflight.com. p. 26. http://archive.aviationweek.com/issue/19910715#!&pid=26. "...Once that the HL-20 program was ceased it seems that such small spaceplane should be quickly forgotten except for a bunch of space enthusiast all over the world. The HL-20 story was no to end since in mid 2004 Jim Benson announced that the HL-20 development would be continued by his SpaceDev as Dream Chaser spacecraft. The SpaceDev was acquired by Sierra Nevada Corporation at the very end of 2008..." 
  19. ↑ "Dream Chaser: Sierra Nevada's Design for Spaceflight". November 14, 2017. https://www.space.com/19552-dream-chaser.html. 
  20. ↑ H. Phillips, Edward (1991-07-15). "Langley Refines Design, Begins Human Factors Tests of Personnel Launch System" (in en). Aviation Week & Space Technology. p. 52. http://archive.aviationweek.com/issue/19910715#!&pid=52. "...The HL-20's baseline design has evolved from manned lifting bodies flown for the Defense Dept, during the 1960s and owes much of its overall layout to the Martin X-24A..." 
  21. ↑ Wallace, Lance E. (1996). "Flights of Discovery: 50 Years at the NASA Dryden Flight Research Center" (in en). NASA. p. 72. https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19970004281.pdf. "...The lifting-body program came to an official end in 1975. Yet like a Phoenix rising from the ashes, the concept has appeared several times since then in proposed NASA spacecraft. When the Langley Research Center revealed its HL-20 design for an emergency crew return vehicle or small mini-Shuttle in 1990, the shape was remarkably similar to the HL-10 and X-24A designs..." 
  22. ↑ R. Asker, James (1990-09-24). "NASA Design for Manned Spacecraft. Draws on Soviet Subscale Spaceplane" (in en). Aviation Week & Space Technology. p. 28. http://archive.aviationweek.com/issue/19900924#!&pid=28. "...A mock-up of the proposed "space taxi," called the HL-20 Personnel Launch System, closely resembles a Soviet subscale spaceplane flown on four orbital missions in the 1980s...However, Piland, chief of the space systems division at the Langley Research Center, was quick to point out the Soviet test vehicle seems to have evolved from U. S. lifting-body configurations flown from 1966 to 1975—such as Northrop's HL-10, M2-F2 and M2-F3 and Martin's X-24A and X-24B...." 
  23. ↑ R. Dale, Reed (1997) (in en). Wingless Flight The Lifting Body Story. NASA. p. 180. ISBN 9780160493904. https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19980169231.pdf. "...The NASA lifting-body program has been well documented in about 100 technical reports on the program's 222 flights and 20,000 hours of wind-tunnel tests. Many of these publications are unclassified. The Soviet Union purchased copies of these reports from NASA Headquarters in Washington, D.C., then designed its own lifting body. In 1982, the Soviets flight-tested an unpiloted, 10-foot-long, subscale version of their lifting body, the BOR-4, including a maneuvering re-entry over the Indian Ocean from space orbit. The flight test of the BOR-4 closely resembled that of our PRIME (X-23) vehicle in 1966..." 
  24. ↑ Klingler, Dave (September 6, 2012). "50 years to orbit: Dream Chaser's crazy Cold War backstory: The reusable mini-spaceplane is back from the dead—again—and prepping for space". ars Technical (Boston: Conde Nast): p. 2. https://arstechnica.com/science/2012/09/the-long-complicated-voyage-of-the-dream-chaser-may-yet-end-in-space/2/. 
  25. ↑ Mewhinney, Michael. "NASA, SPACEDEV TO COLLABORATE ON FUTURE SPACE TRANSPORTATION". http://www.nasa.gov/centers/ames/news/releases/2004/04_89AR.html. 
  26. ↑ "SpaceDev and United Launch Alliance to Explore Launching the Dream Chaser(TM) Space Vehicle on an Atlas V Launch Vehicle" (Press release). Poway, California: SpaceDev. Market Wire. April 10, 2007. Archived from the original on January 7, 2014. Retrieved January 6, 2014.
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  29. ↑ "SNC receives largest award of NASA's CCDev Competitive Contract". SNC. February 1, 2010. http://www.sncorp.com/news/press/pr10/snc_ccdev_spacenews.shtml. 
  30. ↑ "Text of Space Act Agreement". http://www.nasa.gov/centers/johnson/pdf/444145main_NNJ10TA03S_sierra_saa.pdf. 
  31. ↑ "Commercial Crew: Sierra Nevada". NASA. http://www.nasa.gov/offices/c3po/partners/sierranevada/index.html. 
  32. ↑ "Dream Chaser Model Drops in at NASA Dryden". NASA. 2017-01-31. http://www.nasa.gov/centers/dryden/Features/dream_chaser_model_drop.html. 
  33. ↑ Chang, Kenneth (February 1, 2011). "Businesses Take Flight, With Help From NASA". New York Times: p. D1. https://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/01/science/space/01private.html?_r=4&ref=science&pagewanted=all. 
  34. ↑ "Sierra Nevada Space Systems Adds Key Former Nasa Leaders to Its Dream Chaser Orbital Space Vehicle Team" (Press release). Louisville, Colorado. July 5, 2011. Archived from the original on January 6, 2014. Retrieved January 6, 2014.
  35. ↑ Dean, James. "NASA awards $270 million for commercial crew efforts" . space.com, April 18, 2011.
  36. ↑ "Sierra nevada corporation's dream chaser space system passes preliminary design review". SNC Release. June 6, 2012. http://www.sncspace.com/press_more_info.php?id=335. 
  37. ↑ "Sierra nevada corporation begins flight test program of the dream chaser orbital crew vehicle". SNC Release. May 30, 2012. http://www.sncspace.com/press_more_info.php?id=334. 
  38. ↑ "Sierra Nevada Corporation's Space Systems Delivers the Dream Chaser® First Flight Test Vehicle Structure, Completing a Major Milestone for NASA's Commercial Crew Program" (Press release). Archived from the original on April 8, 2013.
  39. ↑ "Sierra Nevada's Dream Chaser spacecraft tested at Broomfield airport". dailycamera.com. May 29, 2012. http://www.dailycamera.com/broomfield-news/ci_20733780/spacecraft-tested-tuesday-at-broomfield-airport. 
  40. ↑ Lindsey, Clark (May 14, 2013). "More about SNC preparations for drop tests of Dream Chaser prototype". NewSpace Watch. http://www.newspacewatch.com/articles/more-about-snc-preparations-for-drop-tests-of-dream-chaser-prototype.html. 
  41. ↑ 41.0 41.1 Bergin, Chris (May 12, 2013). "Dream Chaser ETA heads to Dryden for drop tests". NasaSpaceFlight.com. http://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2013/05/dream-chaser-dryden-drop-tests/. 
  42. ↑ Wall, Mike (August 26, 2013). "Dream Chaser space plane dangles from helicopter for second flight test". NBC News (New York). http://www.nbcnews.com/science/dream-chaser-space-plane-dangles-helicopter-second-flight-test-8C11009955. 
  43. ↑ 43.0 43.1 "SNC and NASA Langley announce Five Years of Partnership". http://sncspace.com/press_more_info.php?id=336. 
  44. ↑ 44.0 44.1 "Sierra Nevada Corporation Announces Successful Completion of Dream Chaser Cew Vehicle Nose Gear Landing Test". SNC. http://sncspace.com/press_more_info.php?id=337. 
  45. ↑ 45.0 45.1 "Sierra Nevada Completes Dream Chaser Safety Review". May 10, 2013. http://www.parabolicarc.com/2013/05/10/sierra-nevada-completes-dream-chaser-safety-review/#more-48595. 
  46. ↑ "Boeing, SpaceX and Sierra Nevada Win CCiCAP Awards". spacenews.com, August 3, 2012.
  47. ↑ Bolden, Jay (March 13, 2013). "NASA Astronaut Lee Archambault Leaving Agency". NASA. http://www.nasa.gov/centers/johnson/news/releases/2013/J13-007.html. 
  48. ↑ "NASA Astronaut Lee Archambault Joins Sierra Nevada as Test Pilot". March 13, 2013. http://www.parabolicarc.com/2013/03/13/nasa-astronaut-lee-archambault-joins-sierra-nevada-as-test-pilot/. 
  49. ↑ Bergin, Chris (October 26, 2013). "Dream Chaser suffers landing gear failure after first flight". NASA Spaceflight. http://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2013/10/dream-chaser-landing-failure-first-flight/. 
  50. ↑ Harwood, William (October 29, 2013). "Sierra Nevada investigates Dream Chaser landing mishap". CBS News (New York). http://www.cbsnews.com/network/news/space/home/spacenews/files/65a2e37d7bc29d16991991624a6b36ef-634.html. 
  51. ↑ David, Leonard (October 29, 2013). "Private Dream Chaser Space Plane Skids Off Runway After Milestone Test Flight (Video)". Space.com (New York). http://www.space.com/23370-private-dream-chaser-space-plane-skidded-off-runway-after-milestone-test-flight.html. 
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  53. ↑ "Dream Chaser passes Wind Tunnel tests for CCiCap Milestone". NASASpaceflight.com. May 19, 2014. http://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2014/05/dream-chaser-wind-tunnel-tests-ccicap-milestone/. 
  54. ↑ "First Piece of Private Dream Chaser Space Plane Unveiled". Space.com. August 6, 2014. http://www.space.com/26752-dream-chaser-space-plane-airframe.html. 
  55. ↑ Schierholz, Stephanie; Martin, Stephanie (September 16, 2014). "NASA Chooses American Companies to Transport U.S. Astronauts to International Space Station". http://www.nasa.gov/press/2014/september/nasa-chooses-american-companies-to-transport-us-astronauts-to-international/index.html. 
  56. ↑ Norris, Guy. "Why NASA Rejected Sierra Nevada's Commercial Crew Vehicle" Aviation Week & Space Technology, October 11, 2014. Accessed: 2014-10-13. Archived on October 13, 2014
  57. ↑ Keeney, Laura (October 3, 2014). "So Sierra Nevada protested NASA space-taxi contract, but what's next?". Denver Post. http://www.denverpost.com/business/ci_26659843/so-sierra-nevada-protested-nasa-space-taxi-contract. 
  58. ↑ Browne, Clayton (2014-10-22). "NASA Wins; Boeing and Space X Shuttle Contracts Ruled Valid". http://www.valuewalk.com/2014/10/nasa-wins-boeing-space-x-shuttle-contracts-ruled-valid/. 
  59. ↑ "Sierra Nevada Corporation Introduces Dream Chaser Global Project Spaceflight Program Sept. 30". SpaceRef. December 29, 2014. http://spaceref.com/news/viewpr.html?pid=44072. [yes|permanent dead link|dead link}}]
  60. ↑ "Sierra Nevada completes Dream Chaser's milestone 15a for prior phase of Commercial Crew". Spaceflight Insider. December 3, 2014. http://www.spaceflightinsider.com/missions/commercial/despite-protest-status-sierra-nevada-completes-milestone-15/. 
  61. ↑ "SNC Tests Dream Chaser Propulsion System". NASA Blog blogs.nasa.gov. December 2, 2014. https://blogs.nasa.gov/commercialcrew/2014/12/02/snc-tests-dream-chaser-propulsion-system/. 
  62. ↑ Messier, Doug (December 23, 2014). "Sierra Nevada Alleges Boeing Benefitted From Commercial Crew Criteria Changes". Parabolic Arc. http://www.parabolicarc.com/2014/12/23/sierra-nevada-alleges-boeing-benefitted-commercial-crew-criteria/. 
  63. ↑ Davenport, Christian. "GAO denies Sierra Nevada's legal challenge to NASA space contract". Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/economy/gao-denies-sierra-nevada-protest-of-nasa-contract/2015/01/05/68e70970-94f7-11e4-8005-1924ede3e54a_story.html. 
  64. ↑ Christian Davenport (February 13, 2015). "Grounded: Left behind in the contracting race to restore Americans to space". The Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/economy/loser-left-behind-in-the-contracting-race-to-restore-america-to-space/2015/02/13/d65800d4-a264-11e4-b146-577832eafcb4_story.html. 
  65. ↑ "NASA Awards International Space Station Cargo Transport Contracts". NASA News. January 12, 2016. https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-awards-international-space-station-cargo-transport-contracts. 
  66. ↑ Dan Leone (January 24, 2015). "Weather Sat, CRS-2 Top U.S. Civil Space Procurement Agenda for 2015". SpaceNews.com. http://spacenews.com/weather-sat-tops-u-s-civil-space-procurement-agenda-for-2015/. 
  67. ↑ "Dream Chaser preps for 2nd free-flight test and first orbital test". Space Daily. October 9, 2015. http://www.spacedaily.com/reports/Dream_Chaser_Program_Preparing_for_Second_Free_Flight_Test_and_First_Orbital_Test_999.html. 
  68. ↑ Bergin, Chris (October 6, 2015). "Dream Chaser still fighting for her place in space". http://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2015/10/dream-chaser-fighting-her-place-space/. 
  69. ↑ Kenneth Chang (2017-11-11). "Dream Chaser Space Plane Aces Glide Test - The New York Times". The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2017/11/13/science/dream-chaser-test-flight.html?emc=edit_th_20171115&nl=todaysheadlines&nlid=50059978. 
  70. ↑ "Dream Chaser through critical landing test, prepares for orbital flights". November 24, 2017. https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2017/11/dream-chaser-test-prepares-orbital-flights/. 
  71. ↑ Sampson, Ben (March 27, 2019). "Dream Chaser spacecraft passes testing milestone". Aerospace Testing International. https://www.aerospacetestinginternational.com/news/space/dream-chaser-spacecraft-passes-testing-milestone.html. 
  72. ↑ "Dream Chaser® Spacecraft Passes Another NASA Milestone". Sierra Nevada Corporation (Press release). March 21, 2019. Retrieved August 14, 2019.
  73. ↑ Foust, Jeff (18 November 2020). "First Dream Chaser mission slips to 2022". https://spacenews.com/first-dream-chaser-mission-slips-to-2022/. 
  74. ↑ Michael Sheetz [@thesheetztweetz] (17 May 2022). "Weigel: The second Vulcan flight, carrying the first @SierraSpaceCo cargo Dream Chaser to the ISS, is currently scheduled for February 2023. "We'll be ready when they're ready."". https://twitter.com/thesheetztweetz/status/1526605448601817089. 
  75. ↑ 75.0 75.1 75.2 Klotz, Irene; Reim, Garrett (25 October 2023). "ULA Sets Dec. 24 As Target Date For Vulcan's Debut". Aviation Week. https://aviationweek.com/aerospace/commercial-space/ula-sets-dec-24-target-date-vulcans-debut. 
  76. ↑ "NASA Deputy Administrator Lori Garver touts Colorado's role". Youtube.com. February 5, 2011. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RjsGFG8ko1Q. 
  77. ↑ 77.0 77.1 77.2 77.3 Sirangelo, Mark (August 2011). "NewSpace 2011: Sierra Nevada Corporation". Spacevidcast. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D7sWtEAddkM.  Sirangelo, Mark (August 24, 2014). "Flight Plans and Crews for Commercial Dream Chaser's First Flights: One-on-One Interview With SNC VP Mark Sirangelo (Part 3)". AmericaSpace. http://www.americaspace.com/?p=66192. 
  78. ↑ "Moving Forward: Commercial Crew Development Building the Next Era in Spaceflight". Rendezvous: Where Today Meets Tomorrow 4 (2): 10–15. Summer 2010. http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/475795main_rendezvous_v4n3.pdf. Retrieved January 6, 2014. 
  79. ↑ 79.0 79.1 "The Space Show : Mark Sirangelo interview". David Livingston. January 4, 2012. http://www.thespaceshow.com/detail.asp?q=1682. 
  80. ↑ "DREAM CHASER ON TRACK FOR 2021 CARGO MISSION, CREW WITHIN 5 YEARS". https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/dream-chaser-on-track-for-2021-cargo-mission-crew-within-5-years/. 
  81. ↑ "Sierra Nevada Corporation to spin off space division". April 14, 2021. https://spacenews.com/sierra-nevada-corporation-to-spin-off-space-division/. 
  82. ↑ "With a huge infusion of cash, Sierra Space hopes to get its Dream Chaser spaceplane and space station off the ground". https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2021/11/19/sierra-space-investment-dream-chaser-orbital-reef/. 
  83. ↑ Davenport, Justin (2021-10-27). "Blue Origin, Sierra Space, and Boeing announce Orbital Reef" (in en). https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2021/10/announce-orbital-reef/. 
  84. ↑ Chappell, Bill (2021-10-25). "Blue Origin says it will build an orbiting mixed-use business park in space" (in en). NPR. https://www.npr.org/2021/10/25/1049077333/blue-origin-space-station-business-park-space-orbital-reef-bezos. 
  85. ↑ Grush, Loren (2021-10-25). "Blue Origin reveals plans for future commercial space station called Orbital Reef" (in en). https://www.theverge.com/2021/10/25/22744526/blue-origin-space-station-orbital-reef-announcement. 
  86. ↑ "Sierra Nevada Hopes Dream Chaser Finds "Sweet Spot" of ISS Cargo Competition". SpaceNews. 2015-03-18. http://spacenews.com/sierra-nevada-hopes-dream-chaser-finds-sweet-spot-of-iss-cargo-competition. 
  87. ↑ Jeff Foust (March 13, 2015). "Lockheed Martin Pitches Reusable Tug for Space Station Resupply". Space News. http://spacenews.com/lockheed-martin-pitches-reusable-tug-for-space-station-resupply/. 
  88. ↑ Jeff Foust (March 17, 2015). "Sierra Nevada Hopes Dream Chaser Finds "Sweet Spot" of ISS Cargo Competition". Space News. http://spacenews.com/sierra-nevada-hopes-dream-chaser-finds-sweet-spot-of-iss-cargo-competition/. 
  89. ↑ "SNC Selects ULA for Dream Chaser® Spacecraft Launches: NASA Missions to Begin in 2021". United Launch Alliance. August 14, 2019. https://www.ulalaunch.com/about/news/2019/08/14/snc-selects-ula-for-dream-chaser-spacecraft-launches. 
  90. ↑ "Interview with Sierra Space: Dream Chaser launch set for January 2023, Orbital Reef space station, manufacturing in space, & more" (in en-US). 2022-02-09. https://spaceexplored.com/2022/02/09/interview-with-sierra-space/. 
  91. ↑ "Sierra Space raises $1.4 billion" (in en-US). 2021-11-19. https://spacenews.com/sierra-space-raises-1-4-billion/. 
  92. ↑ Messier, Doug (December 16, 2013). "German Space Agency Funds Study on Uses of Sierra Nevada's Dream Chaser". Parabolic Arc (Mojave, California). http://www.parabolicarc.com/2013/12/16/german-space-agency-funds-study-sierra-nevadas-dream-chaser/. 
  93. ↑ Clark, Stephen (January 8, 2014). "Europe eyes cooperation on Dream Chaser space plane". Spaceflight Now. http://www.spaceflightnow.com/news/n1401/08dreamchaser/#.Us47O2RDv9E. 
  94. ↑ "Sierra Nevada Corporation to Introduce Dream Chaser® Global Project Spaceflight Program Sept. 30". SNC. September 29, 2014. http://www.sncorp.com/AboutUs/NewsDetails/635. 
  95. ↑ "Sierra Nevada Corporation to Present Progress on Evaluating Dream Chaser Landing at Public Use Airports". WFXS FOX55 WAUSAU. November 5, 2014. http://www.myfoxwausau.com/story/27296203/sierra-nevada-corporation-to-present-progress-on-evaluating-dream-chaser-landing-at-public-use-airports. 
  96. ↑ "Challenges and Opportunities Related to Landing the Dream Chaser® Commercial Reusable Space Vehicle at a Public-Use Airport". ERAU Scholarly Commons. November 5, 2014. http://commons.erau.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1007&context=stm. 
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  99. ↑ Seemangal, Robin (2016-10-03). "Dream Chaser: The Spacecraft That Will Transform Humanity's Access to Space". The Observer (New York). http://observer.com/2016/10/dream-chaser-the-spacecraft-that-will-transform-humanitys-access-to-space/. 
  100. ↑ 100.0 100.1 Pesce, Ottavia; Schwandt, Kimberly (2019-10-22). "UNOOSA and Sierra Nevada Corporation announce Call for Interest to provide landing site for Dream Chaser spacecraft mission carrying experiments from UN Member States". Sierra Nevada Corporation (Press release). Retrieved 2020-02-26.
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  104. ↑ OIG Staff (26 April 2018). "Audit of Commercial Resupply Services to the International Space Center". NASA Office of Inspector General (NASA) IG-18-016: 27–28. https://oig.nasa.gov/docs/IG-18-016.pdf. Retrieved 11 December 2023. "In August 2017, ISS Program officials said Sierra Nevada was considering building a second Dream Chaser to be completed by 2021, but no decision had been made as of October 2017. In the event of a failure, Sierra Nevada officials told us in June 2017 that a second spacecraft could be built from spare parts without additional costs to NASA."  This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
  105. ↑ @SierraSpaceCo (August 30, 2022). "And then there were two...#DreamsWorthChasing". https://twitter.com/SierraSpaceCo/status/1564649662958772229. 
  106. ↑ @SierraSpaceCo. "Sierra Space's Dream Chaser, Tenacity, is on track to become the first operational commercial spaceplane with a lifting body.". https://twitter.com/SierraSpaceCo/status/1611432910438993930.  Missing or empty |date= (help)

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