Engineering:Gaganyaan

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Short description: Indian crewed spacecraft

Gaganyaan (India)
Gaganyaan crewed spacecraft in deployed twin solar panel configuration.png
Rendering of Gaganyan crew module
Manufacturer
Country of originIndia
OperatorISRO
ApplicationsCrewed orbital vehicle
Specifications
Spacecraft typeCrewed
Design life7 days
Launch mass8,200 kg (18,100 lb) (includes service module)[1]
Dry mass3,735 kg (8,234 lb)[2]
Crew capacity3[3]
DimensionsDiameter: 3.5 m (11 ft)[4]
Height: 3.58 m (11.7 ft)[4]
Volume8 m3 (280 cu ft)[5]
PowerPhotovoltaic array
RegimeLow Earth orbit
Production
StatusIn development

Gaganyaan (from Sanskrit: gagana, "celestial" and yāna, "craft, vehicle") is an Indian crewed orbital spacecraft intended to be the formative spacecraft of the Indian Human Spaceflight Programme. The spacecraft is being designed to carry three people, and a planned upgraded version will be equipped with rendezvous and docking capabilities. In its maiden crewed mission, the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO)'s largely autonomous 5.3-metric ton capsule will orbit the Earth at 400 km altitude for up to seven days with a two- or three-person crew on board. The first crewed mission was originally planned to be launched on ISRO's LVM3 rocket in December 2021.[6][7] As of October 2023, it is expected to be launched by 2025.[8]

The Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL)-manufactured crew module underwent its first uncrewed experimental flight on 18 December 2014.[9] (As of May 2019) design of the crew module has been completed.[10] Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) will provide support for critical human-centric systems and technologies such as space-grade food, crew healthcare, radiation measurement and protection, parachutes for the safe recovery of the crew module, and the fire suppression system.[11]

On 11 June 2020, it was announced that the first uncrewed Gaganyaan launch would be delayed due to the COVID-19 pandemic in India.[12] The overall timeline for crewed launches was expected to remain unaffected.[13] ISRO chairman S. Somanath announced on 30 June 2022, that the first crewed mission will not take place until 2024 at the earliest because of safety concerns.[14] Further sources in 2023 confirmed that ISRO has been aiming for a 2024 launch.[15][16][17]

Background

Soyuz T-11 with Indian Flag

In 1984, Rakesh Sharma became the first Indian born citizen to enter space through a joint Interkosmos mission between ISRO and Soviet space program, when he flew aboard the Soviet rocket Soyuz T-11 launched from Baikonur Cosmodrome in the Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic on 3 April 1984. The Soyuz T-11 spacecraft carrying cosmonauts including Sharma docked and transferred the three member Soviet-Indian international crew, consisting of the ship's commander, Yury Malyshev, and flight engineer, Gennadi Strekalov, to the Salyut 7 Orbital Station. Sharma spent 7 days, 21 hours, and 40 minutes aboard the Salyut 7.[18]

Gaganyaan Program history

Gaganyaan development timeline

Preliminary studies and technological development of Gaganyaan started in 2006 under the generic name "Orbital Vehicle". The plan was to design a simple capsule with an endurance of about a week in space, a capacity of two astronauts, and a splashdown landing after re-entry. The project was commissioned in 2007, with expected completion by 2024 and a budget of around ₹10,000 crore.[19] The design was finalized by March 2008 and submitted to the Government of India for funding. The government's funding for the Indian Human Spaceflight Program was sanctioned in February 2009,[20] But it fell short due to limited developmental funding.[20] Initially, the first uncrewed flight of the orbital vehicle was proposed to be in 2013,[21] then it was revised to 2016.[22] However, in April 2012, it was reported that funding problems placed the future of the project in serious doubt.[23] And in August 2013, it was announced that all crewed spaceflight efforts by India had been designated as being "off ISRO's priority list".[24] By early 2014, the project had been reconsidered and was one of the main beneficiaries of a substantial budget increase announced in February 2014.[25] ISRO is developing the Gaganyaan orbital vehicle based on the tests performed with their scaled 550 kg Space Capsule Recovery Experiment (SRE), which was launched and recovered in January 2007.[26][27]

The latest push for the Indian Human Spaceflight Program took place in 2017,[28] And it was accepted and formally announced by Prime Minister Narendra Modi during his 2018 Independence Day address to the nation.[29] The current design calls for a crew of three.[3] ISRO will perform four biological and two physical science experiments related to microgravity during the Gaganyaan mission.[30] ISRO is planning to replace hydrazine with green propellant on Gaganyaan missions, for which Liquid Propulsion Systems Centre (LPSC) is already working on a monopropellant blended formulation consisting of hydroxylammonium nitrate (HAN), ammonium nitrate, methanol and water.[31][32]

As of October 2021, ISRO selected five science experiments that will be conducted on Gaganyaan. The payloads will be developed by the Indian Institute of Space Science and Technology (IIST), University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad (UASD), Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR), IIT Patna, Indian Institute of Chemical Technology (IICT) and the Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Research (JNCASR). Out of the five, two are biological experiments that will be conducted by IIST, UASD and TIFR and will include kidney stone formation and Sirtuin 1 gene marker effects in Drosophila melanogaster. IIT Patna will run experiments on a heat sink that can handle very high heat flux, IICT will study crystallization phenomena, and JNCASR will examine fluid mixing characteristics.[33]

Funding and infrastructure

A crewed spacecraft would require about ₹12,400 crore (US$1.77 billion) over a period of seven years, including the ₹5,000 crore (US$0.7 billion) for the initial work of the crewed spacecraft during the Eleventh Five-Year Plan (2007–2012) out of which the Government released ₹ 50 crore (US$7 million) in 2007–2008.[34][35] In December 2018, the government approved a further ₹10,000 crore (US$1.5 billion) for a 7-day crewed flight of 3 astronauts to take place by 2021.[6]

Madhavan Chandradathan, director of Satish Dhawan Space Centre (SDSC), stated that ISRO would need to set up an astronaut training facility in Bangalore. The newly established Human Space Flight Centre (HSFC) will coordinate the IHSF efforts.[36] Existing launch facilities will be upgraded for launches under the Indian Human Spaceflight project.[37][38] With extra facilities needed for launch escape systems.[35] Russia is likely to provide astronaut training.[39] In Spring 2009, the full-scale mock-up of the crew capsule of Gaganyaan was built and delivered to Satish Dhawan Space Center for the training of astronauts.[40]

India has already successfully developed and tested several building blocks, including re-entry space capsule, pad abort test, safe crew ejection mechanism in case of rocket failure, a flight suit developed by Defence Bioengineering and Electromedical Laboratory (DEBEL) and the powerful GSLV-MkIII launch vehicle.[41] Having met all required technological keystones, the Indian Human Spaceflight Programme was accepted and formally announced by the Prime Minister Narendra Modi on 15 August 2018.[42] Gaganyaan will be the first crewed spacecraft under this programme.[43]

ISRO's Human Space Flight Centre and Glavcosmos, which is a subsidiary of the Russian state corporation Roscosmos, signed an agreement on 1 July 2019 for cooperation in the selection, support, medical examination and space training of Indian astronauts.[44] An ISRO Technical Liaison Unit (ITLU) has been approved to be set up in Moscow for coordination.[45][46] Glavkosmos has also contracted NPP Zvezda for manufacturing customized IVA flight-suits for Indian astronauts.[47][48][49] ISRO is planning to develop a ground station for Gaganyaan mission at Cocos (Keeling) Islands, and after a brief discussion with Australian Space Agency, a temporary ground station for the mission has been set up by ISRO in Cocos (Keeling) Islands, as of 2021.[31]

Description

Crew module

Gaganyaan full-scale test article for Test Vehicle Abort Mission-1.

Gaganyaan crew module is a fully autonomous 5.3 t (12,000 lb) spacecraft designed to carry a 3-member crew to orbit and safely return to the Earth after a mission duration of up to seven days.[1] The crew module is equipped with two parachutes for redundancy, with one parachute enough for a safe splashdown. The parachutes would reduce the speed of the crew module from over 216 m/s (710 ft/s) to under 11 m/s (36 ft/s) at splashdown.[50]

The space capsule will have life support and environmental control systems. It will be equipped with emergency mission abort capabilities and a Crew Escape System (CES) that can be activated during the first stage or second rocket stage burn.[51] The nose of the original version of the orbital vehicle was free for a docking mechanism, but primary entry was evidently through a side hatch secured by explosive bolts.[52] On 7 December 2022, The Hindu reported that the crew module had entered the production stage.[53]

Following fruitless attempts to obtain the Environmental Control and Life Support System (ECLSS) from other countries, ISRO has declared that it will be developing it on its own for Gaganyaan mission. According to ISRO Chairman S Somanath, ISRO has no experience in producing ECLSS, but it was forced to urge national laboratories and domestic industry to begin developing the technology because there were no foreign partners available to share the technology.[54]

Hindustan Times reported on 12 January 2024, that in order to double-check crew safety for the first mission, Indian astronauts are expected to don Russian-made spacesuits rather than the domestically manufactured Intra Vehicular Activity (IVA) suits created by Vikram Sarabhai Space Center.[55]

Service module

Its 2.9 t (6,400 lb)[1] service module is powered by liquid propellant engines. The crew module is mated to the service module, and together they constitute 8.2 t (18,000 lb) orbital module.[1]

The Service Module Propulsion System (SMPS) will perform an orbit raising manoeuvre allowing Gaganyaan to reach 400 km in low Earth orbit (LEO), then remain docked during a deorbit burn until atmospheric reentry. It will use an unified bipropellant system consisting of MON-3 and Monomethylhydrazine as oxidizer and fuel, having five main engines derived from ISRO's liquid apogee motor with 440 N (99 lbf) thrust and sixteen 100 N reaction control system (RCS) thrusters.

Development

2D representation of ISRO's Human Rated LVM3.

Following three uncrewed orbital flight demonstrations of the spacecraft, a crewed Gaganyaan is slated to be launched on the HLVM3 (Human-rated version of LVM3) launcher no earlier than 2024.[16] Though the spacecraft is designed to carry 3 people, it is likely that the first flight will carry one person only.[56]

Test flights

Development timeline of Gaganyaan
Flight Date Regime Crew Notes Outcome
Re-entry Test 18 December 2014 Sub-orbital N/A Sub-orbital test of scaled down boilerplate Gaganyaan capsule, launched aboard the sub-orbital first test flight of ISRO's GSLV Mark III rocket. Success
Pad Abort Test 5 July 2018 Atmospheric N/A 4-minute test of Gaganyaan's Launch abort system from launch pad at Satish Dhawan Space Centre. Success
Test fires liquid fuel engine [57] 5 July 2021 liquid fuel engine conducted the hot test of the liquid propellant Vikas Engine for the core L110 liquid stage of the human-rated Success
Drogue parachute deployment tests[58] 12 August 2023 Drogue parachute N/A The Gaganyaan mission crew module's safe re-entry by stabilising and reducing velocity. Success
TV-D1[59][60] 21 October 2023 Atmospheric N/A High altitude abort test.[61] Success
TV-D2[62] TBD Atmospheric N/A Uncrewed mission to test flight parameters.[61] Planned
TV-D3[62] TBD Atmospheric N/A Uncrewed mission to test flight parameters Planned
TV-D4[62] TBD Atmospheric N/A Planned
G1[63] TBD LEO N/A First orbital test flight of Gaganyaan capsule.[62] Planned
G2[63] TBD LEO N/A Second orbital test flight of Gaganyaan capsule.[62] Planned
G3[63] TBD LEO N/A Third orbital test flight of Gaganyaan capsule.[64] Planned
H1[63] TBD LEO India TBA
India TBA
India TBA 		First crewed flight of Gaganyaan, carrying 3 Indian astronauts on a short orbital test flight.[65][62] Planned

Test flight profile

About 16 minutes after liftoff from the Satish Dhawan Space Centre (SDSC), Sriharikota, the rocket will inject the spacecraft into an orbit 300–400 km (190–250 mi) above Earth. When ready to land, its service module and solar panels will be disposed of before reentry. The capsule would return for a parachute splashdown in the Bay of Bengal.[66]

Testing

Crew Module Atmospheric Re-entry Experiment

Test of water landing of CARE on 18 December 2014

ISRO undertook an uncrewed test launch of the vehicle aboard the LVM3-X, for an experimental sub-orbital flight on 18 December 2014. The crew module separated from the rocket at an altitude of 126 km. On-board motors controlled and reduced the speed of the module until an altitude of 80 km (50 mi). Thrusters were shut off at that altitude and atmospheric drag further reduced speed of the capsule.

The module's heat shield was expected to experience temperature in excess of 1,600 °C (2,910 °F). Parachutes were deployed at an altitude of 15 km (9.3 mi) to slow down the module, which performed a splashdown in the Bay of Bengal near Andaman and Nicobar Islands.[67][68]

This flight was used to test orbital injection, separation and re-entry procedures and systems of the Crew Capsule. Also tested were the capsule separation, heat shields and aerobraking systems, parachute deployment, retro-firing, splashdown, flotation systems, and procedures to recover the Crew Capsule from the Bay of Bengal.[69][70] Inflight launch abort and parachute tests were expected to be conducted by the end of 2019.[71]

Pad Abort Test

Info-graphic on Pad Abort Test (PAT-01) displayed at Bangalore Space Expo 2018.
Main page: Engineering:ISRO Pad Abort Test

The Indian Space Research Organisation's Pad Abort Test was conducted successfully on 5 July 2018.[72] As of September 2021, Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre (VSSC) was integrating a test vehicle to conduct an uncrewed flight test of Crew Escape System (CES) before the official launch of Gaganyaan mission. The test vehicle was planned be ready by the end of 2021.[73]

Vikas engine qualification

Long duration hot test of Vikas engine at ISRO Propulsion Complex.

Vikas engine variants are used to power the second stage of the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV), boosters and second stage of the Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV) Mark I and II, and also the core stage of LVM 3.

On 14 July 2021 ISRO conducted third long duration hot test of Vikas engine for core L110 liquid stage of GSLV Mark III at ISRO Propulsion Complex as part of the engine qualification requirements of the Gaganyaan mission. The engine was successfully test fired for a duration of 240 seconds validating all the required performance parameters.[74][75]

On 20 January 2022, High Thrust Vikas Engine successfully underwent a hot qualification test for duration of 25 seconds at ISRO Propulsion Complex to validate engine robustness under non-nominal operating conditions for fuel-oxidiser mixture ratio and chamber pressure.[76]

Static test for Low Altitude Escape Motor

On 11 August 2022 ISRO successfully completed the test firing of Low Altitude Escape Motor (LEM) for Crew Escape System. LEM consists of a solid rocket motor with four reverse flow nozzles that generates maximum sea level thrust of 842 kN (nominal) with burn time of 5.98 second (nominal). The nozzle end of LEM is mounted at the fore end of the launch vehicle to avoid exhaust plume impingement on crew module. This is why there are reverse flow multiple nozzle in the solid rocket motor. The reverse flow nozzle makes exhaust gas flow in opposite direction in the nozzle region.[77][78]

The objective of this test was to check ballistic parameters, validate motor subsystem performance (and confirm the design margins), evaluate the thermal performance of nozzle liners especially to confirm the ablative characteristics, validate integrity of all interfaces, evaluate the head-end mounted safe arm (HMSA) based ignition system performance, and evaluate side thrust due to misalignment and variation in flow and other functional parameters including flow reversal.[79]

Service Module Propulsion System demonstration

A system demonstration model (SDM) of the Service Module Propulsion System (SMPS), which will be incorporated into the Gaganyaan spacecraft, was successfully tested by ISRO on 28 August 2021.[80] The service module is designed and developed by Liquid Propulsion Systems Centre (LPSC).[81]

Service module - system demo model hot test conducted on 19 July 2023 at ISRO Propulsion Complex successfully established the faultless operation of all components and systems.

At the ISRO Propulsion Complex (IPRC), the system demonstration model was fired for 450 seconds. The performance met the pre-test prediction model. The propulsion system for the service module is a single bi-propellant system consists of sixteen 100 Newton thrusters for reaction control system (RCS) and five primary 440 Newton thrust engines, using monomethylhydrazine (MMH) and mixed oxides of nitrogen (MON-3) as the fuel and oxidizer, respectively. Additionally, IPRC is constructing a new facility to test the Service Module Propulsion System. To validate the propulsion system on the ground, the test model for the system demonstration employed only eight 100 Newton thrusters and five 440 Newton engines.[82][83]

On 19 July 2023, ISRO successfully completed the test of Gaganyaan Service Module Propulsion System.[84] Five hot tests totaling 2,750 seconds were conducted by ISRO as part of the Phase-1 test series. Eight 100 Newton RCS thrusters and five 440 Newton liquid apogee motor (LAM) engines were used in Phase 1. The system's hot testing replicated the operation of the flight-qualified thruster, helium pressurization system, propellant tank feed system, and control components. During the test, which lasted 250 seconds, RCS thrusters and LAM engines were used continuously. During the Gaganyaan mission's ascending phase, the RCS thrusters will ensure precise attitude correction, while the LAM engines will supply the primary propulsive force.[85]

The SMPS carries out orbit injection, circularization burn, on-orbit control, de-boost maneuvering, and service module based abort if necessary during the ascent phase for the Orbital Module.[86] File:Gaganyaan SM-SDM Phase 2 (350 sec) IPRC.webm On 20 July 2023, hot test was conducted in final configuration of SMPS in which sixteen RCS thrusters with 100 Newton thrust and five LAM engines with 440 Newton thrust were used. The propellant tank feed system, helium pressurization system, flight-qualified thrusters, and control components were all included in the hot test which simulated the fluid circuit of the SMPS. The combined performance of SMPS was showcased in the first hot test of the Phase-2 test series.[87] Each 440 Newton thrust engine will also be tested individually for longer duration involving various parameters to gain human-rating certification. ISRO has scheduled five additional tests to demonstrate both nominal and off-nominal mission scenarios.[88][89]

On 26 July 2023, ISRO conducted two more hot tests on the SMPS with success. The thrusters were run in tandem with the mission profile, both in continuous and pulsed mode. The first hot test, which lasted 723.60 seconds, was intended to show how to pump fuel into the orbital module and burn 100 Newton thrusters and LAM engines for calibration. The calibration burn was essential to identify and isolate any non-operational engines. The RCS thrusters and LAM engines operated as anticipated. The goal of the second hot test, which lasted 350 seconds, was to show how the Orbital Module circularizes to reach the final orbit. The RCS thrusters functioned in pulse mode throughout this test, while the LAM engines ran continuously.[90][91]

CE-20 engine qualification

On 12 January 2022, ISRO conducted a hot qualification test on CE-20 cryogenic engine for a duration of 720 seconds at ISRO Propulsion Complex (IPRC).[92][93] On 28 October 2022, CE-20 E11 successfully completed a Pressure Chamber Test for 30 seconds at IPRC. It was done to check the efficacy of the engine for Gaganyaan missions. On 9 November 2022, the duration was increased to 70 seconds. The test results were on expected lines as per ISRO sources.[94]

Static fire test of HS200 booster motor

Static fire test of HS200 booster for 135 seconds with 203 tons of solid propellant.

A human-rated variant of the S200 solid strap-on booster, or 'HS200', was developed for the Gaganyaan programme in collaboration with Larsen & Toubro.[95] The first static fire test of HS200 was conducted on 13 May 2022 at Satish Dhawan Space Centre (SDSC) for a duration of 135 seconds, carrying 203 tons of solid propellant. During the test, about 700 parameters were monitored and the performance of all the systems were normal. The second-largest functioning solid propellant booster in the world is 20 meters in length and 3.2 meters in diameter [96][97]

Like all systems for Gaganyaan mission, the HS200 booster was designed with a number of enhancements intended to increase the safety and dependability of different systems. The enhancements include stronger ignition and insulation systems, improved digital control electronics as well as extra safety features for motor case joints. This booster's control system makes use of one of the strongest electro-mechanical actuators available, complete with many redundancies and safety measures.The enhancement of S200 solid strap-on booster resulted in a decrease in chamber pressure, increased robustness, proof-leakability, and higher margins.[98]

Integrated Main Parachute Airdrop Test

File:Integrated Main Parachute Airdrop Test.webm On 18 November 2022, Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre (VSSC) conducted an Integrated Main Parachute Airdrop Test (IMAT) of the Parachute Deceleration System (PDS), in which 5-ton dummy mass equivalent of the actual crew module mass was taken to an altitude of 2.5 km and dropped from Ilyushin Il-76 by Indian Air Force . Two small pyro-based mortar-deployed pilot parachutes then pulled the main parachutes free. The size of the main parachutes was initially restricted to a smaller area to reduce opening shock. After 7 seconds, the pyro-based reefing line cutters cut the area restricting line, allowing the parachutes to inflate fully. The fully inflated main parachutes reduced the payload speed to a safe landing speed. The entire sequence lasted about 2-3 minutes.[99][100]

The Parachute Deceleration System is jointly developed by ISRO and DRDO. System design, analytical simulations for parachute deployment, development of ordnance devices for parachute ejection, mechanical assembly, instrumentation and avionics were done by VSSC. In total, five air dropped tests (of 10 parachutes) are planned as part of qualification process.[101][102]

Drogue Parachute Deployment Test

File:ISRO Gaganyaan DPDT.webm ISRO on 8 August 2023, informed the media that Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre in collaboration with Aerial Delivery Research and Development Establishment (ADRDE), a lab under Defence Research & Development Organisation successfully conducted a series of Drogue Parachute Deployment Tests at Rail Track Rocket Sled Facility of Terminal Ballistics Research Laboratory (TBRL), Chandigarh from 8 August to 10 August 2023. Drogue parachutes, which are essential for stabilizing the crew module and lowering its velocity to a safe level during re-entry, were deployed as part of this test. Pyrotechnic devices called mortars are developed to launch parachutes into the air upon command. With a diameter of 5.8 meters, these conical ribbon-type parachutes use a single-stage reefing system that reduces canopy area and lessens opening stress to provide a controlled and smooth descent.[103]

A variety of real-world conditions were recreated during the three comprehensive tests in order to thoroughly assess the functionality and dependability of the drogue parachutes. The first test, which replicated the maximum reefed weight, introduced reefing in a mortar-deployed parachute for the first time in India. The second test replicated the maximum disreefed load, while the third test demonstrated the drogue parachute's deployment in a scenario that mirrored the Crew Module's maximum angle of attack it might experience during its mission. All these tests served as a critical qualification milestone for the drogue parachutes, confirming their readiness for integration into Test Vehicle Abort Mission-1.[104]

Rail Track Rocket Sled Facility already completed the test of pilot and apex cover separation parachutes. Ten parachutes will be used in the complex parachute sequence for the deceleration system of the Gaganyaan crew module. The two apex cover separation parachutes are deployed first in the process, and two drogue parachutes are deployed when stability is accomplished. The mission enters the extraction phase once the drogue parachutes are released. Three pilot parachutes separately remove the three main parachutes, which is a crucial step in lowering the Crew Module's speed to acceptable levels for a safe landing.[105]

Test Vehicle Abort Mission-1

Main page: Engineering:Test Vehicle Abort Mission-1
Gaganyaan TV-D1 launch

Test Vehicle Abort Mission-1[106] (TV-D1[106][107]) was a high altitude abort test as part of the Gaganyaan program, held on 21 October 2023 at around 10:00 a.m IST.[108] The rocket launch was the second attempt of the day, with the initial try halted just five seconds before the scheduled time. The primary purpose of the test was to ensure the crew's ability to safely exit the rocket in the event of a malfunction. Originally slated for 8:00 local time, the launch was postponed for 45 minutes due to weather-related concerns.[109]

During TV-D1 mission, the crew module experience an unexpected upended orientation while being recovered by Indian Navy from Bay of Bengal. In order to mitigate the problem and improve safety, ISRO is going to test an "uprighting system" that resembles gaseous balloons and works similarly to airbags in cars to keep the crew module from toppling over in the event of lateral wind and sea wave disturbances following splashdown. Redundancy is built into the system to guard against failure. Test Vehicle Abort Mission-2 (TV-D2) is scheduled to launch in Q1 2024 by ISRO. The crew escape mechanism will use low and high altitude escape motors, while the crew module control systems will mimic the crew seat, suspension, and uprighting systems.[110]

Vyommitra

Main page: Engineering:Vyommitra
Vyommitra, a spacefaring humanoid robot

On 22 January 2020, ISRO announced Vyommitra, a female-looking robot who will accompany the other astronauts in the mission. ISRO aims not to fly animals onboard experimental missions unlike other nations that have carried out human space flight. Instead, it will fly humanoid robots for a better understanding of what weightlessness and radiation do to the human body during long durations in space.[111]

Vyommitra is expected to be onboard uncrewed Gaganyaan missions to perform microgravity experiments, monitor module parameters, and support astronauts in crewed missions by simulating functions like a human from the waist up. It does not have legs.[112] It is programmed to speak Hindi and English and perform multiple tasks.[113][114][115][116]

It can detect and give out warnings if environmental changes within the cabin get uncomfortable to astronauts and change the air condition. It can autonomously complete tasks and follow new commands.[117]

See also

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 Expert Talk by Dr R.Venkatraman, Dy.Director on Challenges in launch pad systems for Gaganyaan (Video). SDSC SHAR. 6 October 2020. Retrieved 6 October 2020.
  2. ↑ "Indian Manned Spacecraft". Astronautix. 2014. http://astronautix.com/i/indianmannedspacecraft.html. 
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 "Gaganyaan: Astronauts on mission likely to be pilots, crew module design to be finalised soon" (in en). 20 January 2019. https://www.indiatoday.in/science/story/gaganyaan-mission-isro-pilots-crew-module-1435145-2019-01-20. 
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Kunhikrishnan, P.. "India's Human Spaceflight Programme: GAGANYAAN". UNOOSA. http://www.unoosa.org/documents/pdf/copuos/stsc/2019/tech-47E.pdf. 
  5. ↑ "Integrated Cabin Pressure Control System". ISRO. p. 11. https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/tenders/458pt.pdf. 
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 Singh, Surendra (29 December 2018). "Rs 10,000 crore plan to send 3 Indians to space by 2022". https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/union-cabinet-clears-rs-10000cr-for-indias-gaganyaan-project/articleshow/67288124.cms. 
  7. ↑ PTI (15 August 2018). "Gaganyaan mission to take Indian astronaut to space by 2022: PM Modi" (in en-IN). The Hindu. ISSN 0971-751X. https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/gaganyaan-mission-to-take-indian-astronaut-to-space-by-2022-pm-modi/article24695817.ece. 
  8. ↑ PTI (2023-10-22). "ISRO chief Somnath says space agency prefers woman fighter test pilots for its crewed mission, possible in future" (in en-IN). The Hindu. ISSN 0971-751X. https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/science/isro-prefers-woman-fighter-test-pilots-for-its-manned-mission-possible-in-future-says-somanath/article67449008.ece. 
  9. ↑ "Hindustan Aeronautics Limited". http://hal-india.com/Crew%20Module.asp. 
  10. ↑ "India's first solar mission in 2020: ISRO chairman". The Times of India. 4 May 2019. https://m.timesofindia.com/articleshow/69169011.cms. 
  11. ↑ "Gaganyaan: DRDO to provide special space food and emergency survival kit for ISRO's manned mission". The Financial Express. 4 March 2020. https://www.financialexpress.com/lifestyle/science/gaganyaan-drdo-to-provide-special-space-food-and-emergency-survival-kit-for-isros-manned-mission/1888944/. 
  12. ↑ "No Gaganyaan Unmanned Flight This Year". The Times of India. 11 June 2020. https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/no-gaganyaan-unmanned-flight-this-year/articleshow/76315319.cms. 
  13. ↑ "India's First Human Space Mission "Gaganyaan" Will not Be Affected by COVID Pandemic: Dr.Jitendra Singh". 3 July 2020. https://pib.gov.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=209796. 
  14. ↑ "Gaganyaan mission can't happen this year or next year, focus fully on safety aspects: Isro chief". The Times of India. 30 June 2022. https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/gaganyaan-mission-cant-happen-this-year-or-next-year-focus-fully-on-safety-aspects-isro-chief/articleshow/92579979.cms?utm_source=twitter.com&utm_medium=social&utm_campaign=TOIDesktop. 
  15. ↑ "India to launch Gaganyaan mission by end of 2023 or 2024: Jitendra Singh". The Economic Times. 2023-05-18. ISSN 0013-0389. https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/science/india-to-launch-gaganyaan-mission-by-end-of-2023-or-2024-jitendra-singh/articleshow/100337040.cms?from=mdr. 
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 Dutt, Anonna (9 April 2023). "Gaganyaan: From astronauts' training to tech upgrade, ISRO making leaps to meet 2024 target for manned mission". The Indian Express. https://indianexpress.com/article/india/gaganyaan-from-astronauts-training-to-tech-upgrade-isro-making-leaps-to-meet-2025-target-for-manned-mission-8546259/. 
  17. ↑ Singh, Surendra (27 September 2023). "Isro all geared up for first test flight of Gaganyaan crew capsule in October: Chairman S Somanath" (in en). The Times of India. https://m.timesofindia.com/home/science/isro-all-geared-up-for-first-test-flight-of-gaganyaan-crew-capsule-in-october-somanath/articleshow/103970849.cms. 
  18. ↑ Srinivasan, Pankaja (4 April 2010). "The down to earth Rakesh Sharma". The Hindu. http://m.thehindu.com/features/metroplus/the-down-to-earth-rakesh-sharma/article381946.ece/. 
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  92. ↑ "Qualification testing of Cryogenic Engine for Gaganyaan Programme". https://www.isro.gov.in/update/12-jan-2022/qualification-testing-of-cryogenic-engine-gaganyaan-programme. 
  93. ↑ Surendra Singh (12 January 2022). "Isro successfully conducts cryo engine test for Gaganyaan rocket" (in en). https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/isro-successfully-conducts-cryo-engine-test-for-gaganyaan-rocket/articleshow/88861681.cms. 
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