Philosophy:Samatha-vipassana

Short description: Buddhist meditation practices

Translations of Vipassanā
English	insight, clear-seeing, special seeing, distinct seeing
Sanskrit	विपश्यना (IAST: vipaśyanā)
Pali	विपस्सना (vipassanā)
Burmese	ဝိပဿနာ (WiPakThaNar)
Chinese	觀 (Pinyin: guān)
Khmer	វិបស្សនា (UNGEGN: vĭbâssânéa)
Sinhala	විපස්සනා ()
Tibetan	ལྷག་མཐོང་ (Wylie: lhag mthong; THL: lhak-thong)
Thai	สมถะวิปัสสนา
Vietnamese	quán
Glossary of Buddhism

(Pāli; Sinhala: සමථ; Chinese: 止; pinyin: zhǐ), "calm," "serenity," "tranquility of awareness," and (Pāli; Sinhala විදර්ශනා (); Sanskrit ), literally "special, super (), seeing ()", are two qualities of the mind developed in tandem in Buddhist practice.

In the Pāli Canon and the these qualities are not specific practices, but elements of "a single path," and are "fulfilled" with the development () of mindfulness () and meditation (/) and other path-factors. While / has a central role in the Buddhist path, is rarely mentioned separately, but is usually described along with .

The and the commentaries describe and as two separate techniques, taking to mean concentration-meditation, and as a practice to gain insight. In the tradition, is a practice that seeks "insight into the true nature of reality", which is defined as ("impermanence"), ("suffering, unsatisfactoriness"), and ("non-self"): the three marks of existence. In the Mahayana traditions is defined as insight into ("emptiness") and Buddha-nature.

In modern , the relation between and is a matter of dispute. Meditation-practice was reinvented in the tradition in the 18th–20th centuries, based on contemporary readings of the , the , and other texts, centering on and "dry insight" and downplaying . became of central importance in the 20th century Vipassanā movement which favors over .

Some critics point out that both are necessary elements of the Buddhist training, while other critics argue that is not a single-pointed concentration exercise.

Terminology

Samatha

The Sanskrit word can be translated as "tranquility"; "tranquility of the mind"; "tranquillity of awareness"; "serenity"; "calm"; "meditative calm"; or "quietude of the heart."

The Tibetan term for is ཞི་གནས་ (; Wylie: zhi-gnas). The semantic field of Sanskrit and Tibetan is "pacification", "the slowing or cooling down", "rest." The semantic field of Tibetan is "to abide or remain" and this is cognate or equivalent with the final syllable of the Sanskrit, . According to Jamgon Kongtrul, the terms refer to "peace" and "pacification" of the mind and the thoughts.

is a Pali word derived from the prefix "" and the verbal root "":

"special," "super"; "in a special way," "into, through"; "clear."

"seeing"; "seeing," "perceiving"; "free from preconception."

The literal meaning is "super-seeing," but is often translated as "insight" or "clear-seeing." Henepola Gunaratana defines as "[l]ooking into something with clarity and precision, seeing each component as distinct and separate, and piercing all the way through so as to perceive the most fundamental reality of that thing." According to Mitchell Ginsberg, is "[i]nsight into how things are, not how we thought them to be."

In Tibetan, is (Wylie: lhag mthong). means "higher", "superior", "greater"; is "view, to see". So together, may be rendered into English as "superior seeing", "great vision", or "supreme wisdom". This may be interpreted as a "superior manner of seeing", and also as "seeing that which is the essential nature". Its nature is a lucidity—a clarity of mind.

Origins and development

Early Buddhism

According to Thanissaro Bhikkhu, ", , and were all part of a single path." According to Keren Arbel, and are not specific practices, but qualities of the mind that a practitioner fulfills as they develop the factors of the Noble Eightfold Path, including ("mindfulness") and / ("meditation"). In the the term "" is hardly mentioned, while those texts frequently mention as the meditative practice to be undertaken. As Thanissaro Bhikkhu writes,

When [the Pāli suttas] depict the Buddha telling his disciples to go meditate, they never quote him as saying "go do ," but always "go do ." And they never equate the word "" with any mindfulness techniques. In the few instances where they do mention , they almost always pair it with — not as two alternative methods, but as two qualities of mind that a person may "gain" or "be endowed with," and that should be developed together.

According to Vetter and Bronkhorst, constituted the original "liberating practice" of the Buddha. Vetter further argues that the Noble Eightfold Path constitutes a body of practices that prepare one, and lead up to, the practice of . Vetter and Bronkhorst further note that is not limited to single-pointed concentration, which seems to be described in the first , but develops into equanimity and mindfulness, "born from ." Wynne notes that one is then no longer absorbed in concentration, but is mindfully aware of objects while being indifferent to them, "directing states of meditative absorption towards the mindful awareness of objects."

A number of mention and as mental qualities that are to be developed in tandem. In SN 43.2, the Buddha states: "And what, , is the path leading to the unconditioned? Serenity and insight..." In SN 35.245, the Kimsuka Tree Sutta, the Buddha provides an elaborate metaphor in which serenity and insight are "the swift pair of messengers" who deliver the message of (Pāli; Skt.: ) via the noble eightfold path:

These two qualities have a share in clear knowing. Which two? Tranquility () & insight ().

When tranquility is developed, what purpose does it serve? The mind is developed. And when the mind is developed, what purpose does it serve? Passion is abandoned.
When insight is developed, what purpose does it serve? Discernment is developed. And when discernment is developed, what purpose does it serve? Ignorance is abandoned.

Defiled by passion, the mind is not released. Defiled by ignorance, discernment does not develop. Thus from the fading of passion is there awareness-release. From the fading of ignorance is there discernment-release.

Ven. Ānanda reports that people attain ship in one of four ways:

Friends, whoever — monk or nun — declares the attainment of arahantship in my presence, they all do it by means of one or another of four paths. Which four?
There is the case where a monk has developed insight preceded by tranquility. [...]
Then there is the case where a monk has developed tranquillity preceded by insight. [...]
Then there is the case where a monk has developed tranquillity in tandem with insight. [...]
Then there is the case where a monk's mind has its restlessness concerning the [Comm: the corruptions of insight] well under control.

Disjunction of and

Buddhaghosa, in his influential scholastic treatise Visuddhimagga, states that is induced by , and then is reflected upon with mindfulness, becoming the object of , with the reflector realizing that is marked by the three characteristics. One who uses this method is referred to as a "tranquility worker" (Pāḷi: ). However modern Buddhist teachers such as Henepola Gunaratana state that there is virtually no evidence of this method in the Pāḷi . A few describe a method of "bare insight", or "dry insight" where only is practiced, examining ordinary physical and mental phenomena to discern the three marks. Gombrich and Brooks argue that the distinction as two separate paths originates in the earliest interpretations of the Sutta Pitaka, not in the themselves.

According to Richard Gombrich, a development took place in early Buddhism resulting in a change in doctrine that considered to be an alternative means to awakening, alongside the practice of . The contain traces of ancient debates between and schools concerning the interpretation of the teachings and the development of insight. Out of these debates developed the idea that bare insight suffices to reach liberation, by discerning the three marks (qualities) of (human) existence (), namely (suffering), (non-self), and (impermanence). Thanissaro Bikkhu also argues that and have a "unified role," whereas "[t]he Abhidhamma and the Commentaries, by contrast, state that and are two distinct meditation paths."

Gunaratana notes that "[t]he classical source for the distinction between the two vehicles of serenity and insight is the Visuddhimagga." Ajahn Brahm (who, like Bhikkhu Thanissaro, is of the Thai Forest Tradition) writes that

Some traditions speak of two types of meditation, insight meditation () and calm meditation (). In fact the two are indivisible facets of the same process. Calm is the peaceful happiness born of meditation; insight is the clear understanding born of the same meditation. Calm leads to insight and insight leads to calm."

and the movement

By the tenth century meditation was no longer practiced in the Theravada tradition, due to the belief that Buddhism had degenerated, and that liberation was no longer attainable until the coming of the future Buddha, Maitreya. It was reinvented in Myanmar (Burma) in the 18th century by Medawi (1728–1816), leading to the rise of the Vipassanā movement in the 20th century, reinventing meditation, developing simplified meditation techniques (based on the Satipatthana sutta, the Ānāpānasati Sutta, the Visuddhimagga, and other texts), and emphasizing and bare insight. In this approach, is regarded as a preparation for , pacifying the mind and strengthening concentration, so that insight into impermanence can arise, which leads to liberation. Ultimately, these techniques aim at stream entry, which safeguards future development towards full awakening, despite the degenerated age we live in.

According to the tradition, refers to techniques that help to calm the mind. is thought to be developed by , interpreted by the commentatorial tradition as concentration-meditation, the ability to rest the attention on a single object of perception. One of the principal techniques for this purpose is mindfulness of breathing (Pāḷi: ). is commonly practiced as a prelude to and in conjunction with wisdom practices.

Objects of -meditation

Some meditation practices, such as contemplation of a object, favor the development of ; others, such as contemplation of the aggregates, are conducive to the development of ; while others, such as mindfulness of breathing, are classically used for developing both mental qualities.

The Visuddhimagga (5th century CE) mentions forty objects of meditation. Mindfulness () of breathing (: ; S. ) is the most common practice (though this term is also used for meditation). can include other practices as well.

Signs and stages of joy in -meditation

Buddhism describes the development of in terms of three successive mental images or 'signs' () and five stages of joy (). According to the -tradition, , a feeling of joy, gladness or rapture, arises from the abandonment of the five hindrances in favor of concentration on a single object. These stages are outlined by the exegete Buddhaghosa in his Visuddhimagga (also in Atthasālinī) and the earlier Upatissa (author of the Vimuttimagga). Following the establishment of access concentration (), one can enter the four , powerful states of joyful absorption in which the entire body is pervaded with .

Variations in

In the tradition various understandings of exist:

• In Sri Lanka includes all those meditations that are directed at static objects.
• In Burma, comprises all concentration practices aimed at calming the mind.
• The Thai Forest tradition deriving from Ajahn Mun and popularized by Ajahn Chah stresses the inseparability of and , and the essential necessity of both practices.

In modern , liberation is thought to be attained by insight into the transitory nature of phenomena. This is accomplished by establishing (mindfulness) and through the practice of (mindfulness of breathing), using mindfulness for observing the impermanence in the bodily and mental changes, to gain insight (P: , S: ; P: , S: ) into the true nature of phenomena.

movement

The term is often conflated with the Movement, which popularised new teachings and practice. It started in the 1950s in Burma, but has gained wide renown mainly through American Buddhist teachers such as Joseph Goldstein, Tara Brach, Gil Fronsdal, Sharon Salzberg, and Jack Kornfield. The movement has a wide appeal due to being inclusive of different Buddhist and non-buddhist wisdom, poetry as well as science. It has together with the modern American Zen tradition served as one of the main inspirations for the "mindfulness movement" as developed by Jon Kabat-Zinn and others. The Movement, also known as the Insight Meditation Movement, is rooted in Buddhism and the revival of meditation techniques, especially the "New Burmese Method", the Thai Forest Tradition, and modern influences on the traditions of Sri Lanka, Burma, Laos, and Thailand.

In the Movement, the emphasis is on the Satipatthana Sutta and the use of mindfulness to gain insight into the impermanence of the self. It argues that the development of strong can be disadvantageous, a stance for which the Vipassana Movement has been criticised, especially in Sri Lanka. The "New Burmese Method" was developed by U Nārada (1868–1955), and popularised by Mahasi Sayadaw (1904–1982) and Nyanaponika Thera (1901–1994). Other influential Burmese proponents include Ledi Sayadaw and Mogok Sayadaw as well as Mother Sayamagyi and S. N. Goenka, who were both students of Sayagyi U Ba Khin. Influential Thai teachers include Ajahn Chah and Buddhadasa. A well-known Indian teacher is Dipa Ma.

Stages of practice

Practice begins with the preparatory stage, the practice of (virtue): giving up worldly thoughts and desires. Jeff Wilson notes that morality is a quintessential element of Buddhist practice, and is also emphasized by the first generation of post-war western teachers. However, in the contemporary mindfulness movement, morality as an element of practice has been mostly discarded, "mystifying" the origins of mindfulness.

The practitioner then engages in (mindfulness of breathing), which is described in the Satipatthana Sutta as going into the forest and sitting beneath a tree to simply watch the breath: If the breath is long, to notice that the breath is long, if the breath is short, to notice that the breath is short. In the "New Burmese Method", the practitioner attends to any arising mental or physical phenomenon, engaging in , noting or naming physical and mental phenomena (e.g. "breathing, breathing"), without engaging the phenomenon with further conceptual thinking. By noticing the arising of physical and mental phenomena, the meditator becomes aware how sense impressions arise from the contact between the senses and physical and mental phenomena, as described in the five and . According to Sayadaw U Pandita, one's awareness and observation of these sensations is de-coupled from any kind of physical response, which reconditions one's impulsive responses to stimuli, such that one is less likely to physically or emotionally overreact to the happenings of the world.

The practitioner also becomes aware of the incessant changes involved in breathing, and the arising and passing away of mindfulness. This noticing is accompanied by reflections on causation and other Buddhist teachings, leading to insight into , , and . When these three characteristics have been comprehended, reflection subdues, and the process of noticing accelerates, noting phenomena in general, without necessarily naming them.

According to Thai meditation master Ajahn Lee, the practice of both and together allows one to achieve various mental powers and gnosis (Pāḷi: ), including the attainment of , whereas the practice of alone allows for the achievement of , but no other mental powers or gnosis.

are stages that describe the development of in meditation practice as described in modern Burmese meditation. Mahasi Sayadaw's student Sayadaw U Pandita described the four as follows:

1. The meditator first explores the body/mind connection as one nonduality, discovering the three characteristics. The first consists in seeing these points and in the presence of and . Phenomena reveal themselves as arising and falling away.
2. In the second , the practice seems effortless. and both disappear.
3. In the third , , the joy, disappears too: there is only happiness () and concentration.
4. The fourth arises, characterized by purity of mindfulness due to equanimity. The practice leads to direct knowledge. The comfort disappears because the dissolution of all phenomena is clear. The practice shows every phenomenon as unstable, transient, disenchanting. The desire of freedom takes place.

Criticism

meditation and () are often considered synonymous by modern , but the four involve a heightened awareness, instead of a narrowing of the mind.

Vetter notes that may refer to the four stages of meditation, but that only the first stage refers to strong concentration, from which arise the other stages, which include mindfulness.

According to Richard Gombrich, the sequence of the four describes two different cognitive states. Gombrich and Wynne note that, while the second denotes a state of absorption, in the third and fourth one comes out of this absorption, being mindfully aware of objects while being indifferent to it. According to Gombrich, "the later tradition has falsified the by classifying them as the quintessence of the concentrated, calming kind of meditation, ignoring the other – and indeed higher – element." Alexander Wynne further explains that the -scheme is poorly understood. According to Wynne, words expressing the inculcation of awareness, such as , , and , are mistranslated or understood as particular factors of meditative states, whereas they refer to a particular way of perceiving the sense objects.

Northern tradition

The north Indian Buddhist traditions like the Sarvastivada and the Sautrāntika practiced meditation as outlined in texts like the Abhidharmakośakārikā of Vasubandhu and the Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra. The Abhidharmakośakārikā states that is practiced, once one has reached ("absorption"), by cultivating the four foundations of mindfulness (). This is achieved, according to Vasubandhu,

[b]y considering the unique characteristics () and the general characteristics () of the body, sensation, the mind, and the dharmas.

"The unique characteristics" means its self nature ().

"The general characteristics" signifies the fact that "All conditioned things are impermanent; all impure are suffering; and that all the are empty () and not-self ().

Asaṅga's Abhidharma-samuccaya states that the practice of is a part of the beginning of a Bodhisattva's path, in the first "path of preparation" ().

The Sthavira nikāya, one of the early Buddhist schools from which the tradition originates, emphasized sudden insight: "In the Sthaviravada [...] progress in understanding comes all at once, 'insight' () does not come 'gradually' (successively—)."

The Mahāsāṃghika, another one of the early Buddhist schools, had the doctrine of , "according to which a Buddha knows everything in a single thought-instant". This process however, meant to apply only to the Buddha and paccekabuddhas. Lay people may have to experience various levels of insights to become fully enlightened.

Mahāyāna

The later Indian Mahāyāna scholastic tradition, as exemplified by Shantideva's Bodhisattvacaryāvatāra, saw as a necessary prerequisite to . Thus, one needed to first begin with calm abiding meditation, and then proceed to insight. In the Pañjikā commentary of Prajñākaramati (Wylie: shes rab 'byung gnas blo gros) on the Bodhisattvacaryāvatāra, is defined simply as "wisdom () that has the nature of thorough knowledge of reality as it is.

A number of Mahāyāna address , usually in conjunction with . One of the most prominent, the Cloud of Jewels Sutra (Ārya Ratnamegha Sutra, Tib. , Chinese 寶雲經 T658, 大乘寶雲經 T659) divides all forms of meditation into either or , defining as "single-pointed consciousness" and as "seeing into the nature of things."

The Sūtra Unlocking the Mysteries (Samdhinirmocana Sūtra), a , is also often used as a source for teachings on . The Samādhirāja Sūtra is often cited as an important source for instructions by the Kagyu tradition, particularly via the commentary of Gampopa, although scholar Andrew Skilton, who has studied the Samādhirāja Sūtra extensively, reports that the itself "contains no significant exposition of either meditational practices or states of mind."

Vipassana— and

The Mahayana tradition emphasizes , insight into , , the two truths doctrine, clarity and emptiness, or bliss and emptiness:

[T]he very title of a large corpus of early Mahayana literature, the Prajnaparamita, shows that to some extent the historian may extrapolate the trend to extol insight, , at the expense of dispassion, , the control of the emotions.

The Mahayana Akṣayamati-nirdeśa refers to as seeing phenomena as they really are—that is, empty, without self, nonarisen, and without grasping. The Prajnaparamita in 8,000 lines states that the practice of insight is the non-appropriation of any , including the five aggregates:

So too, a Bodhisattva coursing in perfect wisdom and developing as such, neither does nor even can stand in form, feeling, perception, impulse, and consciousness... This concentrated insight of a Bodhisattva is called "the non-appropriation of all ".

Although and Mahayana are commonly understood as different streams of Buddhism, their emphasis on insight is a common denominator: "In practice and understanding Zen is actually very close to the Forest Tradition even though its language and teachings are heavily influenced by Taoism and Confucianism."

East Asian Mahāyāna

Chinese Buddhism

In Chinese Buddhism, the works of Tiantai master Zhiyi (such as the Mohe Zhiguan, "Great ") are some of the most influential texts to discuss meditation from a Mahayana perspective. Zhiyi teaches the contemplation of the , , , , false views, and several other elements. Likewise the influential text called the Awakening of Faith in the Mahayana has a section on calm and insight meditation. It states:

He who practices "clear observation" should observe that all conditioned phenomena in the world are unstationary and are subject to instantaneous transformation and destruction; that all activities of the mind arise and are extinguished from moment or moment; and that, therefore, all of these induce suffering. He should observe that all that had been conceived in the past was as hazy as a dream, that all that is being conceived in the future will be like clouds that rise up suddenly. He should also observe that the physical existences of all living beings in the world are impure and that among these various filthy things there is not a single one that can be sought after with joy.

Chan/Zen

The Zen tradition advocates the simultaneous practice of and , and this is called the practice of silent illumination. The classic Chan text known as the Platform Sutra states:

Calming is the essence of wisdom. And wisdom is the natural function of calming [i.e., and ]. At the time of , exists in that. At the time of , exists in that. How is it that and are equivalent? It is like the light of the lamp. When the lamp exists, there is light. When there is no lamp, there is darkness. The lamp is the essence of light. The light is the natural function of the lamp. Although their names are different, in essence, they are fundamentally identical. The teaching of and is just like this.

Chan Buddhism emphasizes sudden insight (subitism), though in the Chan tradition, this insight is to be followed by gradual cultivation. This "gradual training" is expressed in teachings as the Five Ranks of enlightenment, the Ten Bulls illustrations that detail the steps on the path, the "three mysterious gates" of Linji, and the "four ways of knowing" of Hakuin Ekaku.

Indo-Tibetan tradition

In Tibetan Buddhism, the practice of and is strongly influenced by the Mahāyāna text called the Bhavanakrama of Indian master Kamalaśīla. Kamalaśīla defines as "the discernment of reality" () and "accurately realizing the true nature of ".

According to Thrangu Rinpoche, when and are combined (as in the mainstream approach of Shantideva and Kamalashila), through disturbing emotions are abandoned, which thus facilitates , "clear seeing". is cultivated through reasoning, logic, and analysis in conjunction with .

In contrast, in the tradition of the direct approach of Mahamudra and Dzogchen, is ascertained directly through looking into one's own mind. After this initial recognition of , the steadiness of is developed within that recognition. According to Thrangu Rinpoche, it is also common in the direct approach to first develop enough to serve . Dzogchen Ponlop Rinpoche charts the developmental relationship of the practices of and this way:

The ways these two aspects of meditation are practised is that one begins with the practice of ; on the basis of that, it becomes possible to practice or . Through one's practice of being based on and carried on in the midst of , one eventually ends up practicing a unification [] of and . The unification leads to a very clear and direct experience of the nature of all things. This brings one very close to what is called the absolute truth.

Tibetan writers usually define practice as when one's mind remains fixed on a single object without moving. Dakpo Tashi Namgyal for example, defines as:

by fixing the mind upon any object so as to maintain it without distraction... by focusing the mind on an object and maintaining it in that state until finally it is channeled into one stream of attention and evenness.

According to Geshe Lhundup Sopa, is:

just a one-pointedness of mind () on a meditative object (). Whatever the object may be... if the mind can remain upon its object one-pointedly, spontaneously and without effort (), and for as long a period of time as the meditator likes, it is approaching the attainment of meditative stabilization ().

furthers the right concentration aspect of the noble eightfold path. The successful result of is sometimes characterized as meditative absorption (, ) and meditative equipoise (, ), and as freedom from the five obstructions (, ). It may also result in the of clairvoyance (, ) and magical emanation (, ).

, " has five characteristics: effortlessly stable attention (), powerful mindfulness (), joy (), tranquility (), and equanimity (). The complete state of  results from working with stable attention () and mindfulness () until joy emerges. Joy then gradually matures into tranquility, and equanimity arises out of that tranquility. A mind in  is the ideal instrument for achieving Insight and Awakening".

Vipassana

Indian Mahāyāna Buddhism employed both deductive investigation (applying ideas to experience) and inductive investigation (drawing conclusions from direct experience) in the practice of . (These correspond respectively to the "contemplative forms" and "experiential forms" in the school described above.) According to Leah Zahler, only the tradition of deductive analysis in was transmitted to Tibet in the context. One scholar describes his approach thus: "the overall picture painted by Kamalaśīla is that of a kind of serial alternation between observation and analysis that takes place entirely within the sphere of meditative concentration" in which the analysis portion consists of Madhyamaka reasonings. In Tibet direct examination of moment-to-moment experience as a means of generating insight became exclusively associated with .

Mahāmudrā and Dzogchen

is approached somewhat differently in the mahāmudrā tradition as practiced in the Kagyu lineage. As Traleg Kyabgon Rinpoche explains,

In the practice of Mahamudra tranquility meditation [...] we treat all thoughts as the same in order to gain sufficient distance and detachment from our current mental state, which will allow us to ease naturally into a state of tranquility without effort or contrivance [...] In order for the mind to settle, we need to suspend the value judgments that we impose on our mental activities [...] it is essential that we not try to create a state of tranquility but allow the mind to enter into tranquility naturally. This is an important notion in the Mahamudra tradition, that of nondoing. We do not do tranquility meditation, we allow tranquility to arise of its own accord, and it will do so only if we stop thinking of the meditative state as a thing that we need to do actively [...] In a manner of speaking, catching yourself in the act of distraction is the true test of tranquility meditation, for what counts is not the ability to prevent thoughts or emotions from arising but the ability to catch ourselves in a particular mental or emotional state. This is the very essence of tranquility meditation [in the context of Mahāmudrā] [...] The Mahamudra style of meditation does not encourage us toward the different levels of meditative concentration traditionally described in the exoteric meditation manuals [...] From the Mahamudra point of view, we should not desire meditative equipoise nor have an aversion to discursive thoughts and conflicting emotions but view both of these states with equanimity. Again, the significant point is not whether meditative equipoise is present but whether we are able to maintain awareness of our mental states. If disturbing thoughts do arise, as they certainly will, we should simply recognize these thoughts and emotions as transient phenomena.

For the Kagyupa, in the context of mahāmudrā, by means of mindfulness of breathing is thought to be the ideal way for the meditator to transition into taking the mind itself as the object of meditation and generating on that basis.

Quite similar is the approach to found in dzogchen semde (Sanskrit: mahāsandhi cittavarga). In the semde system, is the first of the four yogas (Tib. naljor, Wylie: rnal-’byor), the others being (Wylie: lhag-mthong), nonduality (advaya, Tib. nyime,Wylie: gnyis-med), and spontaneous presence (anābogha or nirābogha, Tib. lhundrub, Wylie: lhun-grub). These parallel the four yogas of mahāmudrā.

Ajahn Amaro, a longtime student in the Thai Forest Theravādin tradition of Ajahn Chah, has also trained in the dzogchen semde approach under Tsoknyi Rinpoche. He found similarities in the approaches of the two traditions to .

Mahāmudrā and Dzogchen use extensively. This includes some methods of the other traditions, but also their own specific approaches. They place a greater emphasis on meditating on symbolic images. Additionally in the Vajrayāna (tantric) path, the true nature of mind is pointed out by the guru, and this serves as a direct form of insight.

Similar practices in other religions

Meditations from other religious traditions may also be recognized as meditation, that differ in the focus of concentration. In this sense, is not a strictly Buddhist meditation. in its single-pointed focus and concentration of mind is cognate with the sixth "limb" of , which is concentration (). For further discussion, see the Yoga Sūtras of Patañjali.

Sources

Printed sources

• Arbel, Keren (2016), Early Buddhist Meditation: The Four Jhanas as the Actualization of Insight, Routledge, doi:10.4324/9781315676043, ISBN 9781317383994, https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/9781317383994 
• Bond, George D. (1992), The Buddhist Revival in Sri Lanka: Religious Tradition, Reinterpretation and Response, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers 
• Bronkhorst, Johannes (1993), The Two Traditions Of Meditation In Ancient India, Motilal Banarsidass Publ. 
• Brooks, Jeffrey S. (2006), A Critique of the Abhidhamma and Visuddhimagga, http://www.greatwesternvehicle.org/criticism/abhidhamma.htm, retrieved 2012-08-28 
• Buddhadasa Bhikkhu (2014), Heartwood of the Bodhi Tree, Wisdom publications 
• Buswell, Robert, ed. (2004), Encyclopedia of Buddhism, MacMillan, ISBN 978-0-02-865718-9, http://www.ahandfulofleaves.org/documents/Encyclopedia%20of%20Buddhism_2%20Vols_%20Buswell.pdf, retrieved 2020-02-08 
• Cousins, L. S. (1996), "The origins of insight meditation", in Skorupski, T., The Buddhist Forum IV, seminar papers 1994–1996 (pp. 35–58), London, UK: School of Oriental and African Studies, http://www.shin-ibs.edu/documents/bForum/v4/03Cousins.pdf, retrieved 2022-05-06 
• Dhammadharo, Ajaan Lee (1982) (in en), The Craft of the Heart, Taveekij Press, https://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/thai/lee/craft.pdf, retrieved 2021-07-04 
• Fronsdal, Gil (1998), "Chapter 9: Insight Meditation in the United States: Life, Liberty, and the Pursuit of Happiness", The Faces of Buddhism in America, http://www.insightmeditationcenter.org/books-articles/articles/insight-meditation-in-the-united-states-life-liberty-and-the-pursuit-of-happiness/, retrieved 2010-12-07 
• Ginsberg, Mitchell (1996), The Far Shore: Vipassanā, the Practice of Insight, Motilal Banarsidass 
• Gomez, Luis O. (1991), "Purifying Gold: The Metaphor of Effort and Intuition in Buddhist Thought and Practice", in Gregory, Peter N., Sudden and Gradual. Approaches to Enlightenment in Chinese Thought, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers 
• Gombrich, Richard F. (1997), How Buddhism Began. The Conditioned Genesis of the Early Teachings, New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers 
• Gunaratana, Henepola (2011), Mindfulness in plain English, Wisdom Publications, p. 21, ISBN 978-0861719068, http://www.vipassana.com/meditation/mindfulness_in_plain_english_5.php, retrieved 2016-05-27 
• Gunaratana, Henepola (2009), Beyond Mindfulness in Plain English: An Introductory Guide to Deeper States of Meditation, Simon and Schuster 
• Khantipalo, Bikkhu (1984), Calm and Insight. A buddhist Manual for Meditators, London and Dublin: Curzon Press Ltd. 
• Khippapanyo, Venerable Acariya (2020), Treasure Trove, San Fran Dhammaram Temple 
• Klein, Anne Carolyn; Wangyal, Geshe Tenzin, Rinpoche (2006). Unbounded Wholeness. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-517849-1. https://archive.org/details/unboundedwholenessbondzogchenlogicofnonconceptualannecarolynkleintenzinwangyalrinpoche_433_d. 
• McMahan, David L. (2008), The Making of Buddhist Modernism, Oxford University Press, ISBN 9780195183276 
• Nyanaponika (1998), Het hart van boeddhistische meditatie (The heart of Buddhist Meditation), Asoka 
• Perdue, Daniel E. (2014-05-27). The Course in Buddhist Reasoning and Debate: An Asian Approach to Analytical Thinking Drawn from Indian and Tibetan Sources. Shambhala Publications. ISBN 9780834829558. https://books.google.com/books?id=f4ylAwAAQBAJ&q=special+seeing. Retrieved 2019-10-19. 
• Ray, Reginald A., ed (2004). "The Practice of Hinayana". In the Presence of Masters: Wisdom from 30 Contemporary Tibetan Buddhist Teachers. Boston, Massachusetts: Shambala. ISBN 978-1-57062-849-8. 
• Schumann, Hans Wolfgang (1997), Boeddhisme, Asoka 
• Shankman, Richard (2008). The Experience of Samādhi: An In-depth Exploration of Buddhist Meditation. Shambhala. ISBN 978-1-59030-521-8. 
• Sharf, Robert H. (1995), "Buddhist Modernism and the Rhetoric of Meditative Experience", NUMEN 42 (3): 228–283, doi:10.1163/1568527952598549, https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/handle/2027.42/43810/11076_1995_Article_1568527952598549.pdf 
• Stuart, Daniel M. (2020), S.N. Goenka: Emissary of Insight, Shambhala Publications, ISBN 9781611808186, https://www.shambhala.com/s-n-goenka.html, retrieved 2020-12-18 
• Thanissaro Bhikkhu (1997), One Tool Among Many. The Place of Vipassana in Buddhist Practice, http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/thanissaro/onetool.html, retrieved 2010-01-24 
• Vetter, Tilmann (1988), The Ideas and Meditative Practices of Early Buddhism, BRILL 
• Warder, A.K. (2000), Indian Buddhism, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers 
• Wilson, Jeff (2014), Mindful America: The Mutual Transformation of Buddhist Meditation and American Culture, Oxford University Press 
• Wynne, Alexander (2007), The Origin of Buddhist Meditation, Routledge 

Web-sources

External links

• wikiquotes link
• Dharma Fellowship, Deepening Calm-Abiding - The Nine Stages of Abiding
• Skyflower Dharmacenter, Mahamudra Tranquility and Insight
• The Samatha Association
• The Buddho Foundation

Vipassana history

• Theravāda Spirituality in the West

Background

• Insight Meditation Online From Buddhanet.net
• Mahasi Sayadaw, Satipatthana Vipassana: Criticisms and Replies
• Jeffrey S, Brooks, The Fruits (Phala) of the Contemplative Life
• Publications in the Theravāda tradition/ Pariyatti.org

Practice

• Abhidhamma Vipassana
• Meditation, Yellowrobe.com
• Vipassana Meditation as taught by S.N. Goenka and his assistant teachers in the tradition of Sayagyi U Ba Khin at free centers worldwide
• Saddhamma Foundation Information about practicing Vipassana meditation.
• Practical Guidelines for Vipassanâ by Ayya Khema
• Turning to the Source by V.R. Dhiravamsa
• The Middle Path of Life by V.R. Dhiravamsa
• Healing through Pure Mindfulness by V.R. Dhiravamsa