Engineering:Ariane 6

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Short description: European space launch vehicle under development
Ariane 6
Ariane6 logo.svg
Ariane 62 and 64.svg
Illustration of the two Ariane 6 variants planned, A62 (left) and A64 (right)
FunctionMedium-heavy launch vehicle
ManufacturerArianeGroup
Country of originEuropean Space Agency
Project cost€3.6 billion[1]
Cost per launch€75 million (Ariane 62)
€115 million (Ariane 64)[2][3]
Size
Height63 m (207 ft)
Diameter5.4 m (18 ft)
Mass530–860 t (520–850 long tons; 580–950 short tons)
Stages2
Capacity
Payload to LEOA64: 21,650 kg (47,730 lb)
A62: 10,350 kg (22,820 lb)[4]
Payload to GTOA64: 11,500 kg (25,400 lb)
A62: 4,500 kg (9,900 lb)[4]
Payload to GEOA64: 5,000 kg (11,000 lb)[4]
Payload to SSOA64: 15,500 kg (34,200 lb)
A62: 7,200 kg (15,900 lb)[4]
Payload to LTOA64: 8,600 kg (19,000 lb)
A62: 3,500 kg (7,700 lb)[4]
Associated rockets
FamilyAriane
ComparableVulcan Centaur, H3, Titan IV, Falcon 9, Falcon Heavy (reusable)
Launch history
StatusIn Development
Launch sitesCentre Spatial Guyanais
First flight15 June - 31 July 2024 (planned)[5]
Boosters – Equipped Solid Rocket
No. boosters2 or 4
Diameter3 m (9.8 ft)
Propellant mass142,000 kg (313,000 lb)
MotorP120
Thrust4,650 kN (1,050,000 lbf) each
Core stage – Lower Liquid Propulsion Module
Diameter5.4 m (18 ft)
Propellant mass140,000 kg (310,000 lb)
EnginesVulcain 2.1
Thrust1,370 kN (310,000 lbf)
FuelLH2 / LOX
Upper stage – Upper Liquid Propulsion Module
Diameter5.4 m (18 ft)
Propellant mass31,000 kg (68,000 lb)
EnginesVinci
Thrust180 kN (40,000 lbf)
FuelLH2 / LOX

Ariane 6 is a European expendable launch system under development since the early 2010s by ArianeGroup on behalf of the European Space Agency (ESA). It replaces the Ariane 5, as part of the Ariane launch vehicle family. The stated motivation for Ariane 6 (as of 2015) was to halve the cost compared to Ariane 5, and increase the capacity for the number of launches per year (from six or seven to up to eleven).[6]

Ariane 6 is designed with two stages, both powered by liquid hydrogen-liquid oxygen (hydrolox) engines. The first stage has an improved version of the Vulcain engine already used on the Ariane 5, whilst the second stage has a newly designed Vinci engine. Most of the initial lift-off thrust is provided by solid rocket boosters attached to the first stage: either two or four P120s (Ariane 62 and Ariane 64 variants respectively), which are larger versions of the P80s used on the Vega rocket.

Selection of the design concept was made by ESA in December 2014,[7] favouring it over an alternative all-solid-fuel rocket option.[8] Further high-level design was completed in 2015 and the vehicle entered the detailed design phase in 2016. In 2017, the European Space Agency (ESA) set 16 July 2020 as the deadline for the first flight,[9] and in May 2019 Arianespace placed the first production order. Following a sequence of additional program delays to 2022 and then 2023, (As of August 2023) Arianespace has said that the first launch attempt will not occur until 2024.[10]

Description

Two variants of Ariane 6 are being developed:

  • Ariane 62, with two P120 solid boosters, will weigh around 530 t (520 long tons; 580 short tons) at liftoff and is intended mainly for government and scientific missions.[11] It can launch up to 4,500 kg (9,900 lb) into geosynchronous transfer orbit (GTO) and 10,350 kg (22,820 lb) into low Earth orbit (LEO).
  • Ariane 64, with four P120 boosters, has a liftoff weight of around 860 t (850 long tons; 950 short tons) [12] and is intended for commercial dual-satellite launches [11] of up to 11,500 kg (25,400 lb) into GTO and 21,500 kg (47,400 lb) into LEO. Like Ariane 5, it will be able to launch two geosynchronous satellites together.

Ariane 6 comprises three major structural and propellant-carrying components.[clarification needed]

Lower Liquid Propulsion Module

The first stage of Ariane 6 is called the Lower Liquid Propulsion Module (LLPM). It is powered by a single Vulcain 2.1 engine, burning liquid hydrogen (LH2) with liquid oxygen (LOX).[13] Vulcain 2.1 is an updated version of the Vulcain 2 engine from Ariane 5 with lower manufacturing costs.[clarification needed] The LLPM is 5.4 m (18 ft) in diameter and contains approximately 140 tonnes (310,000 lb) of propellant.[14]

Solid Rockets

Additional thrust for the first stage will be provided by either two or four P120 Solid rocket boosters, known within Ariane 6 nomenclature as Equipped Solid Rockets (ESR).[13] Each booster contains approximately 142 tonnes (313,000 lb) of propellant and delivers up to 4,650 kN (1,050,000 lbf) of thrust. The P120 motor is also first stage of the upgraded Vega C smallsat launcher. The increased production volumes through sharing motors lowers production costs.[15]

The first full-scale test of the ESR occurred at Kourou on 16 July 2018, and the test completed successfully with the thrust reaching 4,615 kN (1,037,000 lbf) in vacuum.[16][17][18]

Upper Liquid Propulsion Module

The upper stage of Ariane 6 is called the Upper Liquid Propulsion Module (ULPM). It features the same 5.4 m (18 ft) diameter as the LLPM, and also burns liquid hydrogen with oxygen. It is powered by the Vinci engine delivering 180 kN (40,000 lbf) of thrust and enabling multiple restarts.[13] The ULPM will carry about 31 tonnes (68,000 lb) of propellant.[15]

History

Ariane 6 was conceived in the early 2010s to be a replacement launch vehicle for Ariane 5, and a number of concepts and high-level designs were suggested and proposed during 2012–2015. Development funding from several European governments was initially secured by early 2016, and contracts were signed to begin detailed design and the build of test articles. While in 2019, the maiden orbital flight had been planned for 2020,[19] by May 2020, the planned initial launch date had been delayed into 2021.[20] In October 2020, ESA formally requested an additional €230 million in funding from the countries sponsoring the project to complete development of the rocket and get the vehicle to its first test flight, which had slipped to the second quarter of 2022.[21] By June 2021, the date had delayed to late 2022.[22] In June 2022, a delay was announced to "some time in 2023"[23] and by October 2022, ESA clarified that the first launch would be no earlier than the fourth quarter of 2023, while providing no public reason for the delay.[24] In August 2023, ESA announced that the date for the first launch had slipped again to 2024.[10]

Concept and early development: 2010–2015

Ariane 6 PPH cutaway drawing

Following detailed definition studies in 2012,[25] the European Space Agency (ESA) announced the selection of the "PPH" (first stage of three P145 rocket motors, second stage of one P145 rocket motor, and H32 cryogenic upper stage) configuration for the Ariane 6 in July 2013.[26] It would be capable of launching up to 6,500 kg (14,300 lb) to Geostationary transfer orbit (GTO),[27] with a first flight projected to be as early as 2021–2022.[9] Development was projected to cost €4 billion (As of May 2013).[28] A 2014 study concluded that development cost could be reduced to about 3 billion euros by limiting contractors to five countries.[29]

While the Ariane 5 typically launches one large and one medium satellite at a time, the PPH proposal for the Ariane 6 was intended for single payloads, with an early 2014 price estimate of approximately US$95 million per launch.[30] The SpaceX Falcon 9 and the Chinese Long March 3B both launch smaller payloads but at lower prices, approximately US$57 million and US$72 million respectively as of early 2014, making the Falcon 9 launch of a midsize satellite competitive with the cost of the lower slot of a dual payload Ariane 5.[30] For lightweight all-electric satellites, Arianespace intended to use the restartable Vinci engine to deliver the satellites closer to their operational orbit than the Falcon 9 could, thus reducing the time required to transfer to geostationary orbit by several months.[30]

Ariane 6.1 and Ariane 6.2 proposals

In June 2014, Airbus and Safran surprised ESA by announcing a counter proposal for the Ariane 6 project: a 50/50 joint venture to develop the rocket, which would also involve buying out the French government's CNES interest in Arianespace.[31][32]

This proposed launch system would come in two variants, Ariane 6.1 and Ariane 6.2.[33] While both would use a cryogenic main stage powered by a Vulcain 2 engine and two P145 solid boosters, Ariane 6.1 would feature a cryogenic upper stage powered by the Vinci engine and boost up to 8,500 kg (18,700 lb) to GTO, while Ariane 6.2 would use a lower-cost hypergolic upper stage powered by the Aestus engine. Ariane 6.1 would have the ability to launch two electrically powered satellites at once, while Ariane 6.2 would be focused on launching government payloads.

French newspaper La Tribune questioned whether Airbus Space Systems could deliver on the promised costs for their Ariane 6 proposal, and whether Airbus and Safran Group could be trusted when they were found to be responsible for a failure of Ariane 5 flight 517 in 2002 and a more recent 2013 failure of the M51 ballistic missile.[8] The companies were also criticised for being unwilling to incur development risks, and asking for higher initial funding than originally planned – €2.6 billion instead of €2.3 billion. Estimated launch prices of €85 million for Ariane 6.1 and €69 million for Ariane 6.2 did not compare favorably to SpaceX offerings.[34] During the meeting of EU ministers in Geneva on 7 June 2014, these prices were deemed too high and no agreement with manufacturers was reached.[35]

Ariane 62 and Ariane 64 proposals

Originally proposed Ariane A62 and Ariane A64

Following criticism of the Ariane 6 PPH design, France unveiled a revised Ariane 6 proposal in September 2014.[36] This launcher would use a cryogenic main stage powered by the Vulcain 2 and upper stage powered by the Vinci, but vary the number of solid boosters. With two P120 boosters, Ariane 6 would launch up to 5,000 kg (11,000 lb) to GTO at a cost of €75 million. With four boosters, Ariane 6 would be able to launch two satellites totaling 11,000 kg (24,000 lb) to GTO at a cost of €90 million.[37]

This proposal, unlike Ariane 6 PPH, offered a scalable launcher while retaining Ariane 5's dual-launch capability. The proposal also included simplification of the industrial and institutional organisation along with a better and cheaper version of the Vulcain 2 engine for the main stage.[36][37] Although Ariane 6 was projected to have "lower estimated recurring production costs", it was projected to have "a higher overall development cost owing to the need for a new, Ariane 6-dedicated, launch pad".[38]

The Italian, French and German space ministers met on 23 September 2014, in order to plan strategy and assess the possibility for agreement on funding for the Ariane 5 successor,[39] and in December 2014, ESA selected the Ariane 62 and Ariane 64 designs for development and funding.[7]

At the 2022 International Astronautical Congress ArianeGroup announced the proposed "Smart Upper Stage for Innovative Exploration", a reusable upper stage for the 64 (or later) variant, capable of autonomous cargo operations or carrying five astronauts to low Earth orbit.[40]

Test vehicle development: 2016–2021

In November 2015, an updated design of Ariane 64 and 62 was presented, with new nose cones on the boosters, main stage diameter increased to 5.4 m (18 ft) and the height decreased to 60 m (200 ft).[41]

The basic design for Ariane 6 was finalised in January 2016 as an expendable liquid-fuelled core stage plus expendable solid-rocket-boosters design. Development advanced into detailed design and production phases, with the first major contracts already signed.[42][43] Unlike previous Ariane rockets which are assembled and fueled vertically before being transported to the launchpad, the Ariane 6 main stages were to be assembled horizontally at the new integration hall in Les Mureaux and then transported to French Guiana, to be erected and integrated with boosters and payload.[44]

The horizontal assembly process was inspired by the Russian tradition for Soyuz and Proton launchers – which had more recently been applied to the American Delta IV and Falcon 9 boosters[45] – with a stated goal of halving production costs.[6]

The industrial production process was completely overhauled, allowing synchronized workflow between several European production sites moving at a monthly cadence, which would enable twelve launches per year, doubling Ariane 5's yearly capacity.[44] To further lower the price, Ariane 6 engines were to use 3D printed components.[46] Ariane 6 was to be the first large rocket to use a laser ignition system developed by Austria's Carinthian Research Center (CTR), that was previously deployed in automotive and turbine engines.[47] A solid state laser offers an advantage over electrical ignition systems in that it is more flexible with regards to the location of the plasma within the combustion chamber, offers a much higher pulse power and can tolerate a wider range of fuel-air mixture ratios.[48]

Reorganisation of the industry behind a new launch vehicle, leading to a creation of Airbus Safran Launchers, also started a review by the French government, into tax matters, and the European Commission over a possible conflict of interest if Airbus Defence and Space, a satellite manufacturer were to purchase launches from ASL.[46]

While development was initially slated to be substantially complete in 2019, with an initial launch in 2020, the initial launch date has slipped several times: first to 2021[49] then to 2022[21][22] and 2023.[23] In October 2022, Arianespace expected the maiden flight to occur in 2023.[24][needs update]

Other development options

Main page: Engineering:Adeline (rocket stage)

CNES began studies in 2010[50] on an alternative, reusable first stage for Ariane 6, using a mix of liquid oxygen and liquid methane rather than liquid hydrogen that is used in the 2016 Ariane 6 first-stage design. The methane-powered core could use one or more engines, matching capabilities of Ariane 64 with only two boosters instead of four. (As of January 2015), the economic feasibility of reusing an entire stage remained in question. Concurrent with the liquid fly-back booster research in the late 1990s and early 2000s, CNES along with Russia concluded studies[when?] indicating that reusing the first stage was economically unviable as manufacturing ten rockets a year was cheaper and more feasible than recovery, refurbishment and loss of performance caused by reusability.[51] It was suggested[by whom?] that with Arianespace launch schedule of 12 flights per year that an engine that could be reused a dozen times would produce a demand for only one engine per year making supporting an ongoing engine manufacturing supply chain unviable.[citation needed]

In June 2015, Airbus Defence and Space announced that development of Adeline, a partially reusable first stage, would become operational between 2025 and 2030, and that it would be developed as a subsequent first stage for Ariane 6. Rather than developing a way to reuse an entire first stage (like SpaceX), Airbus proposed a system where only high-value parts would be safely returned using a winged module at the bottom of the rocket stack.[50]

In August 2016, Airbus Safran Launchers gave some more details about future development plans building on the Ariane 6 design. CEO Alain Charmeau revealed that Airbus Safran were now working along two main lines: first, continuing work (at the company's own expense) on the recoverable Adeline engine-and-avionics module; and second, beginning development of a next-generation engine to be called Prometheus. This engine would have about the same thrust as the Vulcain 2 currently powering Ariane 5, but would burn methane instead of liquid hydrogen. Charmeau was non-committal about whether Prometheus (still only in the first few months of development) could be used as an expendable replacement for the Vulcain 2 in Ariane 6, or whether it was tied to the re-usable Adeline design, saying only that "We are cautious, and we prefer to speak when are sure of what we announce... But certainly this engine could very well fit with the first stage of Ariane 6 one day", a decision on whether to proceed with Prometheus in an expendable or reusable role could be taken between 2025 and 2030.[52]

Main page: Engineering:Ariane Next

In 2017, the Prometheus engine project was revealed to have the aim of reducing the engine unit cost from the €10 million of the Vulcain2 to €1 million and allowing the engine to be reused up to five times.[53] The engine development is said to be part of a broader effort – codename Ariane NEXT[54] – to reduce Ariane launch costs by a factor of 2 beyond improvements brought by Ariane 6. The Ariane NEXT initiative includes a reusable sounding rocket, Callisto, to test the performance of various fuels in new engine designs.[55]

Production

In a January 2019 interview, Arianespace CEO Stéphane Israël said that the company requires four more institutional launches for Ariane 6 to sign a manufacturing contract. Launch contracts are needed for the transitional period of 2020–2023 when the Ariane 5 will be phased out and gradually replaced by the Ariane 6. The company requires European institutions to become an anchor customer for the launcher. In response, ESA representatives said the agency was working on shifting the 2022 launch of the Jupiter Icy Moons Explorer from the Ariane 5 ECA to the Ariane 64, further indicating that there are other institutional customers in Europe that must put their weight behind the project, such as the European Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites (EUMETSAT) or the European Commission.

(As of January 2019), Arianespace had sold three flights of the Ariane 6 launch vehicle.[56] One month later, they added a satellite internet constellation launch contract with OneWeb to utilize the maiden launch of Ariane 6 to help populate the large 600-satellite constellation.[57]

On 6 May 2019, Arianespace ordered the first production batch of 14 Ariane 6 rockets, for missions to be conducted between 2021 and 2023.[58]

Development funding

Ariane 6 is being developed in a public-private partnership with the majority of the funding coming from various ESA government sources — €2.815 billion — while €400 million is reported to be "industry's share".[59]

The ESA Council approved the project on 3 November 2016,[60] and the ESA Industrial Policy Committee released the required funds on 8 November 2016.[61]

In January 2020 two EU institutions, the European Investment Bank and the European Commission, made a €100 million loan to Arianespace drawing from the Horizon 2020 and Investment Plan for Europe corporate investment programmes. The 10-year loan's repayment is tied to the financial success of the Ariane 6 project.[62]

Launch contracts and scheduled flights

The first Ariane 6 launch contract was signed on 25 June 2015: an option for three launches for the OneWeb satellite constellation.[63] In the event, the OneWeb launch contracts were modified following the bankruptcy of OneWeb in 2020. Future ESA Galileo satellite launches are booked on Ariane 6.[64][clarification needed] On 11 September 2018, Arianespace announced a firm order by Eutelsat for five commercial communication satellites over several years, and the French CNES converted one of their three contracted launches for spy satellites from a Soyuz to an Ariane 6.[65]

Rocket components will be transported by sea from Europe to the launch site at Guiana Space Centre aboard the specially developed Canopée cargo vessel, the world's latest sail-propelled merchant vessel.[66][67] <section begin="Scheduled_flights" />

Date
Time (UTC) 		Rocket type
Serial No. 		Payload Orbit Customers Launch
status
June 2024[68] Ariane 62 Multiple rideshare payloads[69] LEO PTS, TU Berlin, ArianeGroup, BarcelonaTech, NASA, TUKE, University of Lisbon Planned
Q4 2024[68] Ariane 62 CSO-3 SSO CNES / DGA Planned
H1 2025[70] Ariane 64 MTG-S1[71] GTO EUMETSAT Planned
2025[68][72] Ariane 62 Galileo FOC FM 29, 30 MEO ESA Planned
2025[68][72] Ariane 62 Galileo FOC FM 31, 32 MEO ESA Planned
2025[72] Ariane 62 Galileo FOC FM 33, 34 MEO ESA Planned
2025[73] Ariane 64 Intelsat-41, 44 GTO Intelsat Planned
2025[68][74] Ariane 64 Optus-11 GTO Optus Planned
2025[68][75][76] Ariane 64 GTO Skyloom Planned
2025[77] Ariane 6 Galileo G2 1 MEO ESA Planned
2025[78] Ariane 6 Hellas Sat 5 GTO Hellas Sat Planned
Q2 2026[70] Ariane 64[79] MTG-I2[80] GTO EUMETSAT Planned
H1 2026[81] Ariane 64 Intelsat 45 GTO Intelsat Planned
Q4 2026[82] Ariane 64 Multi-Launch Service (MLS) #1 rideshare mission GTO TBA Planned
2026[83] Ariane 62[84] PLATO Sun–Earth L2 ESA Planned
Q4 2027[82] Ariane 64 MLS #2 rideshare mission GTO TBA Planned
2027[85] Ariane 64 Earth Return Orbiter Areocentric ESA Planned
Q4 2028[82] Ariane 64 MLS #3 rideshare mission GTO TBA Planned
Q3 2029[82] Ariane 64 MLS #4 rideshare mission GTO TBA Planned
2029[86] Ariane 62 ARIEL, Comet Interceptor Sun–Earth L2 ESA Planned
2030[87][88] Ariane 64 Heracles EL3 (Argonaut) TLI ESA Planned
2035[89] Ariane 64[90] Athena Sun–Earth L2,
Halo orbit 		ESA Planned
2035[91] Ariane 6 LISA Heliocentric ESA Planned
TBD[92] Ariane 64 18 launches of Project Kuiper (35–40 satellites)[93] LEO Kuiper Systems Planned
TBD[94] Ariane 64 ALINA TLI Planetary Transportation Systems Planned
TBD[95] Ariane 62 Electra GTO SES S.A. / ESA Planned

<section end=Scheduled_flights/>

References

  1. ↑ "Media backgrounder for ESA Council at Ministerial Level" (Press release). ESA. 27 November 2014. Retrieved 24 March 2016.
  2. ↑ Rich, Smith (2 June 2018). "Europe Complains: SpaceX Rocket Prices Are Too Cheap to Beat". https://www.fool.com/investing/2018/06/02/europe-complains-spacex-rocket-prices-are-too-chea.aspx. 
  3. ↑ Gallois, Dominique (1 December 2014). "Ariane 6, un chantier européen pour rester dans la course spatiale" (in FR). Le Monde.fr (Le Monde). http://www.lemonde.fr/economie/article/2014/12/01/les-europeens-s-appretent-a-mettre-ariane-6-en-chantier_4532259_3234.html. 
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 Lagier, Roland (March 2021). "Ariane 6 User's Manual Issue 2 Revision 0". Arianespace. https://www.arianespace.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/Mua-6_Issue-2_Revision-0_March-2021.pdf. 
  5. ↑ Parsonson, Andrew (30 November 2023). "Timeline Leading up to Maiden Ariane 6 Flight Announced". https://europeanspaceflight.com/timeline-leading-up-to-maiden-ariane-6-flight-announced. 
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 Clark, Stephen (16 December 2015). "Q&A with Stéphane Israël, chairman and CEO of Arianespace". Spaceflight Now. http://spaceflightnow.com/2015/12/16/qa-with-stephane-israel-chairman-and-ceo-of-arianespace/. "When it comes to Ariane 64, we are at around US$90 to US$100 million, as opposed to Ariane 5, which is in terms of cost, around US$200 million. You see with the effort we're making, we want to reduce the cost around 40/50%, which is very ambitious." 
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Peter B. De Selding (2 December 2014). "ESA Members Agree To Build Ariane 6, Fund Station Through 2017". SpaceNews. http://www.spacenews.com/42699esa-members-agree-to-build-ariane-6-fund-station-through-2017/. 
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 Michel Cabirol (7 July 2014). "Faut-il donner toutes les clés d'Ariane 6 à Airbus et Safran?" (in French). La Tribune. http://www.latribune.fr/entreprises-finance/industrie/aeronautique-defense/20140707trib000838582/faut-il-donner-toutes-les-cles-d-ariane-6-a-airbus-et-safran.html. 
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Amos, Jonathan (22 June 2017). "Full thrust on Europe's new rocket". BBC News. https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-40366736. 
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 Foust, Jeff (9 August 2023). "ESA confirms Ariane 6 debut to slip to 2024". SpaceNews. https://spacenews.com/esa-confirms-ariane-6-debut-to-slip-to-2024/. 
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 Amos, Jonathan (3 December 2014). "Europe to press ahead with Ariane 6 rocket". BBC. https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-30251863. 
  12. ↑ "Ariane 6 - Ariane Group". ArianeGroup. https://www.ariane.group/en/commercial-launch-services/ariane-6/. 
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 "Who we are". Arianespace. May 2016. http://www.arianespace.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/Ariane6_Users-Manual_February2017.pdf. 
  14. ↑ "Ariane 6". ESA. 23 January 2017. http://www.esa.int/Our_Activities/Launchers/Launch_vehicles/Ariane_6. 
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 "Ariane 6". CNES. 2 December 2014. https://ariane.cnes.fr/en/web/CNES-en/11591-ariane-6.php. 
  16. ↑ "Largest-ever solid rocket motor poised for first hot firing". SpaceDaily. 10 July 2018. http://www.spacedaily.com/reports/Largest_ever_solid_rocket_motor_poised_for_first_hot_firing_999.html. 
  17. ↑ "Successful first test firing for the P120C solid rocket motor for Ariane 6 and Vega C". Ariane Group. 16 July 2018. https://www.ariane.group/en/news/successful-first-test-firing-for-the-p120c-solid-rocket-motor-for-ariane-6-and-vega-c/. 
  18. ↑ Bergin, Chris (16 July 2018). "Static Fire test for Europe's P120C rocket motor". NASASpaceFlight. https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2018/07/static-fire-test-europes-p120c-rocket-motor/. 
  19. ↑ "Ariane 6 series production begins with first batch of 14 launchers". Arianespace. http://www.arianespace.com/press-release/ariane-6-series-production-begins-with-first-batch-of-14-launchers/. 
  20. ↑ "Ariane 6 maiden flight likely slipping to 2021". SpaceNews. 20 May 2020. https://spacenews.com/ariane-6-maiden-flight-likely-slipping-to-2021/. 
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 Parsonson, Andrew (29 October 2020). "ESA request 230 million more for Ariane 6 as maiden flight slips to 2022". SpaceNews. https://spacenews.com/esa-request-230-million-euros-more-for-ariane-6-as-maiden-flights-slips-to-2022/. 
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 Berger, Eric (21 June 2021). "The Ariane 6 debut is slipping again as Europe hopes for a late 2022 launch". Ars Technica. https://arstechnica.com/science/2021/06/europes-space-chief-appoints-task-force-to-assess-ariane-6-schedule-concerns/. 
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 Rainbow, Jason (13 June 2022). "Ariane 6 launch debut pushed into 2023". SpaceNews. https://spacenews.com/ariane-6-launch-debut-pushed-into-2023/. 
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 Foust, Jeff (19 October 2022). "Ariane 6 first launch slips to late 2023". SpaceNews. https://spacenews.com/ariane-6-first-launch-slips-to-late-2023/. 
  25. ↑ Stephen Clark (21 November 2012). "European ministers decide to stick with Ariane 5, for now". Spaceflight Now. http://spaceflightnow.com/news/n1211/21ariane/. 
  26. ↑ Dumont, Etienne; Božić, Ognjan; May, Stefan; Mierheim, Olaf; Chrupalla, David; Beyland, Lutz; Karl, Sebastian; Klevanski, Josef et al. (February 2015). "Ariane 6 PPH Architecture Critical Analysis: Second Iteration Loop". https://www.researchgate.net/publication/273068431. 
  27. ↑ Feldman, Mia (11 July 2013). "European Space Agency Reveals New Rocket Design". IEEE Spectrum. https://spectrum.ieee.org/tech-talk/aerospace/satellites/european-space-agency-reveals-new-rocket-design. 
  28. ↑ de Selding, Peter B. (24 May 2013). "With Ariane 6 Launch Site Selected, CNES Aims To Freeze Design of the New Rocket in July". Space News. http://www.spacenews.com/35469with-ariane-6-launch-site-selected-cnes-aims-to-freeze-design-of-the-new/. "Ariane 6 would fly in 2020 assuming a development go-ahead in 2014. CNES's Ariane 6 team is operating under the "triple-seven" mantra, meaning seven years' development, 7 metric tons of satellite payload to geostationary transfer orbit and 70 million euros in launch costs. CNES estimates that Ariane 6 would cost 4 billion euros to develop, including ESA's customary program management fees and a 20% margin that ESA embeds in most of its programs." 
  29. ↑ Peter B. De Selding (18 March 2014). "Questions Swirl around Future of Europe's Ariane Launcher Program". SpaceNews. http://www.spacenews.com/39905questions-swirl-around-future-of-europes-ariane-launcher-program/. 
  30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 30.2 Svitak, Amy (10 March 2014). "SpaceX Says Falcon 9 To Compete For EELV This Year". Aviation Week. http://www.aviationweek.com/Article.aspx?id=/article-xml/AW_03_10_2014_p48-668592.xml. "As SpaceX and other launch contenders enter the sector – including new rockets in India, China and Russia – Europe is also investing in a midlife upgrade of Ariane 5, the Ariane 5 ME (Midterm Evolution), which aims to boost performance 20% with no corresponding increase in cost. At the same time, Europe is considering funding a smaller, less capable but more affordable successor to the heavy-lift launcher, the Ariane 6, which would send up to 6,500 kg (14,300 lb) to GTO for around US$95 million per launch." 
  31. ↑ de Selding, Peter (20 June 2014). "Airbus and Safran Propose New Ariane 6 Design, Reorganisation of Europe's Rocket Industry". SpaceNews. https://spacenews.com/40973airbus-and-safran-propose-new-ariane-6-design-reorganization-of-europes/. "European space-hardware builders Airbus and Safran have proposed that the French and European space agencies scrap much of their previous 18 months' work on a next-generation Ariane 6 rocket in favour of a design that includes much more liquid propulsion." 
  32. ↑ Amos, Jonathan (5 July 2014). "Ariane 6: Customers call the shots". BBC. https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-28166626. 
  33. ↑ "Safran-Airbus Group launcher activities agreement". Safran Group. 16 June 2014. http://www.safran-group.com/media/20140625_safran-airbus-group-launcher-activities-agreement. 
  34. ↑ Cabirol, Michel (7 July 2014). "Privatisation d'Ariane 6 : comment Airbus et Safran négocient le "casse du siècle"" (in fr). La Tribune. http://www.latribune.fr/entreprises-finance/industrie/aeronautique-defense/20140707trib000838581/privatisation-d-ariane-6-comment-airbus-et-safran-negocient-le-casse-du-siecle.html. 
  35. ↑ Cyrille Vanlerberghe (8 July 2014). "Le choix d'Ariane 6 divise industriels et agences spatiales" (in French). Le Figaro. http://www.lefigaro.fr/sciences/2014/07/08/01008-20140708ARTFIG00387-le-choix-d-ariane-6-divise-industriels-et-agences-spatiales.php. 
  36. ↑ 36.0 36.1 "France raises heat on decision for next Ariane rocket". EXPATICA. 18 September 2014. http://www.expatica.com/fr/news/local_news/france-raises-heat-on-decision-for-next-ariane-rocket_302423.html. 
  37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 Cyrille Vanlerberghe (5 September 2014). "Ariane 6: la version de la dernière chance" (in French). Le Figaro. http://www.lefigaro.fr/sciences/2014/09/05/01008-20140905ARTFIG00351-ariane-6-la-version-de-la-derniere-chance.php. 
  38. ↑ de Selding, Peter B. (24 September 2014). "ESA's Ariane 6 Cost Estimate Rises with Addition of New Launch Pad". SpaceNews. http://www.spacenews.com/41978esas-ariane-6-cost-estimate-rises-with-addition-of-new-launch-pad/. 
  39. ↑ "ISS Expected To Take Back Seat to Next-gen Ariane as Space Ministers Meet in Zurich". SpaceNews. 22 September 2014. http://www.spacenews.com/41939iss-expected-to-take-back-seat-to-next-gen-ariane-as-space-ministers-meet/. "The space ministers of France, Germany and Italy are scheduled to meet on September 23 in Zurich to assess how far they are from agreement on strategy and funding for Europe's next-generation Ariane rocket, upgrades to the light-lift Vega vehicle and — as a lower priority — their continued participation in the international space station. The meeting should give these governments a better sense of whether a formal conference of European Space Agency ministers scheduled for December 2 in Luxembourg will be able to make firm decisions, or will be limited to expressions of goodwill." 
  40. ↑ "This Reusable Space Freighter Would 'Open the Door' to European Space Exploration" (in en-us). 2022-09-19. https://gizmodo.com/arianegroup-concept-reusable-upper-state-spacecraft-1849553008. 
  41. ↑ Wolny, Marcin (10 January 2016). "Europe in space, 2015 overview". Tech for Space. https://techforspace.com/blog/en-En/space/general/europe-space-2015-review/#Ariane6. 
  42. ↑ "Ariane 6 design finalized, set for 2020 launch". Space Daily. 28 January 2016. http://www.spacedaily.com/reports/Ariane_6_design_finalized_set_for_2020_launch_999.html. 
  43. ↑ Amos, Jonathan (28 January 2016). "Europe settles on design for Ariane 6 rocket". BBC News. https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-35435108. 
  44. ↑ 44.0 44.1 de Selding, Peter B. (7 April 2016). "Airbus Safran Launchers aims for "the discipline of the flow" in Ariane 6 integration". SpaceNews. http://spacenews.com/airbus-safran-launchers-aims-for-the-discipline-of-the-flow-for-ariane-6-integration/. 
  45. ↑ Clark, Stephen (24 June 2015). "Ariane 6 rockets likely to be assembled horizontally". Spaceflight Now. https://spaceflightnow.com/2015/06/24/ariane-6-rockets-to-be-assembled-horizontally/. "Officials said the preliminary plan calls for the Ariane 6 rocket to be integrated horizontally, a practice long used for Russian launchers and more recently adopted by United Launch Alliance's Delta 4 rocket family and SpaceX's Falcon 9 rocket." 
  46. ↑ 46.0 46.1 Amos, Jonathan (7 April 2016). "Ariane 6 project 'in good shape'". BBC News. https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-35983735. 
  47. ↑ Clark, Stephen (13 August 2016). "Ariane 6 rocket holding to schedule for 2020 maiden flight". https://spaceflightnow.com/2016/08/13/ariane-6-rocket-holding-to-schedule-for-2020-maiden-flight/. 
  48. ↑ Peach, Matthew (6 November 2015). "Austrian researchers to adapt laser ignition for rockets". SPIE Europe. http://optics.org/news/6/11/12. 
  49. ↑ Henry, Caleb (9 July 2020). "ESA confirms Ariane 6 delay to 2021". SpaceNews. https://spacenews.com/esa-confirms-ariane-6-delay-to-2021/. 
  50. ↑ 50.0 50.1 Amos, Jonathan (5 June 2015). "Airbus unveils 'Adeline' re-usable rocket concept". BBC News. https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-33006056. 
  51. ↑ "Une version réutilisable d'Ariane 6 est à l'étude" (in French). Futura-Sciences. 9 January 2015. http://www.futura-sciences.com/magazines/espace/infos/actu/d/acces-espace-version-reutilisable-ariane-6-etude-56666/. 
  52. ↑ Clark, Stephen (13 August 2016). "Ariane 6 rocket holding to schedule for 2020 maiden flight". Spaceflight Now. https://spaceflightnow.com/2016/08/13/ariane-6-rocket-holding-to-schedule-for-2020-maiden-flight/. 
  53. ↑ "Ariane 6, the new generation of European launch vehicules [sic]". Ariane Group. https://www.ariane.group/en/commercial-launch-services/ariane-6/prometheus/. 
  54. ↑ Meddah, Hassan (7 February 2017) (in fr). Vous avez aimé Ariane 6, vous allez adorer Ariane Next (Report). L'Usine nouvelle. https://www.usinenouvelle.com/article/vous-avez-aime-ariane-6-vous-allez-adorer-ariane-next.N498069. Retrieved 11 March 2019. 
  55. ↑ "Callisto, Véhicule Spatial Réutilisable" (in fr). CNESmag (CNES) (68): 10. May 2016. https://cnes.fr/sites/default/files/drupal/201605/default/cnesmag_68_fr_web.pdf. 
  56. ↑ Henry, Caleb (8 January 2019). "Arianespace says full Ariane 6 production held up by missing government contracts". SpaceNews. https://spacenews.com/arianespace-says-full-ariane-6-production-held-up-by-missing-government-contracts/. 
  57. ↑ Henry, Caleb (27 February 2019). "OneWeb's first six satellites in orbit following Soyuz launch". SpaceNews. https://spacenews.com/first-six-oneweb-satellites-launch-on-soyuz-rocket/. 
  58. ↑ @jeff_foust (7 May 2019). "Stéphane Israël, Arianespace: ordered first production batch of 14 Ariane 6 rockets yesterday for missions in 2021-23. #SATShow". https://twitter.com/jeff_foust/status/1125837658477989888. 
  59. ↑ de Selding, Peter B. (3 April 2015). "Desire for Competitive Ariane 6 Nudges ESA Toward Compromise in Funding Dispute with Contractor". SpaceNews. http://spacenews.com/desire-for-competitive-ariane-6-nudges-esa-toward-compromise-in-funding-dispute-with-contractor/. 
  60. ↑ de Selding, Peter B. (4 November 2016). "ESA decision frees up full funding for Ariane 6 rocket". SpaceNews. https://spacenews.com/esa-decision-frees-up-full-funding-for-ariane-6-rocket/. 
  61. ↑ Amos, Jonathan (9 November 2016). "Full rocket funding unlocked by ESA". BBC News. https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-37925169. 
  62. ↑ Forrester, Chris (23 January 2020). "EU loans €100m to Arianespace". https://advanced-television.com/2020/01/23/eu-loans-e100m-to-arianespace/. 
  63. ↑ "OneWeb takes pole-position in global satellite Internet race". Space Digest. 25 June 2015. http://spacedigest.net/en/articles/oneweb-takes-pole-position-in-global-satellite-internet-race. "In a press-release, Arianespace detailed that the contract foresees 21 Soyuz launches, plus an option for 5 additional Soyuz and three Ariane 6 missions... Stéphane Israël, Chairman and CEO of Arianespace, noted that this was the first order for new European Ariane 6 launcher." 
  64. ↑ Henry, Caleb (23 January 2020). "EU reserves four Ariane 6 rockets for Galileo navigation satellites". SpaceNews. https://spacenews.com/eu-reserves-four-ariane-6-rockets-for-galileo-navigation-satellites/. 
  65. ↑ Clark, Stephen (11 September 2018). "Arianespace signs Eutelsat as first commercial customer for new Ariane 6 rocket". Spaceflight Now. https://spaceflightnow.com/2018/09/11/arianespace-signs-eutelsat-as-first-commercial-customer-for-new-ariane-6-rocket/. 
  66. ↑ Ajdin, Adis (2021-04-27). "French pioneering sail-powered boxship" (in en-GB). https://splash247.com/french-pioneering-sail-powered-boxship/. 
  67. ↑ "Wind-powered cargo ship completes its first transatlantic crossing" (in en-US). 2023-06-21. https://www.projectcargojournal.com/shipping/2023/06/21/wind-powered-cargo-ship-completes-its-first-transatlantic-crossing/. 
  68. ↑ 68.0 68.1 68.2 68.3 68.4 68.5 Foust, Jeff (30 November 2023). "ESA sets mid-2024 date for first Ariane 6 launch". SpaceNews. https://spacenews.com/esa-sets-mid-2024-date-for-first-ariane-6-launch/. 
  69. ↑ "ESA selects payloads for Ariane 6 first flight". ESA. 11 February 2022. https://www.esa.int/Enabling_Support/Space_Transportation/Ariane/ESA_selects_payloads_for_Ariane_6_first_flight. 
  70. ↑ 70.0 70.1 "Meteosat series". EUMETSAT. https://www.eumetsat.int/our-satellites/meteosat-series. 
  71. ↑ Krebs, Gunter (22 August 2020). "MTG-S 1, 2 (Meteosat 13, 16 / Sentinel 4A, 4B)". Gunter's Space Page. https://space.skyrocket.de/doc_sdat/mtg-s.htm. 
  72. ↑ 72.0 72.1 72.2 "Arianespace to launch eight new Galileo satellites". Arianespace (Press release). 6 January 2022. Retrieved 6 January 2022.
  73. ↑ "Arianespace Ariane 6 to launch Intelsat satellites". Arianespace (Press release). 30 November 2022. Retrieved 30 November 2022.
  74. ↑ "Arianespace to launch Australian satellite Optus-11 with Ariane 6". Arianespace (Press release). 17 November 2021. Retrieved 17 November 2021.
  75. ↑ "Space Compass and Skyloom Sign a Term Sheet to Bring Optical Data Relay Services to the Earth Observation Market". Business Wire (Press release). 6 September 2022. Retrieved 17 December 2022. External link in |work= (help)
  76. ↑ "Skyloom signs contract with Arianespace for first launch". Arianespace. 27 September 2021. https://www.arianespace.com/corporate-news/skyloom-signs-contract-with-arianespace-for-first-launch/. 
  77. ↑ Jewett, Rachel (26 June 2023). "ESA Awards GMV $218M Contract for Galileo 2nd Gen Ground System". Via Satellite. https://www.satellitetoday.com/government-military/2023/06/26/esa-awards-gmv-218m-contract-for-galileo-2nd-gen-ground-system/. 
  78. ↑ "The launch of the new Hellas Sat 5 satellite at the end of 2025 and at the beginning of 2026". News Bulletin. 7 November 2022. https://newsbulletin247.com/technology/202081.html. 
  79. ↑ "EUMETSAT to exploit ESA-developed launchers and flight operations software". EUMETSAT. 2 December 2020. https://www.eumetsat.int/eumetsat-exploit-esa-developed-launchers-and-flight-operations-software. 
  80. ↑ Krebs, Gunter (10 September 2022). "MTG-I 1, 2, 3, 4 (Meteosat 12, 14, 15, 17)". Gunter's Space Page. https://space.skyrocket.de/doc_sdat/mtg-i.htm. 
  81. ↑ Foust, Jeff (12 September 2023). "Arianespace to launch Intelsat small GEO satellite". SpaceNews.com. https://spacenews.com/arianespace-to-launch-intelsat-small-geo-satellite/. 
  82. ↑ 82.0 82.1 82.2 82.3 "All flights opportunities". Arianespace. https://smallsats.arianespace.com/opportunities. 
  83. ↑ "Planet-hunting eye of PLATO". ESA. 5 March 2021. https://sci.esa.int/web/plato/-/planet-hunting-eye-of-plato. 
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  85. ↑ "Earth Return Orbiter – the first round-trip to Mars". ESA. 7 April 2023. https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Human_and_Robotic_Exploration/Earth_Return_Orbiter_the_first_round-trip_to_Mars. 
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  95. ↑ "SENER designs the mechanisms for the assembly of Electra, the first European commercial satellite with electric propulsion". SENER (Press release). 10 September 2019. Archived from the original on 4 January 2020. Retrieved 28 April 2021.

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