Biology:Haplogroup R (mtDNA)

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Short description: Human mitochondrial DNA haplogroup
Haplogroup R
Haplogroup R (mtDNA) & subclades.PNG
Possible time of origin66.8±14.2 kya [1]
Possible place of originSouth Asia[2][3] Southeast Asia[4]
AncestorN
DescendantsR0, R1, R1b, R2'JT, R3, R5, R6'7, R8, R9, R11'B, R12'21, R14, R22, R23, R30, R31, P, U
Defining mutations12705, 16223[5]

Haplogroup R is a widely distributed human mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) haplogroup. Haplogroup R is associated with the peopling of Eurasia after about 70,000 years ago, and is distributed in modern populations throughout the world outside of sub-Saharan Africa.[6]

Haplogroup R is a descendant of the macro-haplogroup N. Among the R clade's descendant haplogroups are B, U (and thus K), F, R0 (and thus HV, H, and V), and JT (the ancestral haplogroup of J and T).

Origin

Soares et al. (2009) estimate the age of haplogroup R at roughly 50,000 to 70,000 years ago.[1]

This is consistent with an emergence in the course of the Coastal Migration out of East Africa to West, South and Southeast Asia.[3] It has been suggested that the early lineage of haplogroups M, N and R along the coastal route during the period of roughly 70,000 to 60,000 years ago.[7] The northern route out of Africa is another possibility, where the expansion of haplogroup R may originate from South East Asia.[8]

Haplogroup R has wide diversity and antiquity in the indigenous population of South Asia. Tribes and castes of Western and Southern India show higher diversity than the other regions, possibly suggesting their autochthonous status.[2] Larruga et al. (2017) found mtDNA R spread out to Eurasia and Australia from a core area along the Southeast Asian coast.[6] The Ust'-Ishim man fossil of Siberia, dated ca. 45,000 years old, belongs to haplogroup R* (formerly classified as U*).[9][10]

Distribution

Haplogroup R and its descendants are distributed all over Australasia, Americas, Southeast Asia, South Asia, Central Asia, West Asia, East Asia, Europe, North Africa and Horn of Africa.

The basal R* clade is found among the Soqotri (1.2%), as well as in Northeast Africa (1.5%), the Middle East (0.8%), the Near East (0.8%), and the Arabian peninsula (0.3%).[11]

Haplogroup R has also been observed among Egyptian mummies excavated at the Abusir el-Meleq archaeological site in Northern Egypt, which date from the Pre-Ptolemaic/late New Kingdom, Ptolemaic, and Roman periods.[12]

Subclade R2 was observed in the remains of a Neolithic human from western Iran in Tepe Abdul Hosein.[13]

Subclades

  • Haplogroup R
    • R0 or pre-HV
    • R1
        • R1a* (3337): Found in Brahmins from Uttar Pradesh (India).[7]
        • R1a1: Found in Northwest Caucasian people like Kabardins and Adygei people. Observed in eastern European populations like northwestern Russians and Poles.[18]
        • R1b: Observed in an Eastern hunter gatherer from Karelia, Russia, dated to 5500 BCE.[19]
          • R1b1: Observed in Bulgaria, Armenia (including an ancient specimen), and India
            • R1b1a: Observed in Uyghurs
            • R1b1b: Observed in Finland (including Finland Swedes)
          • R1b2
            • R1b2a: Observed in Yakuts
            • R1b2b: Observed in Uyghurs
    • pre-JT or R2'JT
    • R3: Found in Armenia.[22] Also observed in an ancient individual from Hungary, dating to 7000 years ago[23]
    • R5: Widely spread in the Indian subcontinent. Specially in Madhya Pradesh (India ) at 17%.[24]
    • R6'7 (16362) The most important presence is among Austroasiatic language-speakers from India (10%).[25]
      • R6: Small frequencies in India and Pakistan found prominently in both Tamil and Kashmiri populations.[24]
      • R7: In the Indian subcontinent.[25][26]
        • R7a: Mainly in East India, specially in Santals from Bihar and Jharkhand.[26]
        • R7b: Specially in Dravidian tribes of East India.[26]
    • R8: The highest frequency occurs towards East India, especially within Orissa (12%), and it is found among the Austroasiatic tribes (Munda and Khasi speakers). It is also present in low frequency among speakers of Dravidian, Indo-European, and Tibeto-Burman (e.g. Nyishi, Changpa, Sherpa).[27]
      • R8a: Found mainly in Orissa and Andhra Pradesh (India).
      • R8b: In Orissa, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh (India).
    • R9 (16304)
      • R9b: It appears mostly in Southeast Asia.[28] Found all over Indonesia, in Indochina, Malaysia, in Aboriginal Malays like Semelai at 28% and Temuan 21%.[29]
      • (249d)
        • R9c: All over the Malay Archipelago and Taiwan. Mainly in Batak (Palawan) at 58%,[30] the Tsou of Taiwan (22.9%),[31] and Alor (Indonesia) at 11%.[32]
        • F: Fairly common in East Asia and Southeast Asia. Higher frequencies occur in some areas like Nicobar at 50% and Arunachal Pradesh 31% (India ),[24] and Shors people from Siberia at 44%.[33] There is also an important frequency in Taiwanese aborigines, Guangdong (China), Maluku (Indonesia), Thailand and Vietnam.
    • R11'B (16189)
    • R12'21
      • R12: Found in Australia .[38]
      • R21: In indigenous peoples of Malaysia like Jahai Negritos at 63%[29] and Senoi 37% as well as in the Maniq of Southern Thailand and in a few other Thai and Malaysian individuals.[39]
    • R14: Found in Papua New Guinea[40] and in Austronesian speakers of East Timor and Lembata.[41]
    • R22 or R12: Very frequent in the Shompen (10/29 = 34.5%).[42] Elsewhere found mainly in south-central Indonesia (11.4% Mataram, 8.0% Waingapu, 7.3% Bali, 1.9% Borneo) and in Cham of Bình Thuận, Vietnam (7/168 = 4.2%),[43] with singleton or sporadic occurrences in Thailand, Sumatra, Java, Sulawesi, and Alor.[32]
    • R23: Small clade found in Bali and Sumba (Indonesia).[32]
    • R30
      • R30a: Found in Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh (India), in the Tharu people from Nepal[44] and Sinhalese people from Sri Lanka.[25]
      • R30b: Found in Punjab.[25]
      • R30* (1598, 16189): Found in Punjab, Nepal and Japan .[44]
    • R31
      • R31a: In Brahmins from Uttar Pradesh[7] and Rajputs from Rajasthan (India).[25]
      • R31b: In Reddys from Andhra Pradesh (India).[7]
    • R32
    • P: It is characteristic of Sahul. Found in Philippines and East Indonesia.
    • U

Tree

This phylogenetic tree of haplogroup R subclades is based on the paper by Mannis van Oven and Manfred Kayser Updated comprehensive phylogenetic tree of global human mitochondrial DNA variation[5] and subsequent published research.

  • R
    • R0 (formerly pre-HV)
      • R0a
        • R0a1
        • R0a2
      • HV
        • HV0 (formerly pre-V)
          • HV0a
        • H
    • R1
      • R1a
        • R1a1
          • R1a1a
    • R2'JT
    • R5
      • R5a
        • R5a1
          • R5a1a
        • R5a2
          • R5a2a
          • R5a2b
            • R5a2b1
            • R5a2b2
            • R5a2b3
            • R5a2b4
    • R6'7
      • R6
        • R6a
          • R6a1
            • R6a1a
      • R7
        • R7a
          • R7a1
            • R7a1a
            • R7a1b
              • R7a1b1
              • R7a1b2
        • R7b
          • R7b1
            • R7b1a
    • R8 - India
      • R8a - Sri Lanka
        • R8a1
          • R8a1a
            • R8a1a1
            • R8a1a2
            • R8a1a3 - South Africa, Norway
          • R8a1b
        • R8a2
      • R8b
        • R8b1
        • R8b2
    • (16304)
      • R9
        • R9b - Cambodia, Thailand (Lao Isan in Ubon Ratchathani Province and Roi Et Province),[54] Guinea
          • R9b1 - China, Uyghur, Thailand (Mon in Central Thailand, Thai in Western Thailand), Laos (Lao in Vientiane[54]), Vietnam (La Hủ), Denmark
            • R9b1a
              • R9b1a1 - Philippines (Mamanwa)
                • R9b1a1a - China, Thailand (Karen and Thai Lue in Northern Thailand, Lao Isan in Roi Et Province,[54] Thai in Central Thailand and Eastern Thailand), Cambodia (Banteay Meanchey), Malaysia (Semelai, aboriginal Malay), Singapore, Indonesia (Tengger, Palembang, Padang, Manado), Vietnam (Giarai)
              • R9b1a2 - Taiwan (Tsou), Thailand (Lao Isan in Loei Province, Thai in Western Thailand)
                • R9b1a2a - China (Han from Tai'an, etc.), Vietnam (Tay, etc.), Russia (Tubalar)
                • R9b1a2b - China, Taiwan (Minnan, Hakka), Vietnam (Tay), Thailand (Khon Mueang from Chiang Rai Province, Tai Khuen from Northern Thailand)
              • R9b1a3 - Thailand, China (Han, Dai), Vietnam (Dao, Nùng, etc.), Kazakhstan
            • R9b1b - China, Vietnam, Cambodia (Siem Reap), Thailand (Khon Mueang from Chiang Mai Province, Tai Yuan from Central Thailand, Mon from Northern Thailand)
          • R9b2 - Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam
        • R9c - China (Barghut from Hulun Buir), Taiwan
          • R9c1
            • R9c1a - Philippines, Indonesia, Taiwan (Makatao), Thailand (Khon Mueang from Chiang Rai Province)
              • R9c1a1 - Taiwan (Makatao, Rukai, Puyuma, etc.), Guam
              • R9c1a2 - Taiwan (Tsou, Bunun)
              • R9c1a3 - Philippines (Batak of Palawan)
            • R9c1b
              • R9c1b1 - China (Han), Vietnam (Kinh, Dao), Thailand (Tai Dam in Kanchanaburi Province, Khon Mueang in Mae Hong Son Province, Tai Yuan in Northern Thailand, Thai Lue in Northern Thailand), Myanmar
              • R9c1b2 - Thailand (Khon Mueang in Chiang Rai Province), Taiwan (Makatao, etc.), Philippines (Ifugao, Bugkalot), East Timor
        • F
        • R22
    • R11'B (16189)
      • R11
        • R11a
      • B
      • R24
    • R12'21
      • R12
      • R21
    • R22
    • R14
    • R23
    • R30
      • R30a
      • R30b
        • R30b1
    • R31
      • R31a
        • R31a1
      • R31b
    • R32
    • P
    • U

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Soares, Pedro; Ermini, Luca; Thomson, Noel; Mormina, Maru; Rito, Teresa; Röhl, Arne; Salas, Antonio; Oppenheimer, Stephen et al. (2009). "Correcting for Purifying Selection: An Improved Human Mitochondrial Molecular Clock". The American Journal of Human Genetics 84 (6): 740–59. doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2009.05.001. PMID 19500773. 
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Maji, Suvendu; Krithika, S.; Vasul, T.S. (2008). "Distribution of Mitochondrial DNA Macrohaplogroup N in India with Special Reference to Haplogroup R and its Sub-Haplogroup U". International Journal of Human Genetics 8 (1–2): 85–96. doi:10.1080/09723757.2008.11886022. http://www.krepublishers.com/02-Journals/IJHG/IJHG-08-0-000-000-2008-Web/IJHG-08-1-2-001-256-2007-Abst-PDF/IJHG-08-1-2-085-08-336-Maji-S/IJHG-08-1&2-085-08-336-Maji-S-Tt.pdf. 
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 Karmin, Monika (2005). Human mitochondrial DNA haplogroup R in India: dissecting the phylogenetic tree of South Asian-specific lineages (M.Sc. Thesis). University of Tartu. hdl:10062/567. OCLC 692161090.[page needed]
  4. ↑ Larruga, Jose M (23 May 2017). "Carriers of mitochondrial DNA macrohaplogroup R colonized Eurasia and Australasia from a southeast Asia core area". BMC Evolutionary Biology 17 (1): 115. doi:10.1186/s12862-017-0964-5. PMID 28535779. Bibcode: 2017BMCEE..17..115L. 
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Van Oven, Mannis; Kayser, Manfred (2009). "Updated comprehensive phylogenetic tree of global human mitochondrial DNA variation". Human Mutation 30 (2): E386–94. doi:10.1002/humu.20921. PMID 18853457. 
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 Larruga, Jose M (23 May 2017). "Carriers of mitochondrial DNA macrohaplogroup R colonized Eurasia and Australasia from a southeast Asia core area". BMC Evolutionary Biology 17 (1): 115. doi:10.1186/s12862-017-0964-5. PMID 28535779. Bibcode: 2017BMCEE..17..115L. 
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 Palanichamy, Malliya Gounder; Sun, Chang; Agrawal, Suraksha; Bandelt, Hans-Jürgen; Kong, Qing-Peng; Khan, Faisal; Wang, Cheng-Ye; Chaudhuri, Tapas Kumar et al. (2004). "Phylogeny of Mitochondrial DNA Macrohaplogroup N in India, Based on Complete Sequencing: Implications for the Peopling of South Asia". The American Journal of Human Genetics 75 (6): 966–78. doi:10.1086/425871. PMID 15467980. 
  8. ↑ "Carriers of mitochondrial DNA macrohaplogroup R colonized Eurasia and Australasia from a southeast Asia core area". BMC Evolutionary Biology 17 (1): 115. 2017. doi:10.1186/s12862-017-0964-5. PMID 28535779. Bibcode: 2017BMCEE..17..115L. 
  9. ↑ Marrero, Patricia; Abu-Amero, Khaled K; Larruga, Jose M; Cabrera, Vicente M (2016). "Carriers of human mitochondrial DNA macrohaplogroup M colonized India from southeastern Asia". BMC Evolutionary Biology 16 (1): 246. doi:10.1186/s12862-016-0816-8. PMID 27832758. Bibcode: 2016BMCEE..16..246M. 
  10. ↑ Larruga, Jose M; Marrero, Patricia; Abu-Amero, Khaled K; Golubenko, Maria V; Cabrera, Vicente M (2017). "Carriers of mitochondrial DNA macrohaplogroup R colonized Eurasia and Australasia from a southeast Asia core area". BMC Evolutionary Biology 17 (1): 115. doi:10.1186/s12862-017-0964-5. PMID 28535779. Bibcode: 2017BMCEE..17..115L. 
  11. ↑ Černý, Viktor (2009). "Out of Arabia—the settlement of island Soqotra as revealed by mitochondrial and Y chromosome genetic diversity". American Journal of Physical Anthropology 138 (4): 439–447. doi:10.1002/ajpa.20960. PMID 19012329. http://ychrom.invint.net/upload/iblock/f30/Cerny%202009%20Out%20of%20ArabiarusThe%20Settlement%20of%20Island%20Soqotra%20as%20Revealed%20by%20Mitochondrial%20and%20Y.pdf. Retrieved 13 June 2016. 
  12. ↑ Schuenemann, Verena J. (2017). "Ancient Egyptian mummy genomes suggest an increase of Sub-Saharan African ancestry in post-Roman periods". Nature Communications 8: 15694. doi:10.1038/ncomms15694. PMID 28556824. Bibcode: 2017NatCo...815694S. 
  13. ↑ Broushaki, Farnaz; Thomas, Mark G.; Link, Vivian; López, Saioa; van Dorp, Lucy; Kirsanow, Karola; Hofmanová, Zuzana; Diekmann, Yoan et al. (29 July 2016). "Early Neolithic genomes from the eastern Fertile Crescent". Science 353 (6298): 499–503. doi:10.1126/science.aaf7943. PMID 27417496. Bibcode: 2016Sci...353..499B. 
  14. ↑ Non, Amy. "ANALYSES OF GENETIC DATA WITHIN AN INTERDISCIPLINARY FRAMEWORK TO INVESTIGATE RECENT HUMAN EVOLUTIONARY HISTORY AND COMPLEX DISEASE". University of Florida. http://etd.fcla.edu/UF/UFE0041981/non_a.pdf. 
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 15.3 Quintana-Murci, Lluís; Chaix, Raphaëlle; Wells, R. Spencer; Behar, Doron M.; Sayar, Hamid; Scozzari, Rosaria; Rengo, Chiara; Al-Zahery, Nadia et al. (2004). "Where West Meets East: The Complex mtDNA Landscape of the Southwest and Central Asian Corridor". The American Journal of Human Genetics 74 (5): 827–45. doi:10.1086/383236. PMID 15077202. 
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 Helgason, Agnar; Hickey, Eileen; Goodacre, Sara; Bosnes, Vidar; Stefánsson, Kári; Ward, Ryk; Sykes, Bryan (2001). "MtDNA and the Islands of the North Atlantic: Estimating the Proportions of Norse and Gaelic Ancestry". The American Journal of Human Genetics 68 (3): 723–37. doi:10.1086/318785. PMID 11179019. 
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 Abu-Amero, Khaled K; Larruga, José M; Cabrera, Vicente M; González, Ana M (2008). "Mitochondrial DNA structure in the Arabian Peninsula". BMC Evolutionary Biology 8 (1): 45. doi:10.1186/1471-2148-8-45. PMID 18269758. Bibcode: 2008BMCEE...8...45A. 
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 Malyarchuk, B.; Grzybowski, T.; Derenko, M.; Perkova, M.; Vanecek, T.; Lazur, J.; Gomolcak, P.; Tsybovsky, I. (2008). "Mitochondrial DNA Phylogeny in Eastern and Western Slavs". Molecular Biology and Evolution 25 (8): 1651–8. doi:10.1093/molbev/msn114. PMID 18477584. 
  19. ↑ Mittnik, Alissa; Wang, Chuan-Chao; Pfrengle, Saskia; Daubaras, Mantas; Zariņa, Gunita; Hallgren, Fredrik; Allmäe, Raili; Khartanovich, Valery et al. (2018-01-30). "The genetic prehistory of the Baltic Sea region" (in en). Nature Communications 9 (1): 442. doi:10.1038/s41467-018-02825-9. ISSN 2041-1723. PMID 29382937. Bibcode: 2018NatCo...9..442M. 
  20. ↑ Serk, Piia (2004). Human Mitochondrial DNA Haplogroup J in Europe and Near East (M.Sc. Thesis). Estonia: University of Tartu. hdl:10062/777. OCLC 692161303.[page needed]
  21. ↑ oxfordancestors.com Maternal Ancestry
  22. ↑ Mannis van Oven's PhyloTree.org – mtDNA subtree R
  23. ↑ Fu, Qiaomei; Posth, Cosimo; Hajdinjak, Mateja; Petr, Martin; Mallick, Swapan; Fernandes, Daniel; Furtwängler, Anja; Haak, Wolfgang et al. (June 2016). "The genetic history of Ice Age Europe" (in en). Nature 534 (7606): 200–205. doi:10.1038/nature17993. ISSN 1476-4687. PMID 27135931. Bibcode: 2016Natur.534..200F. 
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 24.2 Metspalu, Mait; Kivisild, Toomas; Metspalu, Ene; Parik, Jüri; Hudjashov, Georgi; Kaldma, Katrin; Serk, Piia; Karmin, Monika et al. (2004). "Most of the extant mtDNA boundaries in south and southwest Asia were likely shaped during the initial settlement of Eurasia by anatomically modern humans". BMC Genetics 5: 26. doi:10.1186/1471-2156-5-26. PMID 15339343. 
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 25.2 25.3 25.4 25.5 25.6 Chaubey, Gyaneshwer; Karmin, Monika; Metspalu, Ene; Metspalu, Mait; Selvi-Rani, Deepa; Singh, Vijay; Parik, Jüri; Solnik, Anu et al. (2008). "Phylogeography of mtDNA haplogroup R7 in the Indian peninsula". BMC Evolutionary Biology 8 (1): 227. doi:10.1186/1471-2148-8-227. PMID 18680585. Bibcode: 2008BMCEE...8..227C. 
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 26.2 Chaubey, Gyaneshwer et al. (4 August 2008). "Figure 4. The frequency distribution of R7a and R7b clades in Indian subcontinent". BMC Evolutionary Biology 8 (1): 227. doi:10.1186/1471-2148-8-227. PMID 18680585. Bibcode: 2008BMCEE...8..227C.  in Chaubey, Gyaneshwer; Karmin, Monika; Metspalu, Ene; Metspalu, Mait; Selvi-Rani, Deepa; Singh, Vijay; Parik, Jüri; Solnik, Anu et al. (2008). "Phylogeography of mtDNA haplogroup R7 in the Indian peninsula". BMC Evolutionary Biology 8 (1): 227. doi:10.1186/1471-2148-8-227. PMID 18680585. Bibcode: 2008BMCEE...8..227C. 
  27. ↑ Figure 4 in Thangaraj, Kumarasamy; Nandan, Amrita; Sharma, Vishwas; Sharma, Varun Kumar; Eaaswarkhanth, Muthukrishnan; Patra, Pradeep Kumar; Singh, Sandhya; Rekha, Sashi et al. (2009). Ahmed, Niyaz. ed. "Deep Rooting In-Situ Expansion of mtDNA Haplogroup R8 in South Asia". PLOS ONE 4 (8): e6545. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0006545. PMID 19662095. Bibcode: 2009PLoSO...4.6545T. 
  28. ↑ Ian Logan 2009, Haplogrupo R9b, Mitochondrial DNA Site
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 Hill, C.; Soares, P.; Mormina, M.; MacAulay, V.; Meehan, W.; Blackburn, J.; Clarke, D.; Raja, J. M. et al. (2006). "Phylogeography and Ethnogenesis of Aboriginal Southeast Asians". Molecular Biology and Evolution 23 (12): 2480–91. doi:10.1093/molbev/msl124. PMID 16982817. 
  30. ↑ Scholes, Clarissa; Siddle, Katherine; Ducourneau, Axel; Crivellaro, Federica; Järve, Mari; Rootsi, Siiri; Bellatti, Maggie; Tabbada, Kristina et al. (2011). "Genetic diversity and evidence for population admixture in Batak Negritos from Palawan". American Journal of Physical Anthropology 146 (1): 62–72. doi:10.1002/ajpa.21544. PMID 21796613. 
  31. ↑ Albert Min-Shan Ko, Chung-Yu Chen, Qiaomei Fu, et al. (2014), "Early Austronesians: Into and Out Of Taiwan." The American Journal of Human Genetics 94, 426–436, March 6, 2014.
  32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 32.2 Hill, Catherine; Soares, Pedro; Mormina, Maru; MacAulay, Vincent; Clarke, Dougie; Blumbach, Petya B.; Vizuete-Forster, Matthieu; Forster, Peter et al. (2007). "A Mitochondrial Stratigraphy for Island Southeast Asia". The American Journal of Human Genetics 80 (1): 29–43. doi:10.1086/510412. PMID 17160892. 
  33. ↑ Derenko, Miroslava; Malyarchuk, Boris; Grzybowski, Tomasz; Denisova, Galina; Dambueva, Irina; Perkova, Maria; Dorzhu, Choduraa; Luzina, Faina et al. (2007). "Phylogeographic Analysis of Mitochondrial DNA in Northern Asian Populations". The American Journal of Human Genetics 81 (5): 1025–41. doi:10.1086/522933. PMID 17924343. 
  34. ↑ Tanaka, M.; Cabrera, VM; González, AM; Larruga, JM; Takeyasu, T; Fuku, N; Guo, LJ; Hirose, R et al. (2004). "Mitochondrial Genome Variation in Eastern Asia and the Peopling of Japan". Genome Research 14 (10a): 1832–50. doi:10.1101/gr.2286304. PMID 15466285. 
  35. ↑ Hwan Young Lee, Ji-Eun Yoo, Myung Jin Park, Ukhee Chung, Chong-Youl Kim, and Kyoung-Jin Shin, "East Asian mtDNA haplogroup determination in Koreans: Haplogroup-level coding region SNP analysis and subhaplogroup-level control region sequence analysis." Electrophoresis (2006). DOI 10.1002/elps.200600151.
  36. ↑ He, J-DExpression error: Unrecognized word "etal". (2012). "Patrilineal Perspective on the Austronesian Diffusion in Mainland Southeast Asia". PLOS ONE 7 (5): e36437. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0036437. PMID 22586471. Bibcode: 2012PLoSO...736437H. 
  37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 Tabbada, K. A.; Trejaut, J.; Loo, J.-H.; Chen, Y.-M.; Lin, M.; Mirazon-Lahr, M.; Kivisild, T.; De Ungria, M. C. A. (2009). "Philippine Mitochondrial DNA Diversity: A Populated Viaduct between Taiwan and Indonesia?". Molecular Biology and Evolution 27 (1): 21–31. doi:10.1093/molbev/msp215. PMID 19755666. 
  38. ↑ Pierson, M. J.; Martinez-Arias, R; Holland, BR; Gemmell, NJ; Hurles, ME; Penny, D (2006). "Deciphering Past Human Population Movements in Oceania: Provably Optimal Trees of 127 mtDNA Genomes". Molecular Biology and Evolution 23 (10): 1966–75. doi:10.1093/molbev/msl063. PMID 16855009. 
  39. ↑ Kutanan, WibhuExpression error: Unrecognized word "etal". (2018). "Contrasting maternal and paternal genetic variation of hunter-gatherer groups in Thailand". Scientific Reports 8 (1): 1536. doi:10.1038/s41598-018-20020-0. PMID 29367746. Bibcode: 2018NatSR...8.1536K. 
  40. ↑ Haplogroup R14, Ian Logan's Mitochondrial DNA Site
  41. ↑ Mona, S.; Grunz, K. E.; Brauer, S.; Pakendorf, B.; Castri, L.; Sudoyo, H.; Marzuki, S.; Barnes, R. H. et al. (2009). "Genetic Admixture History of Eastern Indonesia as Revealed by Y-Chromosome and Mitochondrial DNA Analysis". Molecular Biology and Evolution 26 (8): 1865–77. doi:10.1093/molbev/msp097. PMID 19414523. 
  42. ↑ Trivedi, RajniExpression error: Unrecognized word "etal". (2006). "Molecular insights into the origins of the Shompen, a declining population of the Nicobar archipelago". J Hum Genet 51 (3): 217–226. doi:10.1007/s10038-005-0349-2. PMID 16453062. 
  43. ↑ Peng, Min-ShengExpression error: Unrecognized word "etal". (2010). "Tracing the Austronesian Footprint in Mainland Southeast Asia: A Perspective from Mitochondrial DNA". Mol. Biol. Evol. 27 (10): 2417–2430. doi:10.1093/molbev/msq131. PMID 20513740. 
  44. ↑ 44.0 44.1 Fornarino, Simona; Pala, Maria; Battaglia, Vincenza; Maranta, Ramona; Achilli, Alessandro; Modiano, Guido; Torroni, Antonio; Semino, Ornella et al. (2009). "Mitochondrial and Y-chromosome diversity of the Tharus (Nepal): A reservoir of genetic variation". BMC Evolutionary Biology 9 (1): 154. doi:10.1186/1471-2148-9-154. PMID 19573232. Bibcode: 2009BMCEE...9..154F. 
  45. ↑ 45.0 45.1 45.2 Friedlaender, J.; Schurr, T; Gentz, F; Koki, G; Friedlaender, F; Horvat, G; Babb, P; Cerchio, S et al. (2005). "Expanding Southwest Pacific Mitochondrial Haplogroups P and Q". Molecular Biology and Evolution 22 (6): 1506–17. doi:10.1093/molbev/msi142. PMID 15814828. 
  46. ↑ Kayser, M.; Brauer, S; Cordaux, R; Casto, A; Lao, O; Zhivotovsky, LA; Moyse-Faurie, C; Rutledge, RB et al. (2006). "Melanesian and Asian Origins of Polynesians: MtDNA and Y Chromosome Gradients Across the Pacific". Molecular Biology and Evolution 23 (11): 2234–44. doi:10.1093/molbev/msl093. PMID 16923821. 
  47. ↑ Harding, Rosalind 2006, Gene tree analyses of Aboriginal Australians. University of Oxford
  48. ↑ Hudjashov, G.; Kivisild, T.; Underhill, P. A.; Endicott, P.; Sanchez, J. J.; Lin, A. A.; Shen, P.; Oefner, P. et al. (2007). "Revealing the prehistoric settlement of Australia by Y chromosome and mtDNA analysis". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 104 (21): 8726–30. doi:10.1073/pnas.0702928104. PMID 17496137. Bibcode: 2007PNAS..104.8726H. 
  49. ↑ mtDNA Haplogroup U1a page at cagetti.com
  50. ↑ Karima Fadhlaoui-Zid; Laura Rodríguez-Botigué; Nejib Naoui; Amel Benammar-Elgaaied; Francesc Calafell; David Comas (May 2011). "Mitochondrial DNA structure in North Africa reveals a genetic discontinuity in the Nile Valley". American Journal of Physical Anthropology 145 (1): 107–117. doi:10.1002/ajpa.21472. PMID 21312180. http://digital.csic.es/bitstream/10261/42802/3/mitochondrial_DNA_structure_Fadhlaoui.pdf. Retrieved 22 April 2016. 
  51. ↑ Maca-Meyer, Nicole; González, Ana M; Pestano, José; Flores, Carlos; Larruga, José M; Cabrera, Vicente M (2003). "Mitochondrial DNA transit between West Asia and North Africa inferred from U6 phylogeography". BMC Genetics 4: 15. doi:10.1186/1471-2156-4-15. PMID 14563219. 
  52. ↑ Mohamed, Hisham Yousif Hassan. "Genetic Patterns of Y-chromosome and Mitochondrial DNA Variation, with Implications to the Peopling of the Sudan". University of Khartoum. http://khartoumspace.uofk.edu/bitstream/handle/123456789/6376/Genetic%20Patterns%20of%20Y-chromosome%20and%20Mitochondrial.pdf?sequence=1. 
  53. ↑ Bernard Secher; Rosa Fregel; José M Larruga; Vicente M Cabrera; Phillip Endicott; José J Pestano; Ana M González (2014). "The history of the North African mitochondrial DNA haplogroup U6 gene flow into the African, Eurasian and American continents". BMC Evolutionary Biology 14 (1): 109. doi:10.1186/1471-2148-14-109. PMID 24885141. Bibcode: 2014BMCEE..14..109S. 
  54. ↑ 54.0 54.1 54.2 Kutanan, Wibhu; Kampuansai, Jatupol; Srikummool, Metawee; Kangwanpong, Daoroong; Ghirotto, Silvia; Brunelli, Andrea; Stoneking, Mark (2016). "Complete mitochondrial genomes of Thai and Lao populations indicate an ancient origin of Austroasiatic groups and demic diffusion in the spread of Tai–Kadai languages". Hum Genet 136 (1): 85–98. doi:10.1007/s00439-016-1742-y. PMID 27837350. 

External links

Phylogenetic tree of human mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) haplogroups

  Mitochondrial Eve (L)    
L0 L1–6  
L1 L2   L3     L4 L5 L6
M N  
CZ D E G Q   O A S R   I W X Y
C Z B F R0   pre-JT   P   U
HV JT K
H V J T



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