Biology:List of insect orders

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A side-by-side picture of insect species from fifteen different orders
A side-by-side of insect species from fifteen different orders, from top to bottom:

Insecta is a class of invertebrates that consists of around 30 individual orders.[1] Orders are the fifth taxonomic rank used to classify living organisms, below the rank of class, but above the rank of family.[2] With around 1 million insect species having been formally described and assigned a binomial name, insects are the most diverse group of animals, comprising approximately half of extant species on Earth. The total insect biodiversity has been estimated at around 6 million species.[3][4] The most diverse orders are Coleoptera (beetles), Hymenoptera (wasps, bees, ants and sawflies), Lepidoptera (butterflies and moths), Diptera (flies) and Hemiptera (true bugs).[5] Taxonomists disagree on the exact number of orders, with opinions ranging from 26 to 32 distinct extant orders.[6]

Insecta was originally divided into seven orders in 1758 by Carl Linnaeus in the 10th edition of Systema Naturae. When Insecta was originally described it was split into two informal groups, Paleoptera and Neoptera.[7] Insects that do not have the ability to fold their wings over their abdomen were sorted into Paleoptera, and ones that could (or had an ancestor that could) were sorted into Neoptera.[7] Individual orders were primarily defined by the number and structure of wings, with other factors such as antennae being considered.[8] The classification of insects changes as new discoveries are found, with species regularly shifted around different orders.[9] The most recent order described was the monotypic (an order with only one family) Mantophasmatodea in 2002.[9]

Apterygota

Apterygota is a paraphyletic (a grouping that consists of the grouping's last common ancestor and some but not all of its descendant lineages) group containing two orders of primitive and wingless insects, historically united on the basis of morphology.[10]

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Order[lower-alpha 1] Common name(s) Description Number of species[lower-alpha 2] Image
Archaeognatha
Börner, 1904 		Jumping bristletails The Archaeognatha are the most evolutionarily primitive taxa (remaining mostly unchanged since their most recent common ancestor) in insects.[12] Species are characterized by their elongated bodies and retractable mouthparts. They have an arched thorax and a small head.[12] Bodies are cylindrical and do not have any scales.[13] They are distributed globally and prefer woodland areas.[13] Their tails consist of three long structures and they can use them to jump up to 12 inches (30 cm).[14] 500[11] A close up photo of the species Trigoniophthalmus alternatus
Trigoniophthalmus alternatus
Zygentoma
Börner, 1904 		Silverfish and firebrats Species of Zygentoma are usually flat with two lengthy cerci (primitive sensory organs that can detect light).[15] The most widely distributed species is the silverfish (Lepisma saccharinum).[16] The thoraxes are wide, and the surface is covered in small dry scales.[17] Most live under bark or litter structures.[17] They are most common in humid environments, but some species have developed to withstand higher temperatures.[17] 600[11] A top-down photo of a silverfish
Ctenolepisma lineatum

Palaeoptera

Palaeoptera is an infraclass (the taxonomic rank directly below subclass) of insects with two existing orders.[18] Wings of Palaeoptera cannot be folded back when they are not being used, and species undergo hemimetaboly (metamorphosis missing one or more stages rather than complete metamorphosis).[19]

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Order Common name(s) Description Number of species Image
Ephemeroptera
Hyatt & Arms, 1890 		Mayflies Ephemeroptera are small aquatic insects found primarily in North America.[20] Females lay their eggs in water and do not feed during the adult stage. They spend almost their entire lives as larvae (sometimes up to a year), before growing into adults and living for one or two days.[20] 3,100[11] A side profile of a mayfly
Rhithrogena germanica
Odonata
Fabricius, 1793 		Dragonflies and damselflies Odonata consists primarily of dragonflies and damselflies. They are large, narrow insects characterised by clear wings and a long abdomen.[21] Species are brightly colored and up to four inches in length. They are aquatic and lay their eggs in or around bodies of water.[21] 6,000[11] A side profile of a large dragonfly
Onychogomphus forcipatus

Polyneoptera

Polyneoptera is a group of winged insects that possess four wings, long antennae and mouths specialized for chewing.[22][lower-alpha 3] When stationary, their wings are typically folded over their body flat.[23] They are hemimetabolous, hatching as nymphs which gradually acquire their adult morphology through successive moults.[24]

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Order Common name(s) Description Number of species Image
Blattodea
Wattenwyl, 1882 		Cockroaches and termites Blattodea is an order that contains cockroaches and termites.[25] They have oval bodies and short cerci (appendages situated on the rear). They are most common in tropical climates and can live as pests in human structures.[26] 8,600[11] A close up photo of a cockroach with black and white spots
Therea petiveriana
Dermaptera
De Geer, 1773 		Earwigs Dermaptera are slender insects are slender with beaded antennae, a segmented body and pincer-like cerci.[27] 2,000[11] A photo of an insect on top of a yellow flower
Forficula auricularia
Embioptera
Lameere, 1900 		Webspinners Embioptera is an order of small insects with long, cylindrical bodies.[28] They have short legs and two cerci. Some males have two pairs of wings, and females have none.[28] 500[11] A black webspinner across a white background
Notoligotoma nitens
Grylloblattodea
Brues & Melander, 1932 		Ice crawlers Grylloblattodea is a rare group of insects found in Asia and North America.[29] Their bodies are adapted to survive in cold and mountain climates.[30] Grylloblattodea is sometimes ranked as a suborder of the order Notoptera, alongside Mantophasmatodea.[31] 500[11] A red ice crawler insect from the side
Grylloblatta sp.
Mantodea
Burmeister, 1838 		Mantises (or praying mantises) Mantodea is an order of insects that usually prey on other insects.[32] They exhibit a diverse range of colors and shapes, and are distributed worldwide.[32] 2,400[11] A green praying mantis looking at the camera
Mantis religiosa
Mantophasmatodea
Zompro et al., 2002 		Gladiators or heelwalkers Mantophasmatodea is a monotypic order of wingless insects. It is the smallest insect order and was first described in 2002.[33] They are found exclusively in Southwest Africa. They have cylindrical bodies and tarsi segmented into five parts.[33] Mantophasmatodea is sometimes ranked as a suborder of Notoptera, alongside Grylloblattodea.[31] 23[11] A green gladiator bug from top-down
Mantophasma zephyra
Orthoptera
Latreille, 1793 		Grasshoppers, crickets, and locusts Orthoptera is an order of insects that consists of crickets, grasshoppers, and locusts.[34] Most individuals live for around one year and undergo simple metamorphosis with three stages.[34] 24,500[11] A brown cricket on the side of a purple flower
Metrioptera roeselii
Phasmatodea
Jacobson & Bianchi, 1902 		Stick insects and leaf insects Phasmatodea is an order of large and slim insects, originating in the Australasian region.[35] Species have evolved their bodies to camouflage themselves among leaves and twigs.[35] They are dorso-ventrally flattened, and primarily concentrated in Asia and Australasia.[35] 3,100[11] A photo of a long slender green insect on a leaf
Leptynia hispanica
Plecoptera
Burmeister, 1839 		Stoneflies Plecoptera is a small order of insects that is distributed globally.[36] It is most common in temperate climates. Species usually have small ocelli and dorso-ventrally flattened bodies.[37] 3,800[11] A long, slender black insect crawling
Perla sp.
Zoraptera
Silvestri, 1913 		Angel insects Zoraptera is a small order primarily found in tropical regions.[38] Species are usually four millimeters or less and have two forms: dark, winged alates, with both eyes and ocelli, and pale, wingless, blind individuals.[39] 45[11]
A small, dark insect with elongated wings

Paraneoptera

Paraneoptera is a superorder of insects that undergo hemimetaboly.[40] Many species are agricultural pests, damaging the plants that they feed on.[41] The lifespan of species in Paraneoptera are short, with some lasting 6 weeks or less.[42]

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Order Common name(s) Description Number of species Image
Hemiptera
Linnaeus, 1758 		True bugs Hemiptera have piercing mouthparts that are used to suck from their food, with species exhibiting a cone or beak shaped structure.[43] 104,200[11] A close up photo of a brown bed bug on a human's skin
Cimex lectularius
Psocodea
Hennig, 1966 		Barklice, booklice, and parasitic lice Psocodea is a group of small insects with soft bodies.[44] It consists primarily of lice, and species are dorso-ventrally flattened across their bodies.[44] 5,700[11] A photo of a long slender louse underneath a microscope
Columbicola columbae
Thysanoptera
Haliday, 1836 		Thrips Thysanoptera are small winged insects that feed on plants.[45] They are usually no more than two millimeters in length and are attracted to bright colors.[45] 6,100[11] A close up photo of an elongated, yellow insect with folded wings on top of a flower stem
Frankliniella occidentalis

Holometabola

Holometabola is a group of insects that are characterized by complete metamorphosis (insects that go through egg, larva, pupa and adult stages).[46] The orders Coleoptera, Hymenoptera, Diptera and Lepidoptera contain the greatest number of species in this group (more than 99%).[46]

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Order Common name(s) Description Number of species Image
Coleoptera
Linnaeus, 1758 		Beetles Coleoptera is the largest order of insects, and contains a quarter of all extant animals.[47] Species have three parts (a head, thorax, and abdomen) and a set of compound eyes. Most species can fly, while some species in desert regions have lost the ability.[47] 392,400[11] A close up photo of a beetle with a large horn
Dynastes hercules
Diptera
Linnaeus, 1758 		Flies Diptera is a large, globally distributed order of insects.[48] Species have one set of wings[lower-alpha 4] and a pair of organs called halteres to help with balance.[49] 160,600[11] A photo of a green fly with yellow eyes on a leaf
Chrysomya megacephala
Hymenoptera
Linnaeus, 1758 		Bees, wasps, ants and sawflies Hymenoptera is a large order of insects that primarily consists of bees, wasps, and ants.[50] 6,000 to 7,000 new species are described each year. Hymenoptera play a significant role in plant pollination and the development of crops.[50] 155,500[11] A photo of a yellow bee flying with pollen
Apis mellifera
Lepidoptera
Linnaeus, 1758 		Butterflies and moths Lepidoptera consists of butterflies and moths.[51] They exist on all continents except Antarctica and have a diverse range of colors and sizes.[51] 158,600[11] A black and red butterfly on white flowers
Aglais io
Mecoptera
Packard, 1886 		Scorpionflies Mecoptera is an order of insects primarily distributed in Australasian and Neotropical areas.[52] They range in length from two millimeters to 35 millimeters. The families Panorpidae and Bitticidae contain the majority of extant species.[52] Some phylogenies recover Siphonaptera as part of an otherwise paraphyletic Mecoptera. In that case, Siphonaptera may be assigned a lower rank within the order Mecoptera,[53] or the mecopteran families Nannochoristidae and Boreidae may be regarded as the separate orders Nannomecoptera and Neomecoptera.[54] 800[11] A grey and orange insect sitting on top of a rock
Panorpa communis
Megaloptera
Latreille, 1802 		Alderflies, dobsonflies, fishflies Megaloptera is a small order of insects commonly found in aquatic areas. The adults have long, segmented antennae and are usually winged.[55] Species undergo all four stages of metamorphosis during development.[55] 400[11] A black insect on a leaf
Protosialis americana
Neuroptera
Linnaeus, 1758 		Lacewings Neuroptera is an order of insects distributed globally. They have two pairs of wings and long antennae.[56] 5,900[11] A photo of a slender green insect with long antennae
Chrysopa formosa
Raphidioptera
Handlirsch, 1908 		Snakeflies Raphidioptera is an order of predatory insects with elongated prothoraxes. Some taxonomists have grouped Raphidioptera together with the related Megaloptera.[57] 300[11] A black insect with a long neck walking on a green stem
Dichrostigma flavipes
Siphonaptera
Latreille, 1825 		Fleas Siphonaptera is an order of blood-sucking insects that are globally distributed. They are most prevalent in temperate climates.[58] Siphonaptera primarily feed on mammals, although some species feed on birds as well.[59] 2,100[11] A microscopic photo of a pink flea
Strepsiptera
Kirby, 1813 		Twisted-wing parasites Strepsiptera is an order of small obligate endoparasites divided into 12 families (10 extant and two extinct).[60] The males range in length from one millimeter (0.039 in) to seven millimeters (0.28 in). The females range in length from two millimeters (0.079 in) to 30 millimetres (1.2 in).[60] In Stylopidia, which comprises the vast majority of species, females are permanent endoparasites and possess reduced legs, antennae, and eyes.[61] 600[11]
A pale, grub-like insect with a small yellow head and three small pairs of legs near the front
Mengenilla moldrzyki
Trichoptera
Kirby, 1813 		Caddisflies Trichoptera is an order of insects found in freshwater areas.[62] 15,200[11] A orange insect crawling on a green leaf
Limnephilus rhombicus

Notes

  1. ↑ The author citation (last name and year of the person(s) who originally described the order) is listed under the order name.
  2. ↑ The exact number of species changes as new ones are described; the figures described are based on a 2013 report by Zhi-Qiang Zhang, and orders with more than 100 species are rounded to the nearest hundred.[11]
  3. ↑ Some species in Phasmatodea, Dermaptera and Zoraptera are secondarily wingless having lost their wings during evolution.[22]
  4. ↑ Some parasitic species in alpine regions have lost their wings through evolution.[49]

References

  1. ↑ "Guide to Insect and Non-Insect Arthropods" (in en). 2018. https://entomology.tamu.edu/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/All_Orders-2018.pdf. 
  2. ↑ Rawat 2023, p. 14
  3. ↑ Stork, Nigel E. (2018-01-07). "How Many Species of Insects and Other Terrestrial Arthropods Are There on Earth?" (in en). Annual Review of Entomology 63 (63): 31–45. doi:10.1146/annurev-ento-020117-043348. ISSN 0066-4170. PMID 28938083. https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-ento-020117-043348. Retrieved 2025-06-15. 
  4. ↑ Li, Xin; Wiens, John J (2023-06-16). Bond, Jason. ed. "Estimating Global Biodiversity: The Role of Cryptic Insect Species" (in en). Systematic Biology 72 (2): 391–403. doi:10.1093/sysbio/syac069. ISSN 1063-5157. PMID 36301156. https://academic.oup.com/sysbio/article/72/2/391/6775868. 
  5. ↑ "Insect taxonomy" (in en). 2019-11-11. https://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/resources/2840-insect-taxonomy. 
  6. ↑ Rivers 2017, p. 179
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Abbott & Abbott 2023, p. 11
  8. ↑ Engel, Michael S.; Kristensen, Niels P. (2013-01-07). "A History of Entomological Classification" (in en). Annual Review of Entomology 58 (58): 585–607. doi:10.1146/annurev-ento-120811-153536. ISSN 0066-4170. PMID 23317047. https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-ento-120811-153536. Retrieved 2025-06-16. 
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Ring & Resh 2003, p. 565
  10. ↑ Trautwein, Michelle D.; Wiegmann, Brian M.; Beutel, Rolf; Kjer, Karl M.; Yeates, David K. (2012-01-07). "Advances in Insect Phylogeny at the Dawn of the Postgenomic Era" (in en). Annual Review of Entomology 57 (1): 449–468. doi:10.1146/annurev-ento-120710-100538. ISSN 0066-4170. PMID 22149269. https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev-ento-120710-100538. Retrieved 2025-06-20. 
  11. ↑ 11.00 11.01 11.02 11.03 11.04 11.05 11.06 11.07 11.08 11.09 11.10 11.11 11.12 11.13 11.14 11.15 11.16 11.17 11.18 11.19 11.20 11.21 11.22 11.23 11.24 11.25 11.26 11.27 11.28 Zhang, Zhi-Qiang (2013-08-30). "Phylum Arthropoda. In: Zhang, Z.-Q. (Ed.) Animal Biodiversity: An Outline of Higher-level Classification and Survey of Taxonomic Richness (Addenda 2013)" (in en). Zootaxa 3703 (1): 17–26. doi:10.11646/zootaxa.3703.1.6. ISSN 1175-5334. https://mapress.com/zt/article/view/zootaxa.3703.1.6. 
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 "Jumping Bristletails" (in en-US). 2022-09-01. https://encyclopediaofarkansas.net/entries/jumping-bristletails-14864/. 
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 "Order Archeognatha – ENT 425 – General Entomology" (in en-US). https://genent.cals.ncsu.edu/insect-identification/order-archeognatha/. 
  14. ↑ "[Occasional Invaders A New Look at an Old Group"] (in en). 2011-05-27. https://www.pctonline.com/article/-occasional-invaders--a-new-look-at-an-old-group/. 
  15. ↑ "Order Zygentoma – ENT 425 – General Entomology" (in en-US). https://genent.cals.ncsu.edu/insect-identification/order-zygentoma/. 
  16. ↑ Molero-Baltanás, Rafael; Mitchell, Andrew; Gaju-Ricart, Miquel; Robla, Jairo (2024-05-01). "Worldwide revision of synanthropic silverfish (Insecta: Zygentoma: Lepismatidae) combining morphological and molecular data". Journal of Insect Science (Online) 24 (3). doi:10.1093/jisesa/ieae045. ISSN 1536-2442. PMID 38703100. 
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 "Børstehaler" (in nb). 2014-03-22. https://artsdatabanken.no/Pages/135810. 
  18. ↑ "Paleoptera - (General Biology I) - Vocab, Definition, Explanations | Fiveable" (in en). https://library.fiveable.me/key-terms/college-bio/paleoptera. 
  19. ↑ Gillott, Cedric (1980), Gillott, Cedric, ed., "Paleoptera" (in en), Entomology (Boston, MA: Springer US): pp. 121–136, doi:10.1007/978-1-4615-6915-2_6, ISBN 978-1-4615-6915-2 
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 "Mayflies | National Wildlife Federation" (in en). https://www.nwf.org/Educational-Resources/Wildlife-Guide/Invertebrates/Mayflies. 
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 "Odonata | Dragonflies & Damselflies, Aquatic Insects | Britannica" (in en). https://www.britannica.com/animal/Odonata. 
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 "Orthopteroids – ENT 425 – General Entomology" (in en-US). https://genent.cals.ncsu.edu/bug-bytes/orthopteroids/. 
  23. ↑ Taylor, Christopher (2014-12-01). "Polyneoptera". http://taxondiversity.fieldofscience.com/2014/12/polyneoptera.html. 
  24. ↑ Belles, Xavier (2011). "Origin and Evolution of Insect Metamorphosis" (in en). Encyclopedia of Life Sciences. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. doi:10.1002/9780470015902.a0022854. ISBN 978-0-470-01590-2. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/9780470015902.a0022854. Retrieved 2025-06-18. 
  25. ↑ "ITIS - Report: Blattodea". https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=914219. 
  26. ↑ "Order Blattodea – ENT 425 – General Entomology" (in en-US). https://genent.cals.ncsu.edu/insect-identification/order-blattodea/. 
  27. ↑ "Order Dermaptera – ENT 425 – General Entomology" (in en-US). https://genent.cals.ncsu.edu/insect-identification/order-dermaptera/. 
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 "Embioptera - webspinners". https://www.ento.csiro.au/education/insects/embioptera.html. 
  29. ↑ Jarvis, Karl J.; Whiting, Michael F. (2006). "Phylogeny and biogeography of ice crawlers (Insecta: Grylloblattodea) based on six molecular loci: designating conservation status for Grylloblattodea species". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 41 (1): 222–237. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2006.04.013. ISSN 1055-7903. PMID 16798019. Bibcode: 2006MolPE..41..222J. 
  30. ↑ Schoville, Sean D.; Roderick, George K. (2010-06-02). "Evolutionary diversification of cryophilic Grylloblattaspecies (Grylloblattodea: Grylloblattidae) in alpine habitats of California". BMC Evolutionary Biology 10 (1): 163. doi:10.1186/1471-2148-10-163. ISSN 1471-2148. PMID 20525203. Bibcode: 2010BMCEE..10..163S. 
  31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 Arillo, A.; Engel, M.S. (2006). "Rock crawlers in Baltic amber (Notoptera: Mantophasmatodea)". American Museum Novitates (3539): 1–10. doi:10.1206/0003-0082(2006)3539[1:RCIBAN2.0.CO;2]. https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/59821931. Retrieved 2025-06-18. 
  32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 "Marvellous Mantodea". 2018-01-01. https://oumnh.ox.ac.uk/marvellous-mantodea. 
  33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 "Order Mantophasmatodea - ENT 425 - General Entymology". https://genent.cals.ncsu.edu/insect-identification/order-mantophasmatodea/. 
  34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 Gurney, Ashley (1999-07-26). "Orthoptera | Description, Insect Order, Grasshopper, Cricket, Katydid". https://www.britannica.com/animal/orthopteran. 
  35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 35.2 Bank, Sarah; Cumming, Royce et al. (2021-08-02). "A tree of leaves: Phylogeny and historical biogeography of the leaf insects (Phasmatodea: Phylliidae)". Communications Biology 4 (1): 932. doi:10.1038/s42003-021-02436-z. ISSN 2399-3642. PMID 34341467. 
  36. ↑ Lillehammer 1988, p. 7
  37. ↑ Lillehammer 1988, p. 10
  38. ↑ Matsamura, Yoko; Beutal, Rolf et al. (2019-11-21). "The evolution of Zoraptera". Systematic Entomology (Wiley) 45 (2): 349–364. doi:10.1111/syen.12400. ISSN 1365-3113. 
  39. ↑ "Order Zoraptera - ENT 425 - General Entymology". https://genent.cals.ncsu.edu/insect-identification/order-zoraptera/. 
  40. ↑ Dacks, Andrew M.; Christensen, Thomas A.; Hildebrand, John G. (2006-10-20). "Phylogeny of a serotonin-immunoreactive neuron in the primary olfactory center of the insect brain" (in en). Journal of Comparative Neurology 498 (6): 727–746. doi:10.1002/cne.21076. ISSN 0021-9967. PMID 16927264. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/cne.21076. 
  41. ↑ "1KITE Database -1,000 Insect Transcriptome Evolution". https://1kite.cngb.org/project/Paraneoptera. 
  42. ↑ Panizzi & Parra 2012, p. 106
  43. ↑ "Order Hemiptera". https://www.macroinvertebrates.org/taxa-info/hemiptera-adult. 
  44. ↑ 44.0 44.1 Poirier, Lisa. "Psocodea – Lice" (in en-ca). Pressbooks. https://pressbooks.bccampus.ca/unbcbiol322/chapter/psocodea-lice/. 
  45. ↑ 45.0 45.1 "Biology and Management of Thrips Affecting the Production Nursery and Landscape" (in en). https://extension.uga.edu/publications/detail.html?number=C1158&title=biology-and-management-of-thrips-affecting-the-production-nursery-and-landscape. 
  46. ↑ 46.0 46.1 "Phylogeny of Holometabolous Insect Orders" (in en). 2021-05-04. https://biology.byu.edu/phylogeny-of-holometabolous-insect-orders. 
  47. ↑ 47.0 47.1 "Beetle | Sand Diego Zoo Animals & Plants". https://animals.sandiegozoo.org/animals/beetle. 
  48. ↑ "Order Diptera - ENT 424 - General Entymology". https://genent.cals.ncsu.edu/insect-identification/order-diptera/. 
  49. ↑ 49.0 49.1 "True Flies (Diptera)". https://www.si.edu/spotlight/buginfo/true-flies-diptera. 
  50. ↑ 50.0 50.1 "Wasps, Ants, and Bees (Hymenoptera)". https://www.si.edu/spotlight/buginfo/hymenoptera. 
  51. ↑ 51.0 51.1 Culin, Joseph (1999-07-26). "Lepidoptera | Definition, Butterfly, Moth, Skipper, Characteristics, Life Cycle". https://www.britannica.com/animal/lepidopteran. 
  52. ↑ 52.0 52.1 Capinera 2008, p. 3304
  53. ↑ Tihelka, Erik; Giacomelli, Mattia; Huang, Di-Ying; Pisani, Davide; Donoghue, Philip C. J.; Cai, Chen-Yang (2020). "Fleas are parasitic scorpionflies". Palaeoentomology 3 (6): 641–653. doi:10.11646/palaeoentomology.3.6.16. ISSN 2624-2834. Bibcode: 2020Plegy...3..641T. 
  54. ↑ Whiting, Michael F. (2004). "Phylogeny of the Holometabolous Insects". Assembling the Tree of Life. Oxford University Press. p. 355. ISBN 978-0-19-972960-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=6lXTP0YU6_kC&pg=PA355. 
  55. ↑ 55.0 55.1 "Megaloptera - ENT 425 - General Entymology". https://genent.cals.ncsu.edu/insect-identification/megaloptera/. 
  56. ↑ "Neuroptera - Lacewings | Wildlife Journal Junior". https://www.nhptv.org/wild/neuroptera.asp. 
  57. ↑ Barnard 1999, p. 79
  58. ↑ "Order Siphonaptera - ENT 425 - General Entymology". https://genent.cals.ncsu.edu/insect-identification/order-siphonaptera/. 
  59. ↑ Ring & Resh 2003, p. 926
  60. ↑ 60.0 60.1 Ring & Resh 2003, p. 971
  61. ↑ Pohl, Hans; Beutel, Rolf Georg (2008). "The evolution of Strepsiptera (Hexapoda)" (in en). Zoology 111 (4): 327. doi:10.1016/j.zool.2007.06.008. PMID 18356032. Bibcode: 2008Zool..111..318P. https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0944200608000135. 
  62. ↑ Malm, Tobias; Johanson, Kjell Arne; Wahlberg, Niklas (2012). "The evolutionary history of Trichoptera (Insecta): A case of successful adaptation to life in freshwater" (in en). Systematic Entomology 38 (3): 459–473. doi:10.1111/syen.12016. ISSN 0307-6970. https://resjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/syen.12016. 

Bibliography



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