Physics:Women in physics

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This article discusses women who have made an important contribution to the field of physics.

International physics awards

Female Nobel laureates in physics (left to right, top to bottom)
Marie Curie – Maria Goeppert Mayer – Donna Strickland
Andrea Ghez – Anne L'Huillier

Nobel laureates

Five women have won the Nobel Prize in Physics, awarded annually since 1901 by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.[1] These are:[2]

Marie Curie was the first woman to receive the prize in 1903 and shared 1/2 of the prize with her husband Pierre Curie for their joint work on radioactivity, discovered by Henri Becquerel who got the other half of the prize. Marie Curie was the first woman to also receive the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1911, making her the first person to win two Nobel prizes and, as of 2023, the first to be awarded two Nobel prizes in two different scientific categories.[8]

Maria Goeppert Mayer became the second woman to win the prize in 1963, for the theoretical development of the nuclear shell model, a half of the prize shared with J. Hans D. Jensen (the other half given to Eugene Wigner). Donna Strickland shared half of the prize in 2018 with Gérard Mourou, for their work in chirped pulse amplification beginning in the 1980s (the other half given to Arthur Ashkin). Andrea Ghez was the fourth female Nobel laureate in 2020, she shared one half of the prize with Reinhard Genzel for the discovery of the supermassive compact object Sagittarius A* at the center of our galaxy (the other half given to Roger Penrose). In 2023, Anne L'Huillier shared the prize in equal parts with Pierre Agostini and Ferenc Krausz for their experimental contribution and development of attosecond physics. L'Huillier is the first female laureate to receive 1/3 of monetary award of the Nobel Prize in Physics (Curie, Goeppert–Mayer, Strickland and Ghez received 1/4).

Physicists and physicochemists that won a Nobel Prize in Chemistry include Marie Curie,[9] Irène Joliot-Curie, daughter of Marie Curie, in 1935,[10] and Dorothy Hodgkin in 1964.[11] Nuclear physicist Rosalyn Sussman Yalow was the second female scientist to win the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1977 for the development of radioimmunoassays.[12] Human right activist and 2023 Nobel Peace Prize, Narges Mohammadi, was trained in nuclear physics.[13]

Nobel nominees and nominators

According to the Nobel archives (updated up to 1970), other physicists that were nominated to the Nobel Prize in Physics but did not receive it, include:

As of 2024, Connes was still alive and eligible to the prize. Irène Joliot-Curie[10] and Dorothy Hodgkin[11] were also nominated for the Nobel Prize in Physics, but received a Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1935 and 1964, respectively. Lise Meitner is the female physicist the most nominated, 16 times for Physics and 14 times for Chemistry.[20] About 1.7% of the Nobel nominations in Physics up to 1970 were women.[20]

Aside from the named above, other physicists and physicochemists that were nominated to the Nobel Prize in Chemistry but dit not receive it, include Ida Noddack,[21] Marguerite Perey,[22] Alberte Pullman,[23] and Erika Cremer.[24]

Up to 1970, eight female scientists have participated as nominators for the Nobel Prize in Physics. These are Marie Curie, Hertha Sponer, Marie-Antoinette Tonnelat, Anne Barbara Underhill, Katharina Boll-Dornberger, Maria Goeppert Mayer, Dorothy Hodgkin, and Margaret Burbidge.[25]

Clarivate Citation

Several women have been selected as Clarivate Citation laureates in Physics, which makes an annual list of possible candidates for the Nobel Prize in Physics based on citation statistics, these include:

dagger: deceased, no longer eligible.

Wolf Prize

Two women have been awarded the Wolf Prize in Physics, awarded by the Wolf Foundation in Israel since 1978. They are:

Breakthrough Prize

Women who have been awarded the Breakthrough Prize in Fundamental Physics since 2012, include:

  • 2018 WMAP Probe team, 27 listed members, including Hiranya Peiris, Licia Verde, Janet L. Weiland and Joanna Dunkley for "For detailed maps of the early universe that greatly improved our knowledge of the evolution of the cosmos and the fluctuations that seeded the formation of galaxies."[33]
  • 2018 Special recognition to Jocelyn Bell Burnell for "For fundamental contributions to the discovery of pulsars, and a lifetime of inspiring leadership in the scientific community."[34]

Prizes only for female physicists

  • L'Oréal-UNESCO For Women in Science Awards, awaded bi-annually to one laureate per continent for outstanding contributions to the physical sciences.
  • Maria Goeppert-Mayer Award of the American Physical Society awarded annually in recognition of an outstanding contribution to physics research.
  • Jocelyn Bell Burnell Medal and Prize by the Institute of Physics in UK, for contributions to physics by a very early career physicist.
  • Annie Jump Cannon Award in Astronomy awarded annually for outstanding contributions to astronomy within five years of earning a doctorate degree.

Topics named after female scientists

Emmy Noether who published the Noether's theorem in 1918. The theorem relates symmetries to conserved quantities in physics.

Female scientist have sometimes not been recognized in the naming of topics they discovered due to Matilda effect. Some physics phenomena that are named after female scientists include:

Physical phenomena, theories, laws and equations

Physical theorems

Experiments and equipment

Timeline

Antiquity

  • c. 150 BCE: Aglaonice became the first female astronomer to be recorded in Ancient Greece.[35][36]
  • c. 355–415 CE: Greek astronomer, mathematician and philosopher, Hypatia became renowned as a respected academic teacher, editor of Ptolemy's Almagest astronomical data, and head of her own science academy.[37]

16th century

  • 1572: astronomer Sophia Brahe assists her older brother Tycho Brahe finding a new bright object in the night sky, now known as called SN 1572 (a supernova).[38] Sophia would help her brother in astronomy throughout his life.

17th century

  • 1668: After separating from her husband, French polymath Marguerite de la Sablière established a popular salon in Paris. Scientists and scholars from different countries visited the salon regularly to discuss ideas and share knowledge, and Sablière studied physics, astronomy and natural history with her guests.[39]
  • 1680: French astronomer Jeanne Dumée published a summary of arguments supporting the Copernican theory of heliocentrism. She wrote "between the brain of a woman and that of a man there is no difference".[40]
  • 1693–1698: German astronomer and illustrator Maria Clara Eimmart created more than 350 detailed drawings of the moon phases.[41]

18th century

Portrait of young Sophie Germain known for her contributions in math and the theory of elasticity
  • 1732: At the age of 20, Italian physicist Laura Bassi became the first female member of the Bologna Academy of Sciences. One month later, she publicly defended her academic theses and received a PhD. Bassi was awarded an honorary position as professor of physics at the University of Bologna. She was the first female physics professor in the world.[42]
  • 1738: French polymath Émilie du Châtelet became the first woman to have a paper published by the Paris Academy, following a contest on the nature of fire.[43]
  • 1740: Du Châtelet publishes Institutions de Physique, or Foundations of Physics, providing a metaphysical basis for Newtonian physics.[44][45]
  • 1751: 19-year-old Italian physicist Cristina Roccati received her PhD from the University of Bologna.[46]
  • 1755: Sculptor Jean-Jacques Caffieri makes a medallion of physicist Maria Angela Ardinghelli to be hung in French Academy of Sciences. The academy did not accept female members at the time. Ardinghelli worked as the main correspondent and translator between Paris and Naples in terms of physics discussions.[47]
  • 1776: At the University of Bologna, Italian physicist Laura Bassi became the first woman appointed as chair of physics at a university.[42]

19th century

  • 1816: French mathematician and physicist Sophie Germain became the first women to win a prize from the Paris Academy of Sciences for her work on elasticity theory.[48]
  • 1828: Caroline Herschel, sister of William Herschel, becomes the first woman to publish in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society and is awarded the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society.[49]
  • 1835: Caroline Herschel and Mary Somerville became the first female Honorary Members of the Royal Astronomical Society.[50]
  • 1856: Amateur scientist Eunice Newton Foote provides the first demonstration of the warming effect of the sun is greater for air with water vapour than for dry air, and the effect is even greater with carbon dioxide (greenhouse effect).[51]
  • 1891: Agnes Pockels, gets help from Rayleigh to publish her first paper on nature of surface tension. There she first introduces the concept of the Pockels point and pioneers the field of surface science.[52]
  • 1895: Margaret Eliza Maltby becomes the first woman to earn a doctorate in the University of Göttingen.
  • 1896: Elizabeth Stephansen becomes the first woman to complete the physics program of Zurich Polytechnic.[53]
  • 1897: American physicist Isabelle Stone became the first woman to receive a PhD in physics in the United States. She wrote her dissertation "On the Electrical Resistance of Thin Films" at the University of Chicago.[54][55]
  • 1898: Danish physicist Kirstine Meyer was awarded the gold medal of the Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters.[56]
  • 1888: The Kovalevskaya top, one of a brief list of known examples of integrable rigid body motion, was discovered by Sofia Kovalevskaya.[57][58]
  • 1899: Irish physicist Edith Anne Stoney was appointed a physics lecturer at the London School of Medicine for Women, becoming the first woman medical physicist. She later became a pioneering figure in the use of x-ray machines on the front lines of World War I.[59]
  • 1899: American physicists Marcia Keith and Isabelle Stone became charter members of the American Physical Society.[60][55]

20th century

1900s

Lise Meitner known for the discovery of nuclear fission
  • 1903: Marie Curie was the first woman to receive a Nobel Prize; she received the Nobel Prize in Physics along with her husband, Pierre Curie "for their joint researches on the radiation phenomena discovered by Professor Henri Becquerel", and Henri Becquerel, "for his discovery of spontaneous radioactivity".[61][62][63][64]
  • 1900: Physicists Marie Curie and Isabelle Stone attended the first International Congress of Physics in Paris, France. They were the only two women out of 836 participants.[55]
  • 1906: English physicist, mathematician and engineer Hertha Ayrton became the first female recipient of the Hughes Medal from the Royal Society of London. She received the award for her experimental research on electric arcs and sand ripples.[65] The first woman to be nominated for the Royal Society and to give a lecture to the Society.[66]
  • 1907: Ayrton joins the Suffragettes and the Women's Social and Political Union (WSPU).[66]
  • 1909: Danish physicist Kristine Meyer became the first Danish woman to receive a doctorate degree in natural sciences. She wrote her dissertation on the topic of "the development of the temperature concept" within the history of physics.[56]

1910s

  • 1911: Marie Curie became the first woman to receive the Nobel Prize in Chemistry, which she received "[for] the discovery of the elements radium and polonium, by the isolation of radium and the study of the nature and compounds of this remarkable element".[67][68][69] This made her the only woman to win two Nobel Prizes.[8][70]
  • 1912: Astronomer Henrietta Swan Leavitt studied the bright-dim cycle periods of Cepheid stars, then found a way to calculate the distance from such stars to Earth.[71]
  • 1918: Emmy Noether created Noether's theorem explaining the connection between symmetry and conservation laws.[72]
  • 1919: Hendrika Johanna van Leeuwen proves the Bohr–Van Leeuwen theorem in her thesis[73][74] explaining why magnetism is an essentially quantum mechanical effect.[75]

1920s

Harvard Computers famous team of women paid to handle astronomical data. This group included Annie Jump Cannon, who introduced the modern procedure for stellar classification, and Henrietta Swan Leavitt, who introduced the period-luminosity relation to calculate the distance of stars.

1930s

1940s

Chien-Shiung Wu known for the Wu experiment that established the non conservation of parity symmetry in particle physics.

1950s

1960s

  • 1962: French physicist Marguerite Perey became the first female Fellow elected to the Académie des Sciences.[109]
  • 1963: Maria Goeppert Mayer became the first American woman to receive a Nobel Prize in Physics; she shared the prize with J. Hans D. Jensen "for their discoveries concerning nuclear shell structure” and Eugene Paul Wigner "for his contributions to the theory of the atomic nucleus and the elementary particles, particularly through the discovery and application of fundamental symmetry principles".[110][111][112]
  • 1963: Experiments by Myriam Sarachik provided the first data that confirmed the Kondo effect.[113]
  • 1964: Chien-Shiung Wu spoke at MIT about gender discrimination.[114]
  • 1967: Astrophysicist Jocelyn Bell Burnell co-discovered the first radio pulsars.[115][116]:minute 8:59
  • 1970: Astronomer Vera Rubin published the first evidence for dark matter.[117]
  • 1970: Madeleine Veyssié (fr), coins the term soft matter.[118]

1970s

Jocelyn Bell Burnell known for the discovery of radio pulsars

1980s

1990s

21st century

2000s

2010s

Deborah S. Jin known for creating the first fermionic condensate
  • 2011: Taiwanese-American astrophysicist Chung-Pei Ma led a team of scientists in discovering two of the largest black holes ever observed.[142]
  • 2012: Mildred Dresselhaus becomes the first female laureate of the Kavli Prize in Nanosciences "for her pioneering contributions to the study of phonons, electron-phonon interactions, and thermal transport in nanostructures".[143]
  • 2013: Nashwa Eassa founded the NGO Sudanese Women in Sciences.
  • 2014: American theoretical physicist Shirley Anne Jackson was awarded the National Medal of Science. Jackson had been the first African-American woman to receive a PhD from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) during the early 1970s, and the first woman to chair the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission.[144][145]
  • 2014: Amanda Barnard becomes the first woman to win the Feynman Prize in Nanotechnology for her computational simulations on diamond nanoparticles.[146]
  • 2016: Fabiola Gianotti became the first woman Director-General of CERN (European Organization for Nuclear Research)[147]
  • 2018:
    • Astrophysicists Hiranya Peiris and Joanna Dunkley and Italian cosmologist Licia Verde were among 27 scientists awarded the Breakthrough Prize in Fundamental Physics for their contributions to "detailed maps of the early universe that greatly improved our knowledge of the evolution of the cosmos and the fluctuations that seeded the formation of galaxies".[148]
    • Astrophysicist Jocelyn Bell Burnell received the special Breakthrough Prize in Fundamental Physics for her scientific achievements and “inspiring leadership”, worth $3 million. She donated the entirety of the prize money towards the creation of scholarships to assist women, underrepresented minorities and refugees who are pursuing the study of physics.[149]
    • Physicist Donna Strickland received the Nobel Prize in Physics "for groundbreaking inventions in the field of laser physics"; she shared it with Arthur Ashkin and Gérard Mourou.[150][151]
    • For the first time in history, women received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry and the Nobel Prize in Physics in the same year.[152]
    • Human right activist and physicist Narges Mohammadi wins the Andrei Sakharov prize by the American Physical Society, "for her leadership in campaigning for peace, justice, and the abolition of the death penalty and for her unwavering efforts to promote the human rights and freedoms of the Iranian people, despite persecution that has forced her to suspend her scientific pursuits and endure lengthy incarceration."[153]
    • Ewine van Dishoeck becomes the first female laureate of the Kavli Prize in Astrophysics for "for her combined contributions to observational, theoretical, and laboratory astrochemistry, elucidating the life cycle of interstellar clouds and the formation of stars and planets"[154][155]
  • 2019: Mathematician Karen Uhlenbeck became the first woman to win the Abel Prize for "her pioneering achievements in geometric partial differential equations, gauge theory, and integrable systems, and for the fundamental impact of her work on analysis, geometry and mathematical physics."[156]
  • 2020:
    • Andrea M. Ghez received the Nobel Prize in Physics "for the discovery of a supermassive compact object at the centre of our galaxy." She shared half of the prize with Reinhard Genzel, while the other half was awarded to Roger Penrose.[157]
    • Geoscientist Ingeborg Levin was the first woman to receive the Alfred Wegener medal from the European Geosciences Union "for fundamental contributions to our present knowledge and understanding of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, including the global carbon cycle."[158]
    • Françoise Combes becomes the first female astrophysicist to win the CNRS Gold Medal, highest degree in research by the French government.[159]

2020s

  • 2022: Anne L’Huillier becomes the second female scientist to receive the Wolf Prize in Physics “for pioneering contributions to ultrafast laser science and attosecond physics”.[160]
  • 2022: Astronomer Ewine van Dishoeck is awarded the UNESCO Niels Bohr Medal.[161]
  • 2023: Professor Polina Bayvel becomes the first woman to win the Rumford Medal by the Royal Society.[162]
  • 2023: Anne l'Huillier receives the 2023 Nobel Prize in Physics for "for experimental methods that generate attosecond pulses of light for the study of electron dynamics in matter" shared with Pierre Agostini and Ferenc Krausz.

See also

  • Timeline of women in science
  • Timeline of women in science in the United States
  • Women in NASA
  • Women in science
  • Women in the workforce

References

  1. ↑ Tesh, Sarah; Wade, Jess (2017). "Look happy dear, you've just made a discovery". Physics World 30 (9): 31–33. doi:10.1088/2058-7058/30/9/35. ISSN 0953-8585. Bibcode: 2017PhyW...30i..31T.  closed access
  2. ↑ "Nobel Prize awarded women" (in en-US). https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/lists/nobel-prize-awarded-women. 
  3. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physics 1903" (in en-US). https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/1903/summary/. 
  4. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physics 1963" (in en-US). https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/1963/summary/. 
  5. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physics 2018" (in en-US). https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/2018/summary/. 
  6. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physics 2020" (in en-US). https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/2020/summary/. 
  7. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physics 2023" (in en-US). https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/2023/press-release/. 
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1911" (in en-US). https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/chemistry/1911/marie-curie/facts/. 
  9. ↑ "Nomination Archive – Marie Curie" (in en-US). April 2020. https://www.nobelprize.org/nomination/archive/show_people.php?id=2051. 
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 "Nomination Archive – Irène Joliot-Curie" (in en-US). April 2020. https://www.nobelprize.org/nomination/archive/show_people.php?id=4615. 
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 "Nomination Archive – Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin" (in en-US). April 2020. https://www.nobelprize.org/nomination/archive/show_people.php?id=10685. 
  12. ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1977" (in en-US). https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medicine/1977/yalow/facts/. 
  13. ↑ Fassihi, Farnaz (2023-06-02). "She Lost Her Career, Family and Freedom. She’s Still Fighting to Change Iran." (in en-US). The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. https://www.nytimes.com/2023/06/02/world/middleeast/narges-mohammadi-iran-political-prisoner.html. 
  14. ↑ "Nomination Archive – Lise Meitner" (in en-US). April 2020. https://www.nobelprize.org/nomination/archive/show_people.php?id=6097. 
  15. ↑ "Nomination Archive – Chien-Shiung Wu" (in en-US). April 2020. https://www.nobelprize.org/nomination/archive/show_people.php?id=10859. 
  16. ↑ "Nomination Archive – Marietta Blau" (in en-US). April 2020. https://www.nobelprize.org/nomination/archive/show_people.php?id=1070. 
  17. ↑ "Nomination Archive – Hertha Wambacher" (in en-US). April 2020. https://www.nobelprize.org/nomination/archive/show_people.php?id=9970. 
  18. ↑ "Nomination Archive – Margaret Burbridge" (in en-US). April 2020. https://www.nobelprize.org/nomination/archive/show_people.php?id=13326. 
  19. ↑ "Nomination Archive - Janine Connes" (in en-US). April 2020. https://www.nobelprize.org/nomination/archive/show_people.php?id=15500. 
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 "Physics Nobel nominees, 1901–70" (in en). Physics Today 2022 (4): 0929a. 2022. doi:10.1063/PT.6.4.20220929a. https://pubs.aip.org/physicstoday/online/5407. 
  21. ↑ "Nomination Archive – Ida Noddack" (in en-US). April 2020. https://www.nobelprize.org/nomination/archive/show_people.php?id=6731. 
  22. ↑ "Nomination Archive – Marguerite Perey" (in en-US). April 2020. https://www.nobelprize.org/nomination/archive/show_people.php?id=7110. 
  23. ↑ "Nomination Archive – Alberte Pullman" (in en-US). April 2020. https://www.nobelprize.org/nomination/archive/show_people.php?id=13060. 
  24. ↑ "Nomination Archive – Erika Cremer". April 2020. https://www.nobelprize.org/nomination/archive/show_people.php?id=14655. 
  25. ↑ Mehlin, Hans (2020-04-01). "Nomination%20archive" (in en-US). https://www.nobelprize.org/nomination/archive/search.php?prize=1&startyear=1901&endyear=1971&cname=&ccity=&cuniversity=&ccountry=0&cgender=A&nname=&ncity=&nuniversity=&ncountry=0&ngender=F. 
  26. ↑ "The Scientific Business of Thomson Reuters Predicts Nobel Laureates" (Press release). Retrieved 2023-10-05 – via PR Newswire APAC.
  27. ↑ "Thomson Reuters Predicts 2012 Nobel Laureates" (Press release). Thomson Reuters. Retrieved 2023-10-05 – via PR Newswire.
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  29. ↑ Citation Laureates - Physics - 2018
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  31. ↑ "Chien-Shiung Wu" (in en-US). 2018-12-09. https://wolffund.org.il/2018/12/09/chien-shiung-wu/. 
  32. ↑ Laureates 2022
  33. ↑ "Breakthrough Prize – Laureates". https://breakthroughprize.org/Laureates/1. 
  34. ↑ "Jocelyn Bell Burnell". Breakthrough Prize in Fundamental Physics. https://breakthroughprize.org/Laureates/1/L3830. 
  35. ↑ Ogilvie, Marilyn Bailey (1986). Women in Science. The MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-15031-6. https://archive.org/details/womeninscience00mari. 
  36. ↑ Schmitz, Leonhard (1867), "Aganice", in Smith, William, Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, 1, Boston, p. 59, http://www.ancientlibrary.com/smith-bio/0068.html, retrieved 2018-08-27 
  37. ↑ "Hypatia" (in en). Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Hypatia. Retrieved 2018-08-29. 
  38. ↑ "Sophia Brahe | The Schools' Observatory". https://www.schoolsobservatory.org/learn/history/biographies/brahe. 
  39. ↑ Ogilvie, Marilyn; Harvey, Joy (2003-12-16) (in en). The Biographical Dictionary of Women in Science: Pioneering Lives From Ancient Times to the Mid-20th Century. Routledge. p. 1142. ISBN 9781135963439. https://books.google.com/books?id=rUCUAgAAQBAJ&q=Marguerite+de+la+Sabli%C3%A8re&pg=PT440. 
  40. ↑ Olsen, Kirstin (1994) (in en). Chronology of Women's History. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 81. ISBN 9780313288036. https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780313288036. "Jeanne Dumée 1680." 
  41. ↑ Ley, Willy (1969) (in en). Watchers of the Skies. https://books.google.com/books?id=Xs7p6GNWFF8C&q=Maria+Clara+Eimmart+1693. 
  42. ↑ 42.0 42.1 "Laura Bassi | Italian scientist" (in en). Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Laura-Bassi. Retrieved 2018-08-31. 
  43. ↑ Yanes, Javier (7 March 2016). "Women Pioneers of Science". OpenMind. https://www.bbvaopenmind.com/en/women-pioneers-of-science/. 
  44. ↑ Detlefsen, Karen (2017), Zalta, Edward N., ed., Émilie du Châtelet (Winter 2017 ed.), Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University, https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2017/entries/emilie-du-chatelet/, retrieved 2018-09-01 
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  46. ↑ Clark, William; Golinski, Jan; Schaffer, Simon (1999) (in en). The Sciences in Enlightened Europe. University of Chicago Press. pp. 313–349. ISBN 9780226109404. https://books.google.com/books?id=ttGgd6mec1MC&q=Cristina+Roccati&pg=PA320. 
  47. ↑ Bertucci, Paola (2013). "The In/visible Woman: Mariangela Ardinghelli and the Circulation of Knowledge between Paris and Naples in the Eighteenth Century". Isis 104 (2): 226–249. doi:10.1086/670946. ISSN 0021-1753. https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/670946. 
  48. ↑ Swift, Amanda (July 2001). "Sophie Germain". Agnes Scott College. https://www.agnesscott.edu/lriddle/women/germain.htm. 
  49. ↑ Holmes, Richard (2009). The Age of Wonder: The Romantic Generation and the Discovery of the Beauty and Terror of Science. Knopf Doubleday Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4000-3187-0. 
  50. ↑  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed (1911). "Herschel, Caroline Lucretia". Encyclopædia Britannica. 13 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 391. 
  51. ↑ Huddleston, Amara (July 17, 2019). "Happy 200th birthday to Eunice Foote, hidden climate science pioneer". https://www.climate.gov/news-features/features/happy-200th-birthday-eunice-foote-hidden-climate-science-pioneer. 
  52. ↑ Derrick, M. Elizabeth (1982). "Agnes Pockels, 1862-1935" (in en). Journal of Chemical Education 59 (12): 1030. doi:10.1021/ed059p1030. ISSN 0021-9584. https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/ed059p1030. 
  53. ↑ "Mileva Einstein-Marić" (in en). https://www.fembio.org/english/biography.php/woman/biography/mileva-maric-einstein/. 
  54. ↑ Ogilvie, Marilyn Bailey; Harvey, Joy Dorothy (2000) (in en). The Biographical Dictionary of Women in Science: L-Z. Taylor & Francis. p. 1241. ISBN 9780415920407. https://books.google.com/books?id=LTSYePZvSXYC&q=isabelle+stone+physics&pg=PA1241. 
  55. ↑ 55.0 55.1 55.2 Staley, Richard (2008) (in en). Einstein's Generation: The Origins of the Relativity Revolution. University of Chicago Press. p. 168. ISBN 9780226770574. https://books.google.com/books?id=6J5_iXvkD6EC&q=isabelle+stone+physics&pg=PA168. 
  56. ↑ 56.0 56.1 Aaserud, Finn, ed (2013-10-22) (in en). Niels Bohr: Collected Works. 12. Elsevier. p. 122. ISBN 9780080466873. https://books.google.com/books?id=dpb1GaDPoq0C&q=%22Kirstine+Meyer%22+%22Gold+Medal%22&pg=PA122. 
  57. ↑ S. Kovalevskaya, Sur Le Probleme De La Rotation D'Un Corps Solide Autour D'Un Point Fixe, Acta Mathematica 12 (1889) 177–232.
  58. ↑ E. T. Whittaker, A Treatise on the Analytical Dynamics of Particles and Rigid Bodies, Cambridge University Press (1952).
  59. ↑ Duck, Francis (December 2013). "Edith Stoney MA, the first woman medical physicist". SCOPE 22 (4): 49–54. https://www.ipem.ac.uk/Portals/0/Documents/Publications/SCOPE/SCOPE_DEC2013_LR.pdf. 
  60. ↑ Ogilvie, Marilyn Bailey (1986) (in en). Women in Science: Antiquity Through the Nineteenth Century : a Biographical Dictionary with Annotated Bibliography. MIT Press. pp. 107–108. ISBN 9780262650380. https://archive.org/details/womeninscience00mari. "Marcia Keith physicist." 
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  62. ↑ "Nobel Prize in Physics 1903". Nobel Foundation. http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1903/. 
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  121. ↑ Jordan, Diann (2006) (in en). Sisters in Science: Conversations with Black Women Scientists about Race, Gender, and Their Passion for Science. Purdue University Press. pp. 61–72. ISBN 9781557534453. https://books.google.com/books?id=_7WSzRAU_rUC&q=Anna+Coble+biophysicist&pg=PA61. 
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  140. ↑ "Faces and places" (in en). CERN Courier 47. 2007-03-01. https://cds.cern.ch/record/1734040. 
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  144. ↑ "Shirley Anne Jackson - National Medal of Science, Physical Sciences, 2014". https://www.nationalmedals.org/laureates/shirley-ann-jackson. 
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  162. ↑ UCL (2023-08-30). "Professor Polina Bayvel honoured with Royal Society medal" (in en). https://www.ucl.ac.uk/iccs/news/2023/aug/professor-polina-bayvel-honoured-royal-society-medal. 



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