Biography:Maria Goeppert Mayer

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Maria Goeppert-Mayer
Goeppert Mayer in 1963
Born
Maria Göppert

(1906-06-28)June 28, 1906
Kattowitz, Silesia, Kingdom of Prussia, German Empire
DiedFebruary 20, 1972(1972-02-20) (aged 65)
San Diego, California, US
Resting placeEl Camino Memorial Park, San Diego
Alma materUniversity of Göttingen (Dr. phil.)
Known for
Spouse(s)
Joseph Edward Mayer (m. 1930)
Children2
AwardsNobel Prize in Physics (1963)
Scientific career
Fields
Institutions
ThesisÜber Elementarakte mit zwei Quantensprüngen (1931)
Doctoral advisorMax Born
Notable students
Signature

Maria Goeppert-Mayer (de; née Göppert; June 28, 1906 – February 20, 1972) was a German–American theoretical physicist whose work on the structure of the atomic nucleus led to the development of the nuclear shell model. For this discovery she shared the 1963 Nobel Prize in Physics with J. Hans D. Jensen, while the other half of the prize was awarded to Eugene Wigner. She was the second woman to receive the Nobel Prize in Physics, after Marie Curie in 1903.

Goeppert-Mayer was educated at the University of Göttingen, where she completed a doctoral thesis in 1931 on the theory of two-photon absorption in atoms. Although experimental confirmation was not possible at the time, later advances in laser technology verified the effect, and the unit used to measure two-photon absorption cross sections was later named the Goeppert-Mayer (GM) unit in recognition of her work.

After marrying the American chemist Joseph Edward Mayer in 1930, she moved to the United States, where university nepotism rules often prevented her from holding paid academic appointments. Despite these barriers she continued publishing influential theoretical research. During World War II she contributed to the Manhattan Project, working at Columbia University on isotope separation and later at the Los Alamos Laboratory on theoretical problems related to thermonuclear weapon development.

Following the war, Goeppert-Mayer worked at the University of Chicago and Argonne National Laboratory, where she developed the theoretical explanation for the stability of certain atomic nuclei. Her work led to the formulation of the nuclear shell model, one of the central theories of modern nuclear physics. In 1960 she became professor of physics at the University of California, San Diego. She died in San Diego in 1972. The Maria Goeppert Mayer Award for early-career women physicists was established by the American Physical Society in 1986.

Early life and education

Maria Goeppert-Mayer was born Maria Göppert on June 28, 1906, in Kattowitz (now Katowice, Poland), then located in the Kingdom of Prussia, the only child of paediatrician Friedrich Göppert and Maria Wolff.[2] In 1910, she moved with her family to Göttingen, where her father,[3] a sixth-generation university professor,[4] was appointed Professor of Pediatrics at the University of Göttingen.[2]

She was closer to her father than to her mother; "Well, my father was more interesting", she later explained; "He was after all a scientist".[5]

Goeppert-Mayer was educated at the Höhere Technische in Göttingen, a school for middle-class girls who aspired to higher education.[6] In 1921, she entered the Frauenstudium, a private high school run by suffragettes that aimed to prepare girls for university. She took the abitur, the university entrance examination, at age 17, a year early, with three or four girls from her school and thirty boys. All the girls passed, but only one of the boys did.[7]

In the spring of 1924, Goeppert-Mayer entered the University of Göttingen, where she studied mathematics.[8] She spent one year at the University of Cambridge in England, before returning to Göttingen. A purported shortage of women mathematics teachers for schools for girls led to an upsurge of women studying mathematics at a time of high unemployment, and there was even a female professor of mathematics at Göttingen, Emmy Noether, but most were only interested in qualifying for their teaching certificates.[9]

Goeppert-Mayer became interested in physics, and chose to pursue a Ph.D. instead. In her 1931 thesis,[10][11] she worked out the theory of possible two-photon absorption by atoms.[8] Eugene Wigner later described the thesis as "a masterpiece of clarity and concreteness".[12] At the time, the chances of experimentally verifying her thesis seemed remote, but the development of the laser permitted the first experimental verification in 1961, when two-photon-excited fluorescence was detected in a europium-doped crystal.[13] To honor her fundamental contribution to this area, the unit for the two-photon absorption cross-section is named the "GM". One GM is 10−50 cm4 s photon−1.[14] Her examiners were three Nobel Prize winners: Max Born, James Franck, and Adolf Otto Reinhold Windaus (in 1954, 1925, and 1928, respectively).[15]

Marriage and barriers to academic employment

On January 19, 1930, she married Joseph Edward Mayer, an American Rockefeller fellow who was one of James Franck's assistants.[16][17] The two had met when Mayer had boarded with the Göppert family.[18] The couple moved to Mayer's home country of the United States, where he had been offered a position as Associate Professor of Chemistry at Johns Hopkins University in Maryland.[19] They had two children; Maria Ann, who later married Donat Wentzel, and Peter Conrad.[16]

Strict rules against nepotism prevented Johns Hopkins University from hiring Goeppert-Mayer as a faculty member.[20] These rules, created at many universities to prevent patronage, had by this time lost their original purpose and were primarily used to prevent the employment of women married to faculty members.[21] She was given a job as an assistant in the physics department working with German correspondence, for which she received a very small salary, a place to work and access to the facilities. She taught some courses,[16][22] and published an important paper on double beta decay in 1935.[23]

Early research career

Some [schools] even condescended to give her work, though they refused to pay her, and the topics were typically 'feminine', such as figuring out what causes colors … the University of Chicago finally took her seriously enough to make her a professor of physics. Although she got her own office, the department still didn't pay her … When the Swedish academy announced in 1963 that she had won her profession's highest honor, the San Diego newspaper greeted her big day with the headline "S.D. Mother Wins Nobel Prize".[24][25]

There was little interest in quantum mechanics at Johns Hopkins, but Goeppert-Mayer worked with Karl Herzfeld in this area. They collaborated on a number of papers, including a paper with Herzfeld's student A. L. Sklar on the spectrum of benzene.[26][27] She also returned to Göttingen in the summers of 1931, 1932 and 1933 to work with her former examiner Born, writing an article with him for the Handbuch der Physik. This ended when the Nazi Party came to power in 1933, and many academics, including Born and Franck, lost their jobs. Concerned by the 1933 anti-Jewish laws that ousted professors of Jewish descent, Goeppert-Mayer as well as Herzfeld became involved in refugee relief efforts.[16][22]

Joe Mayer was fired in 1937. He attributed this to the hatred of women on the part of the dean of physical sciences, which he thought was provoked by Goeppert-Mayer's presence in the laboratory.[28] Herzfeld agreed and added that, with Goeppert-Mayer, Franck and Herzfeld all at Johns Hopkins, some thought that there were too many German scientists there. There were also complaints from some students that Mayer's chemistry lectures contained too much modern physics.[29] Mayer took up a position at Columbia University, where the chairman of the physics department, George B. Pegram, arranged for her to have an office, but she received no salary. She soon made good friends with Harold Urey and Enrico Fermi, who arrived at Columbia in 1939,[30] with the three of them and their families living in nearby Leonia, New Jersey.[31] Fermi asked her to investigate the valence shell of the undiscovered transuranic elements. Using the Thomas–Fermi model, she predicted that they would form a new series similar to the rare earth elements. This proved to be correct.[30] In 1941, she was elected a Fellow of the American Physical Society.[32]

Nuclear physics and wartime research

When the United States entered World War II in December 1941, Goeppert-Mayer had already established herself as a talented theoretical physicist, though for more than a decade institutional barriers had prevented her from holding a permanent academic position.[30] Eleven years after completing her doctorate in physics at the University of Göttingen, she finally obtained her first paid academic post. In December 1941, at the age of 35, Goeppert-Mayer began teaching science part-time at Sarah Lawrence College in New York.[33]

Portrait of Goeppert-Mayer

The war quickly reshaped scientific research in the United States. In the spring of 1942, several months after beginning her teaching job, Goeppert-Mayer joined research linked to the Manhattan Project through an appointment arranged by the chemist Harold Urey at Columbia University's Substitute Alloy Materials (SAM) Laboratories.[30]

Within the Manhattan Project, Goeppert-Mayer worked among a relatively small community of theoretical physicists studying the behaviour of atomic nuclei and radiation. Among the scientists active in this work were Enrico Fermi, Hans Bethe, Edward Teller, and Harold Urey, along with mathematicians such as John von Neumann.[34]

One of the most urgent problems facing the project was how to separate uranium-235 from ordinary uranium. Only a tiny fraction of natural uranium consists of uranium-235, the isotope capable of sustaining a nuclear chain reaction, and separating it from the far more abundant uranium-238 proved extremely difficult because the two isotopes behave almost identically in chemical reactions.[30]

At Columbia, Goeppert-Mayer studied uranium hexafluoride, a compound that allowed uranium to be handled as a gas, and investigated whether small differences between isotopes might allow them to be separated. She also explored whether light might be used to affect uranium isotopes differently, an idea that could not be implemented with wartime technology but anticipated later laser-based enrichment methods.[35]

Goeppert-Mayer also became involved in research connected to the Opacity Project at Columbia, which examined how radiation moves through extremely hot matter. In this work she helped calculate how radiation is absorbed and transported in matter at very high temperatures.[36]

By early 1945, nearly three years after she had first joined wartime nuclear research, Goeppert-Mayer spent several months at the Los Alamos Laboratory in New Mexico, where much of the Manhattan Project's theoretical work had become concentrated.[36]

That same year her husband, the chemist Joseph Edward Mayer, was deployed to the Pacific theatre of war. While he was overseas, Goeppert-Mayer chose to work at Los Alamos with Edward Teller's theoretical group, contributing to studies of radiation and matter under the extreme conditions produced in nuclear reactions.[36]

The war ended later that year. Her husband returned from military service sooner than expected, and in July 1945 the couple left Los Alamos and returned to New York.[36]

Postwar nuclear physics

In February 1946, Goeppert-Mayer moved to Chicago when her husband, the physical chemist Joseph Edward Mayer, accepted a professorship in the chemistry department and the newly established Institute for Nuclear Studies at the University of Chicago. Goeppert-Mayer herself was appointed a voluntary associate professor of physics. The position carried no salary, reflecting the nepotism policies then common at American universities, which often prevented married couples from holding paid academic appointments in the same department.[37][38]

Chicago brought Goeppert-Mayer into the rapidly expanding field of postwar nuclear physics. The university’s Institute for Nuclear Studies had been created to advance nuclear research following the wartime Manhattan Project.[37][38]

Goeppert-Mayer resumed collaboration with the physicist Edward Teller, with whom she had worked during the war, continuing theoretical studies of the opacity of matter at extremely high temperatures.[39][40] At the same time she began to move more directly into nuclear physics, a field she later recalled approaching with hesitation. When she was offered a research position at the nearby Argonne National Laboratory in 1946, she recalled remarking, "I don't know anything about nuclear physics."[37]

Argonne National Laboratory, founded on 1 July 1946, was established as a major centre for nuclear research. Goeppert-Mayer joined the laboratory as a part-time senior physicist in its theoretical physics division.[37][41] There she began applying her skills in theoretical modelling and mathematical analysis to problems arising from nuclear reactors and atomic structure.

Among her early postwar projects was computational work related to nuclear reactor design. Using the ENIAC computer at the Aberdeen Proving Ground, Goeppert-Mayer helped program calculations to analyse neutron criticality in a liquid metal cooled reactor using the Monte Carlo method.[37] The work represented one of the early applications of electronic computing to reactor physics.

During this same period Goeppert-Mayer also collaborated with the chemist Jacob Bigeleisen on theoretical questions involving isotopes. Their joint work produced what became known as the Bigeleisen–Mayer equation, describing isotope fractionation in chemical reactions and contributing to the theoretical foundations of isotope chemistry.[42][43]

Through her work at Chicago and Argonne, Goeppert-Mayer became increasingly involved in major questions in nuclear physics. By the late 1940s physicists had identified certain numbers of protons and neutrons—later known as magic numbers—that appeared to produce unusually stable atomic nuclei, but no satisfactory theoretical explanation existed.[37][44]

Goeppert-Mayer began investigating this pattern of nuclear stability, work that would soon lead to the development of the nuclear shell model, the research for which she later received the Nobel Prize in Physics.[37][44]

Nuclear shell model

By the late 1940s physicists studying atomic nuclei had identified a puzzling pattern in nuclear stability. Certain nuclei were far more stable than others, particularly those containing 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82, or 126 protons or neutrons. These values became known as magic numbers. Experiments confirmed the pattern, but existing theories could not explain why nuclei with these numbers of particles were especially stable.[37][44]

At the University of Chicago, Goeppert-Mayer began studying this problem closely. She explored the possibility that protons and neutrons inside the atomic nucleus occupy layered energy levels, forming shells similar to those known for electrons in atoms. In this picture, the particles fill these shells in an orderly way, and certain completed shells produce especially stable nuclei.[37]

As she developed the calculations, Goeppert-Mayer realised that earlier models had overlooked an important effect. Protons and neutrons possess an intrinsic property known as spin, and their motion within the nucleus can interact with that spin. This interaction, called spin–orbit coupling, changes the ordering of the nuclear energy levels. When Goeppert-Mayer included this interaction in her calculations, the resulting shell structure produced exactly the sequence of magic numbers that experiments had revealed.[37][44]

An anecdote later recalled by her husband illustrates how quickly the idea developed. During a conversation in her office, the physicist Enrico Fermi asked a question about the possible role of spin–orbit coupling while stepping out briefly to answer a telephone call. When he returned a few minutes later, Goeppert-Mayer had already worked through the implications and was explaining the result in detail. Fermi reportedly suggested that she explain it again the next day, more slowly.[45]

To help explain the concept, Goeppert-Mayer later compared the nucleus to a room full of dancers moving in circles while also spinning around themselves. In a similar way, protons and neutrons fill shells within the nucleus, and certain completed shells produce particularly stable arrangements.[46]

At about the same time, physicists in Germany, Otto Haxel, J. Hans D. Jensen, and Hans Suess were studying the same problem and arrived independently at a similar theoretical explanation. Their paper appeared in print first, although Goeppert-Mayer had submitted her work earlier in 1949, so the discovery is generally regarded as having been made independently.[45][47]

The researchers soon began collaborating, and in 1950 Goeppert-Mayer and Jensen published the book Elementary Theory of Nuclear Shell Structure, which presented the theory in full.[45]

Goeppert-Mayer's work provided the first convincing explanation for the magic numbers and established what became known as the nuclear shell model. The theory became a central framework for understanding the structure of atomic nuclei and helped physicists predict which nuclei would be especially stable. This work later formed the basis of the Nobel Prize in Physics that Goeppert-Mayer shared with Jensen in 1963.[48][49]

Later career

In 1960, Goeppert-Mayer was appointed Full Professor of Physics at the University of California, San Diego. Although she suffered from a stroke shortly after arriving there, she continued to teach and conduct research for a number of years.[50][51]

In 1963, Goeppert-Mayer and Jensen shared one half of the Nobel Prize in Physics "for their discoveries concerning nuclear shell structure".[48][49][52] The other half of that year's Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to Eugene Wigner.

She was the second female Nobel laureate in physics, after Marie Curie,[53] and would be the last for over half a century, until Donna Strickland was awarded the prize in 2018.[25]

Death

Goeppert-Mayer died of a heart attack on February 20, 1972, in San Diego at the age of 65.[54] She is buried at El Camino Memorial Park in San Diego.[55]

Recognition and legacy

Commemorative plaques for Maria Goeppert-Mayer in Katowice, Poland

Scientific honours

  • Elected a Fellow of the American Physical Society (APS) in recognition of her early contributions to theoretical physics. (1941)[32]
  • Elected to the United States National Academy of Sciences (NAS). (1956)[56]
  • Elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. (1960)[56]
  • Elected to the American Philosophical Society. (1963)[57]
  • Received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement. (1965)[58]
  • Awarded honorary Doctor of Science degrees from Mount Holyoke College, Russell Sage College, and Smith College.

Awards and fellowships established in her name

  • The Maria Goeppert-Mayer Award, established by the American Physical Society (APS), honors outstanding early-career women physicists and includes a monetary prize and invited lectures at major research institutions. (1986)[59]
  • Argonne National Laboratory presents an annual award in her honor recognizing an outstanding young woman scientist or engineer.[60]
  • Argonne also established the Maria Goeppert-Mayer Fellowship, a competitive research fellowship supporting early-career scientists and engineers. (1992)

Institutional memorials

  • The University of California, San Diego hosts an annual Maria Goeppert-Mayer symposium bringing together women researchers to discuss current scientific research.[61]
  • Her papers are preserved in Geisel Library at the University of California, San Diego.[62]
  • The UC San Diego physics department building, Mayer Hall, named for Maria Goeppert-Mayer and her husband Joseph Edward Mayer, opened in 1996.[63]
  • The American Physical Society designated Argonne National Laboratory an APS Historic Site in recognition of her work on the nuclear shell model. (2018)[64]

Cultural and scientific commemorations

  • Inducted into the National Women's Hall of Fame. (1996)[65]
  • The International Astronomical Union named Goeppert-Mayer crater on Venus, approximately 35 km in diameter, in her honor.[66]
  • Featured in the American Scientists series of United States postage stamps, alongside Melvin Calvin, Asa Gray, and Severo Ochoa. (2011)[67]

See also

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 "Maria Goeppert-Mayer - Physics Tree". https://academictree.org/physics/peopleinfo.php?pid=143693. 
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Ferry, Joseph (2003). Maria Goeppert Mayer. Philadelphia: Chelsea House Publishers. p. 18. ISBN 978-0-7910-7247-9. 
  3. ↑ Sachs, Robert G. (1979). Maria Goeppert Mayer 1906–1972: A Biographical Memoir. Biographical Memoirs. National Academy of Sciences. p. 311. 
  4. ↑ Dash, Joan (1973). A Life of One's Own: Three Gifted Women and the Men They Married. New York: Harper & Row. p. 236. ISBN 978-0-06-010949-3. 
  5. ↑ Sachs, Robert G. (1979). Maria Goeppert Mayer 1906–1972: A Biographical Memoir. Biographical Memoirs. National Academy of Sciences. p. 312. 
  6. ↑ Ferry, Joseph (2003). Maria Goeppert Mayer. Philadelphia: Chelsea House Publishers. p. 23. ISBN 978-0-7910-7247-9. 
  7. ↑ Dash, Joan (1973). A Life of One's Own: Three Gifted Women and the Men They Married. New York: Harper & Row. pp. 233–234. ISBN 978-0-06-010949-3. 
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 Sachs, Robert G. (1979). Maria Goeppert Mayer 1906–1972: A Biographical Memoir. Biographical Memoirs. National Academy of Sciences. p. 313. 
  9. ↑ Dash, Joan (1973). A Life of One's Own: Three Gifted Women and the Men They Married. New York: Harper & Row. p. 250. ISBN 978-0-06-010949-3. 
  10. ↑ Goeppert-Mayer, M. (1931). "Über Elementarakte mit zwei Quantensprüngen". Annalen der Physik 401 (3): 273–295. doi:10.1002/andp.19314010303. Bibcode: 1931AnP...401..273G. 
  11. ↑ Göppert-Mayer, M. (2009). "Elementary processes with two quantum transitions". Annalen der Physik 18 (7–8): 466–479. doi:10.1002/andp.200910358. Bibcode: 2009AnP...521..466G. 
  12. ↑ Sachs, Robert G. (1979). Maria Goeppert Mayer 1906–1972: A Biographical Memoir. Biographical Memoirs. National Academy of Sciences. p. 314. 
  13. ↑ Kaiser, W.; Garrett, C. G. B. (1961). "Two-photon excitation in CaF2:Eu2+". Physical Review Letters 7 (6): 229–232. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.7.229. Bibcode: 1961PhRvL...7..229K. 
  14. ↑ "Two-Photon Absorption Measurements: Establishing Reference Standards". Australian National University. June 8, 2007. http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA473083. 
  15. ↑ Dash, Joan (1973). A Life of One's Own: Three Gifted Women and the Men They Married. New York: Harper & Row. p. 264. ISBN 978-0-06-010949-3. 
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 16.3 Sachs, Robert G. (1979). Maria Goeppert Mayer 1906–1972: A Biographical Memoir. Biographical Memoirs. National Academy of Sciences. pp. 311–312. https://www.nasonline.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/mayer-maria.pdf. 
  17. ↑ "Maria Goeppert-Mayer". EpiGeneSys. http://www.epigenesys.eu/en/science-and-you/women-in-science/811-maria-goeppert-mayer. 
  18. ↑ Dash, Joan (1973). A Life of One's Own: Three Gifted Women and the Men They Married. New York: Harper & Row. pp. 258–259. ISBN 978-0-06-010949-3. 
  19. ↑ Dash, Joan (1973). A Life of One's Own: Three Gifted Women and the Men They Married. New York: Harper & Row. p. 265. ISBN 978-0-06-010949-3. 
  20. ↑ Wigner, Eugene P. (May 1972). "Maria Goeppert Mayer". Physics Today 25 (5): 77–79. doi:10.1063/1.3070875. Bibcode: 1972PhT....25e..77W. 
  21. ↑ Simon, Rita James; Clark, Shirley Merritt; Tifft, Larry L. (1966). "Of Nepotism, Marriage, and the Pursuit of an Academic Career". Sociology of Education 39 (4): 344–358. doi:10.2307/2111918. 
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 Ferry, Joseph (2003). Maria Goeppert Mayer. Philadelphia: Chelsea House Publishers. pp. 40–45. ISBN 978-0-7910-7247-9. 
  23. ↑ Sachs, Robert G. (1979). Maria Goeppert Mayer 1906–1972: A Biographical Memoir. Biographical Memoirs. National Academy of Sciences. p. 315. 
  24. ↑ Kean, Sam (2010). The Disappearing Spoon and Other True Tales from the Periodic Table of the Elements. New York: Little, Brown and Company. pp. 27–28, 31. ISBN 978-0-552-77750-6. 
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 Hamblin, Abby (October 2, 2018). "Last woman to win Nobel Prize in physics referred to as 'San Diego mother' in news coverage". San Diego Tribune. http://www.sandiegouniontribune.com/opinion/sd-woman-win-nobel-prize-physics-20181002-htmlstory.html. 
  26. ↑ "Research Profile – Maria Goeppert Mayer". Lindau Nobel Laureate Meetings. June 10, 2015. https://www.mediatheque.lindau-nobel.org/research-profile/laureate-goeppert-mayer#page=all. 
  27. ↑ Goeppert-Mayer, M.; Sklar, A. L. (1938). "Calculations of the Lower Excited Levels of Benzene". The Journal of Chemical Physics 6 (10): 645–652. doi:10.1063/1.1750138. ISSN 0021-9606. Bibcode: 1938JChPh...6..645G. 
  28. ↑ Dash, Joan (1973). A Life of One's Own: Three Gifted Women and the Men They Married. New York: Harper & Row. p. 283. ISBN 978-0-06-010949-3. 
  29. ↑ Dash, Joan (1973). A Life of One's Own: Three Gifted Women and the Men They Married. New York: Harper & Row. p. 284. ISBN 978-0-06-010949-3. 
  30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 30.2 30.3 30.4 Sachs, Robert G. (1979). Maria Goeppert Mayer 1906–1972: A Biographical Memoir. Biographical Memoirs. National Academy of Sciences. p. 317. 
  31. ↑ McGrayne, Sharon Bertsch (1998). Nobel Prize Women in Science: Their Lives, Struggles, and Momentous Discoveries (2nd ed.). Washington, DC: Joseph Henry Press. pp. 190–193. 
  32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 "APS Fellow Archive". American Physical Society. https://www.aps.org/programs/honors/fellowships/archive-all.cfm?initial=&year=1941&unit_id=&institution=Columbia+University. 
  33. ↑ "Maria Goeppert Mayer". American Physical Society. https://www.aps.org/archives/publications/apsnews/200903/physicshistory.cfm. 
  34. ↑ Dash, Joan (1973). A Life of One's Own: Three Gifted Women and the Men They Married. Harper & Row. p. 283. 
  35. ↑ Sachs, Robert G. (1979). Maria Goeppert Mayer 1906–1972: A Biographical Memoir. National Academy of Sciences. pp. 317–318. 
  36. ↑ 36.0 36.1 36.2 36.3 Sachs, Robert G. (1979). Maria Goeppert Mayer 1906–1972: A Biographical Memoir. National Academy of Sciences. p. 318. 
  37. ↑ 37.00 37.01 37.02 37.03 37.04 37.05 37.06 37.07 37.08 37.09 Sachs, Robert G. (1979). Maria Goeppert Mayer 1906–1972: A Biographical Memoir. National Academy of Sciences. pp. 319–320. 
  38. ↑ 38.0 38.1 Ferry, Joseph (2003). Maria Goeppert Mayer. Chelsea House Publishers. pp. 60–61. ISBN 978-0-7910-7247-9. 
  39. ↑ Sachs, Robert G. (1979). Maria Goeppert Mayer 1906–1972: A Biographical Memoir. Biographical Memoirs. National Academy of Sciences. p. 318. 
  40. ↑ Ferry, Joseph (2003). Maria Goeppert Mayer. Chelsea House Publishers. pp. 61–62. ISBN 978-0-7910-7247-9. 
  41. ↑ Ferry, Joseph (2003). Maria Goeppert Mayer. Chelsea House Publishers. pp. 62–63. ISBN 978-0-7910-7247-9. 
  42. ↑ Bigeleisen, J.; Mayer, M. G. (1947). "Calculation of Equilibrium Constants for Isotopic Exchange Reactions". The Journal of Chemical Physics 15 (5): 261–267. doi:10.1063/1.1746492. Bibcode: 1947JChPh..15..261B. 
  43. ↑ Ferry, Joseph (2003). Maria Goeppert Mayer. Chelsea House Publishers. pp. 63–64. ISBN 978-0-7910-7247-9. 
  44. ↑ 44.0 44.1 44.2 44.3 Ferry, Joseph (2003). Maria Goeppert Mayer. Chelsea House Publishers. pp. 64–65. ISBN 978-0-7910-7247-9. 
  45. ↑ 45.0 45.1 45.2 Sachs, Robert G. (1979). Maria Goeppert Mayer 1906–1972: A Biographical Memoir. National Academy of Sciences. pp. 320–321. 
  46. ↑ Ferry, Joseph (2003). Maria Goeppert Mayer. Chelsea House Publishers. pp. 66–67. ISBN 978-0-7910-7247-9. 
  47. ↑ Ferry, Joseph (2003). Maria Goeppert Mayer. Chelsea House Publishers. pp. 67–68. ISBN 978-0-7910-7247-9. 
  48. ↑ 48.0 48.1 "Maria Goeppert Mayer – facts". Nobel Prize Outreach. https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1963/mayer-facts.html. 
  49. ↑ 49.0 49.1 "The Nobel Prize in Physics 1963". Nobel Prize Outreach. https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/1963/summary/. 
  50. ↑ Sachs, Robert G. (1979). Maria Goeppert Mayer 1906–1972: A Biographical Memoir. National Academy of Sciences. pp. 322–323. 
  51. ↑ Ferry, Joseph (2003). Maria Goeppert Mayer. Chelsea House Publishers. pp. 84–86. ISBN 978-0-7910-7247-9. 
  52. ↑ "A nuclear physics primer". https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=osflPlZdF_o. 
  53. ↑ Ferry, Joseph (2003). Maria Goeppert Mayer. Chelsea House Publishers. p. 87. ISBN 978-0-7910-7247-9. 
  54. ↑ Leiter, Darryl J.; Ward, Paul; Leiter, Sharon (2003). A to Z of Physicists. New York: Facts On File. p. 132. ISBN 978-0-8160-4798-7. 
  55. ↑ Wilson, Scott (2016). Resting Places: The Burial Sites of More Than 14,000 Famous Persons (3rd ed.). Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Company. p. 491. ISBN 978-0-7864-7992-4. 
  56. ↑ 56.0 56.1 "Maria Goeppert Mayer". http://www.nasonline.org/member-directory/deceased-members/20000765.html. 
  57. ↑ "APS Member History". https://search.amphilsoc.org/memhist/search?creator=Maria+Goeppert+Mayer&title=&subject=&subdiv=&mem=&year=&year-max=&dead=&keyword=&smode=advanced. 
  58. ↑ "Golden Plate Awardees of the American Academy of Achievement". American Academy of Achievement. https://achievement.org/our-history/golden-plate-awards/#science-exploration. 
  59. ↑ "Maria Goeppert Mayer Award". American Physical Society. http://www.aps.org/programs/honors/awards/goeppert-mayer.cfm. 
  60. ↑ "Maria Goeppert Mayer is role model for women scientists". Argonne National Laboratory. http://www.ne.anl.gov/About/hn/news961213.shtml. 
  61. ↑ "A Tradition Flowers: The Maria Goeppert Mayer Interdisciplinary Symposium at SDSC". San Diego Supercomputer Center. http://www.sdsc.edu/pub/envision/v17.2/flowers.html. 
  62. ↑ "Register of Maria Goeppert Mayer Papers". University of California, San Diego. http://libraries.ucsd.edu/speccoll/testing/html/mss0020a.html. 
  63. ↑ "Mayer Hall". University of California, San Diego. 7 January 2016. https://facilities.ucsd.edu/NA/NamedBuildings/Building.htm?Bkey=348. 
  64. ↑ "Argonne National Laboratory Named APS Historic Site". American Physical Society. https://www.aps.org/publications/apsnews/201812/argonne.cfm. 
  65. ↑ "Maria Goeppert Mayer". National Women's Hall of Fame. https://www.womenofthehall.org/inductee/maria-goeppertmayer/. 
  66. ↑ "Space Images: Venus – Stereo Image Pair of Crater Goeppert Mayer". Jet Propulsion Laboratory. http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/spaceimages/details.php?id=PIA00269. 
  67. ↑ "American Scientists". United States Postal Service. http://www.uspsstamps.com/stamps/american-scientists. 


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