Biology:Growth differentiation factor
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Growth differentiation factors (GDFs) are a subfamily of proteins belonging to the transforming growth factor beta superfamily that have functions predominantly in development.[1]
Types
Several members of this subfamily have been described, and named GDF1 through GDF15.
- GDF1 is expressed chiefly in the nervous system and functions in left-right patterning and mesoderm induction during embryonic development.[2]
- GDF2 (also known as BMP9) induces and maintains the response embryonic basal forebrain cholinergic neurons (BFCN) have to a neurotransmitter called acetylcholine, and regulates iron metabolism by increasing levels of a protein called hepcidin.[3][4]
- GDF3 is also known as "Vg-related gene 2" (Vgr-2). Expression of GDF3 occurs in ossifying bone during embryonic development and in the thymus, spleen, bone marrow brain, and adipose tissue of adults. It has a dual nature of function; it both inhibits and induces early stages of development in embryos.[5][6][7]
- GDF5 is expressed in the developing central nervous system, with roles in the development of joints and the skeleton, and increasing the survival of neurones that respond to a neurotransmitter called dopamine.[8][9][10]
- GDF6 interacts with bone morphogenetic proteins to regulate ectoderm patterning, and controls eye development.[11][12][13]
- GDF8 is now officially known as myostatin and controls the growth of muscle tissue.[14]
- GDF9, like GDF3, lacks one cysteine relative to other members of the TGF-β superfamily. Its gene expression is limited to the ovaries, and it has a role in ovulation.[15][16]
- GDF10 is closely related to BMP3 and has a roles in head formation and, it is presumed, in skeletal morphogenesis.[17][18] It is also known as BMP-3b.
- GDF11 controls anterior-posterior patterning by regulating the expression of Hox genes,[19] and regulates the number of olfactory receptor neurons occurring in the olfactory epithelium,[20] and numbers of retinal ganglionic cells developing in the retina.[21]
- GDF15 (also known as TGF-PL, MIC-1, PDF, PLAB, and PTGFB) has a role in regulating inflammatory and apoptotic pathways during tissue injury and certain disease processes.[22][23][24]
References
- ↑ "Transforming growth factor-beta-related proteins: an ancestral and widespread superfamily of cytokines in metazoans". Dev Comp Immunol 28 (5): 461–85. 2004. doi:10.1016/j.dci.2003.09.007. PMID 15062644.
- ↑ "Regulation of left-right patterning in mice by growth/differentiation factor-1". Nat Genet 24 (3): 262–5. 2000. doi:10.1038/73472. PMID 10700179.
- ↑ "Bone morphogenetic protein 9 induces the transcriptome of basal forebrain cholinergic neurons". Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 102 (19): 6984–9. 2005. doi:10.1073/pnas.0502097102. PMID 15870197. Bibcode: 2005PNAS..102.6984L.
- ↑ "Bone morphogenetic proteins 2, 4, and 9 stimulate murine hepcidin 1 expression independently of Hfe, transferrin receptor 2 (Tfr2), and IL-6". Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 103 (27): 10289–93. 2006. doi:10.1073/pnas.0603124103. PMID 16801541. Bibcode: 2006PNAS..10310289T.
- ↑ "GDF3 at the crossroads of TGF-beta signaling". Cell Cycle 5 (10): 1069–73. 2006. doi:10.4161/cc.5.10.2771. PMID 16721050.
- ↑ "GDF3, a BMP inhibitor, regulates cell fate in stem cells and early embryos". Development 133 (2): 209–16. 2006. doi:10.1242/dev.02192. PMID 16339188.
- ↑ "The Vg1-related protein Gdf3 acts in a Nodal signaling pathway in the pre-gastrulation mouse embryo". Development 133 (2): 319–29. 2006. doi:10.1242/dev.02210. PMID 16368929.
- ↑ "Effects of growth/differentiation factor 5 on the survival and morphology of embryonic rat midbrain dopaminergic neurones in vitro". J Neurocytol 33 (5): 479–88. 2004. doi:10.1007/s11068-004-0511-y. PMID 15906156.
- ↑ "Growth/differentiation factor-5 (GDF-5) and skeletal development". J Bone Joint Surg Am 83-A Suppl 1 (Pt 1): S23–30. 2001. PMID 11263662.
- ↑ "BMP/GDF-signalling interactions during synovial joint development". Cell Tissue Res 296 (1): 111–9. 1999. doi:10.1007/s004410051272. PMID 10199971.
- ↑ "Xenopus GDF6, a new antagonist of noggin and a partner of BMPs". Development 126 (15): 3347–57. 1999. doi:10.1242/dev.126.15.3347. PMID 10393114.
- ↑ "GDF6, a novel locus for a spectrum of ocular developmental anomalies". American Journal of Human Genetics 80 (2): 306–15. 2007. doi:10.1086/511280. PMID 17236135.
- ↑ "Eye and neural defects associated with loss of GDF6". BMC Dev Biol 6: 43. 2006. doi:10.1186/1471-213X-6-43. PMID 17010201.
- ↑ "Regulation of skeletal muscle mass in mice by a new TGF-beta superfamily member". Nature 387 (6628): 83–90. May 1997. doi:10.1038/387083a0. PMID 9139826.
- ↑ "Physiology of GDF9 and BMP15 signalling molecules". Anim Reprod Sci 82-83: 447–60. 2004. doi:10.1016/j.anireprosci.2004.04.021. PMID 15271472.
- ↑ "Growth differentiation factor-9 promotes the growth, development, and survival of human ovarian follicles in organ culture". J Clin Endocrinol Metab 87 (1): 316–21. 2002. doi:10.1210/jcem.87.1.8185. PMID 11788667.
- ↑ "Bone morphogenetic protein-3 family members and their biological functions". Front Biosci 9 (1–3): 1520–9. 2004. doi:10.2741/1355. PMID 14977563.
- ↑ "Growth/differentiation factor-10: a new member of the transforming growth factor-beta superfamily related to bone morphogenetic protein-3". Growth Factors 12 (2): 99–109. 1995. doi:10.3109/08977199509028956. PMID 8679252.
- ↑ "Growth differentiation factor 11 signals through the transforming growth factor-beta receptor ALK5 to regionalize the anterior-posterior axis". EMBO Reports 7 (8): 831–7. 2006. doi:10.1038/sj.embor.7400752. PMID 16845371.
- ↑ "Autoregulation of neurogenesis by GDF11". Neuron 37 (2): 197–207. 2003. doi:10.1016/S0896-6273(02)01172-8. PMID 12546816. https://escholarship.org/content/qt8zd6r19t/qt8zd6r19t.pdf?t=o5bl3e.
- ↑ "GDF11 controls the timing of progenitor cell competence in developing retina". Science 308 (5730): 1927–30. 2005. doi:10.1126/science.1110175. PMID 15976303. Bibcode: 2005Sci...308.1927K. https://escholarship.org/uc/item/42r9d2rk.
- ↑ "Growth differentiation factor-15/macrophage inhibitory cytokine-1 induction after kidney and lung injury". Shock 23 (6): 543–8. 2005. PMID 15897808.
- ↑ "Characterization of growth-differentiation factor 15, a transforming growth factor beta superfamily member induced following liver injury". Mol Cell Biol 20 (10): 3742–51. 2000. doi:10.1128/MCB.20.10.3742-3751.2000. PMID 10779363.
- ↑ "GDF15, a cardioprotective TGF-beta superfamily protein". Circ Res 98 (3): 294–7. 2006. doi:10.1161/01.RES.0000207919.83894.9d. PMID 16484622.
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