Astronomy:Chandrayaan-3

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Short description: Ongoing Indian lunar lander mission

Chandrayaan-3
Chandrayaan-3 Integrated Module in clean-room 01.webp
Chandrayaan-3 Integrated Module
Mission type
OperatorISRO
COSPAR ID2023-098B
SATCAT no.57320
WebsiteOfficial website
Mission duration11 months and 29 days (elapsed) (PM)
  • Propulsion module: ≤ 3 to 6 months (planned) 11 months and 8 days (elapsed) (since orbit insertion)
  • Vikram lander: ≤ 14 days (planned)
    12 days (final) (since landing)
  • Pragyan rover: ≤ 14 days (planned)
    12 days (final) (since deployment)
Spacecraft properties
BusChandrayaan
ManufacturerISRO
Launch mass3900 kg[1]
Payload massPropulsion Module: 2148 kg
Lander Module (Vikram): 1726 kg
Rover (Pragyan) 26 kg
Total: 3900 kg
PowerPropulsion Module: 758 W
Lander Module: 738 W (WS with Bias)
Rover: 50 W
Start of mission
Launch date14 July 2023 (2023-07-14), 14:35:17 IST (09:05:17 UTC)[2]
RocketLVM3 M4
Launch siteSatish Dhawan Space Centre
ContractorISRO
Moon orbiter
Orbital insertion5 August 2023
Orbital parameters
Periselene altitude153 km (95 mi)
Aposelene altitude163 km (101 mi)
Moon lander
Spacecraft componentVikram lander
Landing date23 August 2023 (2023-08-23), 18:03 IST (12:33 UTC)[3]
Landing siteShiv Shakti point

[ ⚑ ] : 69°22′23″S 32°19′08″E / 69.373°S 32.319°E / -69.373; 32.319[4]


(between Manzinus C and Simpelius N craters)[5]
Moon rover
Landing date23 August 2023
Distance covered101.4 m (333 ft)[6]
Flyby of Moon
Spacecraft componentPropulsion module
Closest approach7 November 2023
Chandrayaan-3 logo.png
Mission insignia  

Chandrayaan-3 (/ˌtʃʌndrəˈjɑːn/ CHUN-drə-YAHN) is the third mission in the Chandrayaan programme, a series of lunar-exploration missions developed by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO).[7] The mission consists of a lunar lander named Vikram and a lunar rover named Pragyan, similar to those launched aboard Chandrayaan-2 in 2019.

Chandrayaan-3 was launched from Satish Dhawan Space Centre on 14 July 2023. The spacecraft entered lunar orbit on 5 August, and the lander touched down near the lunar south pole[8] on 23 August at 18:03 IST (12:33 UTC), making India the fourth country to successfully land on the Moon, and the first to do so near the lunar south pole.[9][note 1] On 3 September the lander hopped and repositioned itself 30–40 cm (12–16 in) from its landing site making the second hop on lunar surface after Surveyor 6.[13][14] After the completion of its mission objectives, it was hoped that the lander and rover would revive for extra tasks, on 22 September 2023, but missed the wake-up call. On September 30, the second lunar night began, eliminating hopes of revival.[15][16] On the other hand, Propulsion module returned to Earth's orbit on 22 November 2023 after exiting lunar orbit via a series of maneuvers starting from 9 October 2023.[17]

History

The lunar south pole region holds particular interest for scientific exploration. Studies show large amounts of ice there. Mountainous terrain and unpredictable lighting protect the ice from melting, but they also make landing scientific probes there a challenging undertaking. The ice could contain solid-state compounds that would normally melt under warmer conditions elsewhere on the Moon—compounds which could provide insight into lunar, Earth, and Solar System history. For future crewed missions and outposts, ice could also be a source of drinking water and of hydrogen for fuel and oxygen.[18][19]

The European Space Tracking network (ESTRACK), operated by the European Space Agency (ESA), and Deep Space Network operated by Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) of NASA are supporting the mission.[20] Under a new cross-support arrangement, ESA tracking support could be provided for upcoming ISRO missions such as those of India's first human spaceflight programme, Gaganyaan, and the Aditya-L1 solar research mission. In return, future ESA missions will receive similar support from ISRO's own tracking stations.[21]

For the first time on the lunar surface, a laser beam from NASA's Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter was broadcast on 12 December 2023, and it was reflected back by a tiny NASA retroreflector on board the Vikram lander. The purpose of the experiment was to determine the retroreflector's surface location from the moon's orbit. The Chandrayaan-3 lander's Laser Retroreflector Array (LRA) instrument began acting as a location marker close to the lunar south pole. Through multinational cooperation, the LRA was housed on the Vikram lander. On a hemispherical support framework, it consists of eight corner-cube retroreflectors. This array enables any orbiting spacecraft equipped with appropriate instruments to use lasers ranging from different directions. The 20 gram passive optical equipment is intended to survive for several decades on the lunar surface.[22]

Objectives

ISRO's mission objectives for the Chandrayaan-3 mission are:

  1. Engineering and implementing a lander to land safely and softly on the surface of the Moon.
  2. Observing and demonstrating the rover's driving capabilities on the Moon.
  3. Conducting and observing experiments on the materials available on the lunar surface to better understand the composition of the Moon.[23]

Spacecraft

Design

Chandrayaan-3 comprises three main components: a propulsion module, lander module, and rover.

  • Chandrayaan-3 encapsulated within LVM3's payload fairing

  • Chandrayaan-3 integrated components

Propulsion module

The propulsion module carried the lander and rover configuration to a 100-kilometre (62 mi) lunar orbit. It was a box-like structure with a large solar panel mounted on one side and a cylindrical mounting structure for the lander (the Intermodular Adapter Cone) on top.[24][25]

A few months after the conclusion of the lander portion of the mission, ISRO officials said that the propulsion module was equipped with two radioisotope heating units (RHU), designed and developed by BARC (Bhabha Atomic Research Centre). RHUs keep spacecraft at their operational temperature using the decay of radioactive material, to generate electricity to power heaters. It is thought[by whom?] that national security reasons delayed the disclosure to the media. Chandrayaan-3 project director P Veeramuthuvel said ISRO may use nuclear resources to maintain instruments in future rovers. ISRO officials later said the RHUs could not be installed on Chandrayaan-3’s Vikram lander and Pragyan rover because it would have increased their mass. This reduced their maximum lifespan to 14 earth days, or 1 lunar day.[26][27][28] On 4 December 2023, ISRO reported that the propulsion module was reinserted into an orbit around the earth.[17] The primary objective of the reinsertion was to allow earth observations by spectral and polarimetric instruments.[29]

  • Propulsion module

Vikram lander

The Vikram lander was responsible for the soft landing on the Moon. It is also box-shaped, with four landing legs and four landing thrusters capable of producing 800 newtons of thrust each. It carried the rover and has various scientific instruments to perform on-site analysis.[30][31] The lander has four variable-thrust engines with slew rate changing capabilities, unlike Chandrayaan-2's lander, which had five, with the fifth one being centrally mounted and capable only of fixed thrust. One of the main reasons for Chandrayaan-2's landing failure was altitude increase during the camera coasting phase. This was removed by allowing the lander to control altitude and thrust during all phases of descent. Altitude correction rate was increased from Chandrayaan-2's 10°/s to 25°/s with Chandrayaan-3. Additionally, the Chandrayaan-3 lander is equipped with a laser Doppler velocimeter (LDV) to allow measuring altitude in three directions.[32][33] The impact legs were made stronger compared to Chandrayaan-2 and instrumentation redundancy was improved. It targeted a more precise 16 km2 (6.2 sq mi) landing region based on images provided by the Orbiter High-Resolution Camera (OHRC) onboard Chandrayaan-2's orbiter. ISRO improved the structural rigidity, increased polling in instruments, increased data frequency and transmission, and added additional multiple contingency systems to improve lander survivability in the event of failure during descent and landing.[34][33]

  • Lander

Rover

The Pragyan rover is a six-wheeled vehicle with a mass of 26 kilograms (57 pounds). It is 917 by 750 by 397 millimetres (36.1 in × 29.5 in × 15.6 in) in size.[35] The rover is expected to take multiple measurements to support research into the composition of the lunar surface, the presence of water ice in the lunar soil, the history of lunar impacts, and the evolution of the Moon's atmosphere.[36][8]

Payloads

On lander

  • Chandra's Surface Thermophysical Experiment (ChaSTE)

  • Instrument for Lunar Seismic Activity (ILSA)

  • Langmuir Probe (RAMBHA-LP)

On rover

  • Alpha Particle X-Ray Spectrometer (APXS)

  • Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscope (LIBS)

On the propulsion module

  • Spectro-polarimetry of Habitable Planet Earth (SHAPE) will study spectral and polarimetric measurements of Earth from the lunar orbit in the near-infrared (NIR) wavelength range (1–1.7 μm).[24][25] Findings of SHAPE might aid in future exoplanet research and search for extraterrestrial life.[38]

  • Spectro-polarimetry of Habitable Planet Earth (SHAPE)

Mission profile

Animation of Chandrayaan-3
Around the Earth – orbit raising phase
Around the Earth
Around the Moon
   Chandrayaan-3's path ·    Earth ·    Moon

Launch

LVM3 M4, Chandrayaan-3 – Launch vehicle lifting off from the second launch pad of SDSC-SHAR, Sriharikota

Chandrayaan-3 was launched aboard an LVM3-M4 rocket on 14 July 2023, at 09:05 UTC from Satish Dhawan Space Centre Second Launch Pad in Sriharikota, Andhra Pradesh, India, entering an Earth parking orbit with a perigee of 170 km (106 mi) and an apogee of 36,500 km (22,680 mi). On 15 November 2023, the Cryogenic Upper Stage (C25) of the rocket (NORAD ID: 57321) made an uncontrolled re-entry into the Earth’s atmosphere around 9:12 UTC. The impact point is predicted over the North Pacific Ocean and the final ground track did not pass over India.[39] [40][41]

Orbit

After a series of Earth bound manoeuvres that placed Chandrayaan-3 in a trans-lunar injection orbit,[42][43][44] ISRO performed a lunar-orbit insertion (LOI) on 5 August, successfully placing the Chandrayaan-3 spacecraft into an orbit around the Moon. The LOI operation was carried out from the ISRO Telemetry, Tracking, and Command Network (ISTRAC) in Bengaluru.[45][46]

On 17 August, the Vikram lander separated from the propulsion module to begin landing operations.[47]

Landing

Image of Chandrayaan-3 Lander as captured by OHRC camera aboard Chandrayaan-2 Orbiter
Chandrayaan-3 Lander on the Moon imaged by rover Pragyan 15 meters away
Pragyan roll out

On 23 August 2023, as the lander approached the low point of its orbit, its four engines fired as a braking manoeuvre at 30 kilometres (19 mi) above the Moon's surface. After 11.5 minutes, the lander was 7.2 km (4.5 miles) above the surface; it maintained this altitude for about 10 seconds, then stabilized itself using eight smaller thrusters and rotated from a horizontal to a vertical position while continuing its descent.

It then used two of its four engines to slow its descent to roughly 150 metres (490 ft); it hovered there for about 30 seconds and located an optimal landing spot before continuing downward and touching down at 12:33 UTC.[30][48]

Stages of Chandrayaan-3 deployment and flight
Stage and sequence Date/
time (UTC) 		LAM burn time Orbit Orbital period References
Earth orbit: Launch 14 July 2023 N/A 170 km × 36,500 km (110 mi × 22,680 mi) N/A
Earth bound maneuvers: 1 15 July 2023 N/A 173 km × 41,762 km (107 mi × 25,950 mi) N/A [49][50]
Earth bound maneuvers: 2 17 July 2023 N/A 226 km × 41,603 km (140 mi × 25,851 mi) N/A [49][51]
Earth bound maneuvers: 3 18 July 2023 N/A 228 km × 51,400 km (142 mi × 31,938 mi) N/A [52]
Earth bound maneuvers: 4 20 July 2023 N/A 233 km × 71,351 km (145 mi × 44,335 mi) N/A [49][53]
Earth bound maneuvers: 5 25 July 2023 N/A 236 km × 127,603 km (147 mi × 79,289 mi) N/A [54]
Trans-lunar injection 31 July 2023 N/A 288 km × 369,328 km (179 mi × 229,490 mi) N/A [55]
Lunar bound maneuvers:1 (Lunar orbit insertion) 5 August 2023 1,835 sec[convert: unknown unit] 164 km × 18,074 km (102 mi × 11,231 mi) Approx. 21 h (1,300 min) [56]
Lunar bound maneuvers: 2 6 August 2023 N/A 170 km × 4,313 km (106 mi × 2,680 mi) N/A [57]
Lunar bound maneuvers:3 9 August 2023 N/A 174 km × 1,437 km (108 mi × 893 mi) N/A [58]
Lunar bound maneuvers:4 14 August 2023 N/A 150 km × 177 km (93 mi × 110 mi) N/A [59]
Lunar bound maneuvers:5 16 August 2023 N/A 153 km × 163 km (95 mi × 101 mi) N/A [60]
Lander deorbit maneuvers: 1 18 August 2023 N/A 113 km × 157 km (70 mi × 98 mi) N/A [61]
Lander deorbit maneuvers: 2 19 August 2023 60 sec[convert: unknown unit] 25 km × 134 km (16 mi × 83 mi) N/A [62]
Landing 23 August 2023 TBC N/A N/A [3]
Rover deployment 23 August 2023 N/A N/A N/A [3]

  • The Moon photographed by the Lander Position Detection Camera (LPDC) aboard Chandrayaan-3 lander on 15 August 2023

  • View from the Lander Imager Camera-1 (LI-1) on 17 August 2023 just after the separation of the Chandrayaan-3 Lander Module from the Propulsion Module

  • Chandrayaan-3 orbital manoeuvre

Surface operations

A 4-metre-diameter (13 ft) crater, as photographed by the Navigation camera on board the rover

On 3 September, the rover was put into sleep mode after it had completed all of its assignments. Its batteries were charged and receiver left on, according to ISRO, in preparation for the impending lunar night.[63] "The rover's payloads are turned off and the data it collected has been transmitted to Earth via the lander", the statement said. Chandrayaan-3's lander and rover were expected to operate only for one lunar daylight period, or 14 Earth days, and the on-board electronics were not designed to withstand the −120 °C (−184 °F) nighttime temperatures on the Moon.[64] On 22 September, the lander and rover missed their wake-up calls,[65][66] and by 28 September neither had responded, diminishing hopes for further surface operations.[67]

Hop experiment

Vikram fired its engines for a brief 'hop' on the lunar surface on 3 September, ascending 40 cm (16 in) off the lunar surface and translating a similar distance laterally across the surface.[68] The test demonstrated capabilities to be used in potential future sample return missions. The instruments and rover deployment ramp were retracted for the hop and redeployed afterwards.[69][70][71]

Propulsion module reinserted to orbit around Earth

Lunar bound maneuvering of Propulsion Module
Trans-Earth injection (TEI) maneuver and quadra lunar flyby
Lunar SOI exiting and first Earth bound perigee crossing

The propulsion module of Chandrayaan-3 was moved out of lunar orbit to an orbit around Earth.[29][72] Although the plan was to operate SHAPE for three months in lunar orbit, it was decided to utilise over 100 kg of fuel left in the PM after one month of operation to derive additional information for future lunar missions, and determine strategies for sample return missions and gravity-assisted flyby missions. ISRO's flight dynamics team had developed software to be validated through these return maneuvers.

Propulsion module return operations[73]
Date Manoeuvre/event Orbit
Apogee (km) Perigee (km) Period (hours)
Initial lunar orbit 150 N/A 2.1
9 October 2023 Lunar-bound maneuver 1 5112 N/A 7.2
13 October 2023 Trans-Earth Injection (TEI) ≈380,000 ≈180,000 N/A
18 October 2023 Lunar flyby 1 N/A N/A N/A
24 October 2023 Lunar flyby 2 N/A N/A N/A
2 November 2023 Lunar flyby 3 N/A N/A N/A
07 November 2023 Lunar flyby 4 N/A N/A N/A
10 November 2023 Lunar SOI Departure N/A N/A N/A
22 November 2023 First Perigee Crossing N/A ≈154,000 N/A
Final Earth orbit (variable) ≥115,000 ≈300

The propulsion module is currently orbiting Earth with a perigee and apogee altitude that vary during its trajectory and the predicted minimum perigee altitude is 115,000 kilometres (71,000 mi), with an orbital period of nearly 13 days with 27 degree inclination. The SHAPE payload is operated whenever Earth is in its field of view, as well during special events such as the 28 October 2023 solar eclipse. The SHAPE payload operations are planned to continue further.[73]

Animation of Chandrayaan-3 propulsion module
Around the Earth
Around the Moon
   Chandrayaan-3 PM ·    Earth ·    Moon

Mission life

  • Propulsion module: Carries lander and rover to 100-by-100-kilometre (62 mi × 62 mi) orbit, with operation of experimental payload for up to six months.[74]
  • Lander module: one lunar daylight period (14 Earth days).[74]
  • Rover module: one lunar daylight period (14 Earth days).[74]

Team

  • ISRO chairman: S. Somanath[75]
  • Mission director: S. Mohanakumar[76]
  • Associate mission director: G. Narayanan[77]
  • Project director: P. Veeramuthuvel[78]
  • Associate project director: Kalpana Kalahasti[79]
  • Vehicle director: Biju C. Thomas[80]

Funding

In December 2019, ISRO requested the initial funding of the project, amounting to ₹75 crore (US$11 million), out of which ₹600 million (US$8.4 million) would be for meeting expenditure towards machinery, equipment, and other capital expenditure, while the remaining ₹150 million (US$2.1 million) was sought for operating expenditure.[81] Amit Sharma, CEO of an ISRO vendor, said, "With local sourcing of equipment and design elements, we are able to reduce the price considerably."[82]

Confirming the existence of the project, ISRO's former chairman K. Sivan stated that the estimated cost would be around ₹615 crore (US$86 million).[83][84][85]

Results

The Associated Press, while commenting on the success of the mission, said, "The successful mission showcases India's rising standing as a technology and space powerhouse and dovetails with Prime Minister Narendra Modi's desire to project an image of an ascendant country asserting its place among the global elite."[86] About results on water existence, "There was no word on the outcome of the rover searches for signs of frozen water on the lunar surface (...)"[86].

Temperature variation

ISRO also released data from the observations made by ChaSTE (Chandra's Surface Thermophysical Experiment), one of the four instruments present on the lander module. ChaSTE was designed to study the heat conductivity of the Moon's surface and measure the differences in temperatures at different points on and below the surface, with the overall objective of creating a thermal profile of the Moon.

The graph of temperature variation across the lunar topsoil at a point in the solar polar region, as measured by the ChaSTE instrument

ISRO scientist BH Darukesha said the high range of 70-degree-Celsius (158-degree-Fahrenheit) temperature near the surface was "not expected".[87]

Detection of sulfur

On 29 August, ISRO reported that the laser-induced breakdown spectroscope (LIBS) instrument on board the Pragyan rover has "unambiguously" confirmed the presence of sulfur in the lunar surface near the south pole, through "first-ever in-situ measurements".[88][89] The presence of sulfur on the Moon has been known before;[90] however, it was detected for the first time at the south pole by the rover.[91]

Noah Petro, a project scientist at NASA, while speaking to the BBC, stated that while sulfur has been known to be in the lunar regolith from Apollo program samples, he described Pragyan's findings as a "tremendous accomplishment".[92]

Apart from sulfur, the rover also detected other elements including aluminium (Al), calcium (Ca), iron (Fe), chromium (Cr), titanium (Ti), manganese (Mn), silicon (Si), and oxygen (O).[93] The agency said it is also searching for hydrogen (H).[94][95]

Pragyan rover detected elements present on the Moon.

Plasma measurement

On 31 August, ISRO released plasma density data from the RAMBHA Instrument aboard the Vikram lander. Initial assessments reported relatively low plasma densities above the lunar surface varying from 5 to 30 million electrons per m3. The evaluation pertains to early stages of the lunar day. The probe aims to explore the changes in the near-surface plasma environment throughout the duration of the lunar day.[96]

Seismic measurements

On the same day, ISRO released data from the ILSA payload on the lander, providing vibration measurements of the rover movement on 25 August, and a presumed natural event on 26 August. The cause of the latter event is a subject of investigation,[97] it is suspected to be a moonquake.[95]

Domestic reactions

Chandrayaan-3's landing live stream on ISRO's official YouTube channel received eight million concurrent viewers,[98] which is the highest in YouTube's history for a live video.[99][100]

Congratulating the ISRO team behind the successful Chandrayaan-3 mission at ISRO Telemetry, Tracking and Command Network in Bengaluru, Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi announced that the touchdown point of the Vikram lander would henceforth be known as Shiv Shakti point.[101] He further declared 23 August, the day the Vikram lander landed on the Moon, as National Space Day.[102][103]

ISRO chief S. Somanath proclaimed "India is on the Moon" after the successful touchdown.[104] "We learnt a lot from our failure and corrected it. It's now 14 days of work and we have to conduct experiments," he told India Today.[105]

P Veeramuthuvel, the project director of the mission said, "It's a great moment of happiness. On behalf of the team it gives me immense satisfaction on achieving this goal as the Project Director of the mission. The entire mission operations right from launch till landing happened flawlessly as per the timeline".[106] S. Mohana Kumar, the mission director, said that Chandrayaan-3 was a "team effort".[107]

Meanwhile, former ISRO chief K Sivan, under whose tenure the Chandrayaan-2 was launched said, "We are really excited to see this grand success. For this, we have been waiting for the last four years. This success is sweet news for us and for the entire nation."[108]

Rahul Gandhi, the leader of the opposition, also celebrated Chandrayaan-3's success, calling it a result of "tremendous ingenuity and hard work" by the country's scientific community. "Since 1962, India's space program has continued to scale new heights and inspire generations of young dreamers," he posted on X.[109]

Delhi chief minister Arvind Kejriwal congratulated the scientists of ISRO on the successful landing and termed it a "historic" moment. He wrote "This is historical. It's a significant achievement for the country. It's a matter of pride for all of us. The success of Chandrayaan-3 is a result of the hard work of all citizens, ISRO scientists, engineers, and employees. Congratulations to everyone involved. Bharat Mata ki jai."[110]

DY Chandrachud, the chief justice of India hailed the landing as "a milestone in the onward march of our nation" and congratulated the ISRO team.[111]

International reactions

Josef Aschbacher, director general of the European Space Agency, said: "Incredible! Congratulations to ISRO, Chandrayaan-3, and to all the people of India!! What a way to demonstrate new technologies AND achieve India's first soft landing on another celestial body. Well done, I am thoroughly impressed."[112][113][114]

Abdulla Shahid, the foreign minister of Maldives, wrote "As a South Asian nation, and neighbour, we are proud of the successful landing of Chandrayaan 3 near the moon's south pole. This is a success for all of humanity! Opening new avenues for new areas of exploration."[113]

Bill Nelson, the administrator of NASA wrote "Congratulations ISRO on your successful Chandrayaan-3 lunar South Pole landing and congratulations to India on being the 4th country to successfully soft-land a spacecraft on the Moon. We’re glad to be your partner on this mission".[115][114]

Cyril Ramaphosa, the president of South Africa said "This for us, as the BRICS family, is a momentous occasion and we rejoice with you. We join you in the joy of this great achievement."[112]

The Kremlin quoted Russian president Vladimir Putin's message to Indian president Droupadi Murmu and Modi, "Please, accept my heartfelt congratulations on the occasion of the successful landing of the Indian space station Chandrayaan-3 on the Moon near its South Pole. This is a big step forward in space exploration and certainly a testament to the impressive progress made by India in the area of science and technology”.[116]

Nepal prime minister Pushpa Kamal Dahal said "I congratulate Prime Minister Shri Narendra Modi ji and ISRO team of India on successful landing of Chandrayan-3 in the surface of the moon today and unleashing of a historic achievement in science and space technology."[113]

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ While the landing site is often referred to as a "polar region" in the media,[10][11] location of Chandrayaan-3's lander or rover is not within the Lunar Antarctic circle (80°S). ISRO scientists involved in selecting and characterizing the landing site call it a "high-latitude location".[12]

References

  1. ↑ "Chandrayaan-3 vs Russia's Luna-25 | Which one is likely to win the space race". 14 August 2023. https://www.cnbctv18.com/science/chandrayaan3-russia-luna-25-who-is-likely-win-space-race-17524541.htm. 
  2. ↑ "Chandrayaan-3". https://www.isro.gov.in/Chandrayaan3.html. 
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 Jones, Andrew (23 August 2023). "Chandrayaan-3: India becomes fourth country to land on the moon". https://spacenews.com/chandrayaan-3-india-becomes-fourth-country-to-land-on-the-moon/. 
  4. ↑ "LVM3-M4 Gallery". https://www.isro.gov.in/chandrayaan3_gallery.html. 
  5. ↑ "India launches Chandrayaan-3 mission to the lunar surface". Physicsworld. 14 July 2023. https://physicsworld.com/a/india-launches-chandrayaan-3-mission-to-the-lunar-surface/. 
  6. ↑ @isro (2 September 2023). "Chandrayaan-3 Mission". https://twitter.com/isro/status/1697881823391711684. 
  7. ↑ Kumar, Hari; Travelli, Alex; Mashal, Mujib; Chang, Kenneth (23 August 2023). "India Moon Landing: In Latest Moon Race, India Lands First in Southern Polar Region" (in en-US). The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. https://www.nytimes.com/live/2023/08/23/science/india-moon-landing-chandrayaan-3. 
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 Sharmila Kuthunur (23 August 2023). "India on the moon! Chandrayaan-3 becomes 1st probe to land near lunar south pole" (in en). https://www.space.com/india-chandrayaan-3-moon-landing-success. 
  9. ↑ Kumar, Sanjay (23 August 2023). "India makes history by landing spacecraft near Moon's south pole". https://www.science.org/content/article/india-makes-history-landing-spacecraft-near-moon-s-south-pole. 
  10. ↑ "Chandrayaan-3 launch on 14 July, lunar landing on 23 or 24 August". The Hindu. 6 July 2023. ISSN 0971-751X. https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/chandrayaan-3-launch-scheduled-for-july-14-at-235-pm/article67049236.ece. 
  11. ↑ "India lands spacecraft near south pole of moon in historic first". The Guardian. https://amp.theguardian.com/science/2023/aug/23/india-chandrayaan-3-moon-landing-mission. 
  12. ↑ Karanam, Durga Prasad; Bhatt, Megha; A, Amitabh; G, Ambily; Sathyan, Sachana; Misra, Dibyendu; Srivastava, Neeraj; Bhardwaj, Anil (3 August 2023). "Contextual Characterisation Study of Chandrayaan-3 Primary Landing Site". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society: Letters. doi:10.1093/mnrasl/slad106. ISSN 1745-3925. https://doi.org/10.1093/mnrasl/slad106. Retrieved 5 September 2023. 
  13. ↑ "Vikram lander's sudden hop on the Moon: Why it's a big deal" (in en). https://www.indiatoday.in/science/chandrayaan-3/story/vikram-landers-sudden-hop-on-the-moon-why-its-a-big-deal-2430701-2023-09-04. 
  14. ↑ "Chandrayaan-3 lunar hop explained: Small jump for Vikram lander, giant leap for ISRO - Science News". https://www.wionews.com/science/chandrayaan-3-lunar-hop-explained-small-jump-for-vikram-lander-giant-leap-for-isro-632832/amp. 
  15. ↑ "No 2nd innings, 'super over' for Chandrayaan-3, but Vikram & Pragyan had a great outing". The Times of India. 2023-10-04. ISSN 0971-8257. https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/science/no-2nd-innings-super-over-for-chandrayaan-3-but-vikram-pragyan-had-a-great-outing/articleshow/104167455.cms?from=mdr. 
  16. ↑ "Chandrayaan-3 goes dark again? Former ISRO chief says 'no hope of reviving' Vikram lander & Pragyan rover" (in en). 2023-10-07. https://indianexpress.com/article/technology/science/chandrayaan-3-goes-dark-again-vikram-lander-pragyan-rover-sleep-forever-8972159/. 
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 "Returns to home Earth: Chandrayaan-3 Propulsion Module moved from Lunar orbit to Earth's orbit". https://www.isro.gov.in/Ch3_Propulsion_Module_moved_from_Lunar_orbit_to_Earth_orbit.html. 
  18. ↑ Mahoney, Erin (17 August 2022). "Moon's South Pole is Full of Mystery, Science, Intrigue". http://www.nasa.gov/feature/moons-south-pole-is-full-of-mystery-science-intrigue. 
  19. ↑ "Explainer: Why are countries racing to the moon's heavily cratered south pole?" (in en). Reuters. 23 August 2023. https://www.reuters.com/science/why-are-countries-racing-moons-heavily-cratered-south-pole-2023-08-23/. 
  20. ↑ "Chandrayaan-3 How NASA, ESA will support ISRO during the Moon landing on August 23". https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/science/chandrayaan-3-how-nasa-esa-will-support-isro-during-the-moon-landing-on-august-23/article67216311.ece. .
  21. ↑ "ESA and Indian space agency ISRO agree on future cooperation" (in en). https://www.esa.int/Enabling_Support/Operations/ESA_Ground_Stations/ESA_and_Indian_space_agency_ISRO_agree_on_future_cooperation. 
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 "NASA spacecraft pings India’s Chandrayaan-3 lander on the moon" (in en-IN). The Hindu. 2024-01-19. ISSN 0971-751X. https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/science/nasa-spacecraft-pings-indias-chandrayaan-3-lander-on-the-moon/article67755589.ece. 
  23. ↑ "Chandrayaan-3 Details". https://www.isro.gov.in/Chandrayaan3_Details.html. 
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 "NASA – NSSDCA – Spacecraft – Details". https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=CHANDRYN3. 
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 "Chandrayaan-3 to cost Rs 615 crore, launch could stretch to 2021". 2 January 2020. https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/chandrayaan-3-to-cost-rs-615--crore-launch-could-stretch-to-2021/articleshow/73055941.cms. 
  26. ↑ "Nuclear energy keeps Chandrayaan-3 propulsion module going". The Times of India. 2023-10-31. ISSN 0971-8257. https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/science/nuclear-energy-keeps-chandrayaan-3-propulsion-module-going/articleshow/104834737.cms. 
  27. ↑ "Chandrayaan-3 carried nuclear technology to Moon: What was it used for?" (in en). https://www.indiatoday.in/science/chandrayaan-3/story/chandrayaan-3-carried-nuclear-technology-to-moon-what-was-it-used-for-2456584-2023-11-01. 
  28. ↑ "Chandrayaan 3's giant leap: Nuclear energy fuels propulsion module orbiting moon" (in en). 2023-11-01. https://www.hindustantimes.com/technology/chandrayaan-3-giant-leap-nuclear-energy-fuels-propulsion-module-orbiting-moon-101698831358614.html. 
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  30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 Mehta, Jatan. "Chandrayaan-3 Makes Historic Touchdown on the Moon" (in en). https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/chandrayaan-3-makes-historic-touchdown-on-the-moon/. 
  31. ↑ "Chandrayaan-3 in its last leg of journey to moon" (in en). https://www.indiatoday.in/science/chandrayaan-3/video/chandrayaan-3-in-its-last-leg-of-journey-to-moon-2423766-2023-08-20. 
  32. ↑ Kumar, Chethan (19 November 2019). "Chandrayaan-3 plans indicate failures in Chandrayaan-2". The Times of India. https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/chandrayaan-3-plans-indicate-failures-in-chandrayaan-2/articleshow/72128771.cms. 
  33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 (in en) After 4 Years, ISRO Reveals Why Chandrayaan 2 FAILED, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4oUdD_QSgRs, retrieved 10 August 2023 
  34. ↑ Sharma, Shaurya (21 October 2022). "Chandrayaan-3 To Be More Robust, Have Contingency Systems Onboard, Says ISRO Chief" (in en). https://www.news18.com/news/tech/chandrayaan-3-to-be-more-robust-have-contingency-systems-onboard-says-isro-chief-6216451.html. 
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  36. ↑ Livemint (16 August 2023). "Chandrayaan-3 highlights: Lander Vikram will be 30 km away from Moon today" (in en). https://www.livemint.com/news/india/chandrayaan3-live-updates-isros-lunar-mission-indian-spacecraft-landing-on-moon-russia-luna-25-moon-mission-11692151720010.html. 
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  38. ↑ "NASA - NSSDCA - Experiment - Details". https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/experiment/display.action?id=CHANDRYN3-01#:~:text=The%20Spectropolarimetry%20of%20Habitable%20Planet,and%20the%20search%20for%20life.. 
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  114. ↑ 114.0 114.1 "Moon landing: NASA, ESA congratulate India on success of Chandrayaan-3 mission - The Economic Times". https://m.economictimes.com/news/science/nasa-esa-congratulate-india-on-success-of-chandrayaan-3-mission/amp_articleshow/102992595.cms. 
  115. ↑ "Historical: World congratulates India on Chandrayaan-3's success; Pakistan, China remain silent". 24 August 2023. https://www.wionews.com/india-news/history-created-world-leaders-react-to-chandryaan-3s-successful-landing-628416/amp. 
  116. ↑ "‘Big step forward in space exploration’: Putin on India's Chandrayaan 3 landing" (in en). 2023-08-23. https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/chandrayaan-3-landing-updates-august-23-2023-russia-vladimir-putin-congratulates-india-president-droupadi-murmu-pm-modi-101692807680323.html. 

External links

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