Medicine:Diverticulitis

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Short description: Digestive disease of the large intestine
Diverticulitis
Other namesColonic diverticulitis
Diverticula, sigmoid colon.jpg
Section of the large bowel (sigmoid colon) showing multiple pouches (diverticula). The diverticula appear on either side of the longitudinal muscle bundle (taenium), which runs horizontally across the specimen in an arc.
SpecialtyGeneral surgery
SymptomsAbdominal pain, fever, nausea, diarrhea, constipation, blood in the stool[1]
ComplicationsAbscess, fistula, bowel perforation[1]
Usual onsetSudden, age > 50[1]
CausesUncertain[1]
Risk factorsObesity, lack of exercise, smoking, family history, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs[1][2]
Diagnostic methodBlood tests, CT scan, colonoscopy, lower gastrointestinal series[1]
Differential diagnosisIrritable bowel syndrome[2]
PreventionMesalazine, rifaximin[2]
TreatmentAntibiotics, liquid diet, hospital admission[1]
Frequency3.3% (developed world)[1][3]

Diverticulitis, also called colonic diverticulitis, is a gastrointestinal disease characterized by inflammation of abnormal pouches—diverticula—that can develop in the wall of the large intestine.[1] Symptoms typically include lower abdominal pain of sudden onset, but the onset may also occur over a few days.[1] There may also be nausea, diarrhea or constipation.[1] Fever or blood in the stool suggests a complication.[1] People may experience a single attack, repeated attacks, or ongoing "smouldering" diverticulitis.[2][4][5]

The causes of diverticulitis are unclear.[1] Risk factors may include obesity, lack of exercise, smoking, a family history of the disease, and use of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs).[1][2] The role of a low fiber diet as a risk factor is unclear.[2] Having pouches in the large intestine that are not inflamed is known as diverticulosis.[1] Inflammation occurs in between 10% and 25% at some point in time, and is due to a bacterial infection.[2][6] Diagnosis is typically by CT scan, though blood tests, colonoscopy, or a lower gastrointestinal series may also be supportive.[1] The differential diagnoses include irritable bowel syndrome.[2]

Preventive measures include altering risk factors such as obesity, inactivity, and smoking.[2] Mesalazine and rifaximin appear useful for preventing attacks in those with diverticulosis.[2] Avoiding nuts and seeds as a preventive measure is no longer recommended since there is no evidence these play a role in initiating inflammation in diverticula.[1][7] For mild diverticulitis, antibiotics by mouth and a liquid diet are recommended.[1] For severe cases, intravenous antibiotics, hospital admission, and complete bowel rest may be recommended.[1] Probiotics are of unclear value.[2] Complications such as abscess formation, fistula formation, and perforation of the colon may require surgery.[1]

The disease is common in the Western world and uncommon in Africa and Asia.[1] In the Western world about 35% of people have diverticulosis while it affects less than 1% of those in rural Africa,[6] and 4–15% of those may go on to develop diverticulitis.[3] In North America and Europe the abdominal pain is usually on the left lower side (sigmoid colon), while in Asia it is usually on the right (ascending colon).[2][8] The disease becomes more frequent with age, ranging from 5% for those under 40 years of age to 50% over the age of 60.[9][1] It has also become more common in all parts of the world.[2] In 2003 in Europe, it resulted in approximately 13,000 deaths.[2] It is the most frequent anatomic disease of the colon.[2] Costs associated with diverticular disease were around US$2.4 billion a year in the United States in 2013.[2]

Signs and symptoms

Diverticulitis typically presents with lower quadrant abdominal pain of a sudden onset.[1] Patients commonly have elevated C-reactive protein and a high white blood cell count.[10] In North America and Europe the abdominal pain is usually on the left lower side (sigmoid colon), while in Asia it is usually on the right (ascending colon).[2][8] There may also be fever, nausea, diarrhea or constipation, and blood in the stool.[1] Diverticulosis is associated with more frequent bowel movements contrary to the widespread belief that patients with diverticulosis are constipated.[11]

Smouldering diverticulitis

"Smoldering diverticulitis" (SmD) describes a subtype of the disease which is characterized by frequently relapsing symptoms triggered by a "smoldering fire-like" ongoing inflammatory process.[4] Patients have persistent symptoms of uncomplicated diverticulitis, but are refractory to medical management while not progressing to diverticular complications.[5] Approximately 5% of diverticulitis people experience smouldering diverticulitis.[12] Smouldering diverticulitis cases make up 4-10% of diverticulitis surgeries.[13]

Complications

Gross pathology of a longitudinally opened colon (inside/mucosa at top and outside/serosa at bottom), showing diverticulitis with two diverticular abscesses (white arrows). The dark coloration at right is previous colon tattooing for localization.

In complicated diverticulitis, an inflamed diverticulum can rupture, allowing bacteria to subsequently infect externally from the colon. If the infection spreads to the lining of the abdominal cavity (the peritoneum), peritonitis results. Sometimes, inflamed diverticula can cause narrowing of the bowel, leading to an obstruction. In some cases, the affected part of the colon adheres to the bladder or other organs in the pelvic cavity, causing a fistula, or creating an abnormal connection between an organ and adjacent structure or another organ (in the case of diverticulitis, the colon, and an adjacent organ).Related pathologies may include:[14]

Causes and prevention

The causes of diverticulitis are poorly understood, with approximately 40 percent due to genes and 60 percent due to environmental factors.[15] Conditions that increase the risk of developing diverticulitis include arterial hypertension and immunosuppression.[16] Obesity is another risk factor.[15] Low levels of vitamin D are associated with an increased risk of diverticulitis.[17]

Healthy lifestyle

A prospective cohort study found that a healthy lifestyle (defined as <51 g daily red meat, >23 g daily dietary fiber, 2 hours’ exercise weekly, normal BMI, and never a smoker) was associated with a substantially reduced risk of diverticulitis (relative risk 0.27, 0.15 to 0.48).[18]

Exercise

A 2009 study found that men who engaged in vigorous physical activity (approximately 3 hours of running a week) had a 34% reduction in the risk of diverticulitis, and a 39% reduction in the risk of diverticular bleeding when compared to men who did not exercise vigorously. Running was the only specific activity to show a statistically significant benefit.[19][20] The up and down motions of running may impart distinct benefits to the colon.[21] Moderate exercise may accelerate the speed at which food travels through the gut.[22]

Weight

Some studies have found correlation of higher prevalence of diverticulitis with overweight and obese bodyweight.[23][24] There is some debate if this is causal.[25]

Diet

It is unclear what role dietary fiber plays in diverticulitis.[15] It is often stated that a diet low in fiber is a risk factor; however, the evidence to support this is unclear.[15] A 2012 study found that high-fiber diet and increased frequency of bowel movements are associated with greater, rather than lower, prevalence of diverticulosis.[26]

There is no evidence to suggest that the avoidance of nuts and seeds prevents the progression of diverticulosis to an acute case of diverticulitis.[7][27] In fact, it appears that a higher intake of nuts and corn could help to avoid diverticulitis in adult males.[27]

Pathology

Right-sided diverticula are micro-hernias of the colonic mucosa and submucosa through the colonic muscular layer where blood vessels penetrate it.[2] Left-sided diverticula are pseudodiverticula, since the herniation is not through all the layers of the colon.[2] Diverticulitis is postulated to develop because of changes inside the colon, including high pressures because of abnormally vigorous contractions.[28]

Diagnosis

Diverticulitis in the left lower quadrant as seen on axial view by a CT scan (the abnormality is within the circled area)
Diverticulitis on a CT scan in a coronal view
Diverticulitis showing acute purulent inflammation extending into the subserosal adipose tissue

People with the above symptoms are commonly studied with computed tomography, or a CT scan.[29] Ultrasound can provide preliminary investigation for diverticulitis. Amongst the findings that can be seen on ultrasound is non-compressing outpouching of bowel wall, hypoechoic and thickened wall, or there is obstructive fecalith at the bowel wall. Besides, bowel wall oedema with adjacent hyperechoic mesentery can also be seen on ultrasound. However, CT scan is the mainstay of diagnosing diverticulitis and its complications.[14] The diagnosis of acute diverticulitis is made confidently when the involved segment contains diverticula.[30] CT images reveal localized colon wall thickening, with inflammation extending into the fat surrounding the colon.[31] Amongst the complications that can be seen on CT scan are: abscesses, perforation, pylephlebitis, intestinal obstruction, bleeding, and fistula.[14]

Barium enema and colonoscopy are contraindicated in the acute phase of diverticulitis because of the risk of perforation.[32][33]

Classification by severity

Four classifications by severity have been published recently in the literature. The most recent and widely accepted is as follows:[34]

  • Stage 0 – asymptomatic diverticulosis
  • Stage 1a – uncomplicated diverticulitis
  • Stage 1b – diverticulitis with phlegmonous peridiverticulitis
  • Stage 2a – diverticulitis with concealed perforation, and abscess with a diameter of one centimeter or less
  • Stage 2b – diverticulitis with abscess greater than one centimeter
  • Stage 3a – diverticulitis with symptoms but without complications
  • Stage 3b – relapsing diverticulitis without complications
  • Stage 3c – relapsing diverticulitis with complications

The severity of diverticulitis can be radiographically graded by the Hinchey Classification.[35]

Differential diagnoses

The differential diagnoses include colon cancer, inflammatory bowel disease, ischemic colitis, and irritable bowel syndrome, as well as a number of urological and gynecological processes. In those with uncomplicated diverticulitis, cancer is present in less than 1% of people.[36]

Prognosis

  • Estimates for the of people with diverticulosis who will develop diverticulitis range from 5%[37] to 10% to 25%.[38]
  • Most people with uncomplicated diverticulitis recover following medical treatment. Median time to recovery is 14 days. Approximately 5% of people experience smouldering diverticulitis.[37]
  • Diverticulitis recurs in around one third of people - about 50% of recurrences occur within one year, and 90% within 5 years. Recurrence is more common in younger people, in those with an abscess at diagnosis, and after an episode of complicated diverticulitis.[37]
  • About 5% of people with diverticular disease have complications when followed up for 10–30 years. The risk of complications, such as peritonitis or perforation, is greater during the first episode of diverticulitis, and the risk reduces with each recurrence. People who are immunocompromised have a 5-fold increased risk of recurrence with complications, such as bowel perforation, compared to immunocompetent people.[37]
  • The decision criteria for having surgical treatment has been subject to debate and development.[39][38][40][41]
  • Following surgical treatment, approximately 25% of people remain symptomatic.[37]

Treatment

Most cases of simple, uncomplicated diverticulitis respond to conservative therapy with bowel rest.

Diet

Diverticulitis patients may be placed on a low-fiber diet.[42] A 2017 analysis found a dietary pattern high in red meat, refined grains, and high-fat dairy was associated with increased risk of incident diverticulitis whereas a dietary pattern high in fruits, vegetables, and whole grains was associated with decreased risk. Men in the highest quintile of western dietary pattern score had a multivariate hazard ratio (HR) of 1.55 (95% CI, 1.20–1.99) for diverticulitis compared to men in the lowest quintile. Recent dietary intake may be more strongly associated with diverticulitis than long-term intake. The associations between dietary pattern and diverticulitis were largely due to red meat and fiber intake.[43] A systematic review published in 2012 found no high-quality studies, but found that some studies and guidelines favour a high-fiber diet for the treatment of symptomatic disease.[44] A 2011 review found that a high-fiber diet may prevent diverticular disease, and found no evidence for the superiority of low-fiber diets in treating diverticular disease.[45]

While it has been suggested that probiotics may be useful for treatment, the evidence currently neither supports nor refutes this claim.[46]

Meds

Antibiotics

Mild uncomplicated diverticulitis without systemic inflammation should not be treated with antibiotics.[47][34][48][49] For mild, uncomplicated, and non-purulent cases of acute diverticulitis, symptomatic treatment, IV fluids, and bowel rest have no worse outcome than surgical intervention in the short and medium term, and appear to have the same outcomes at 24 months. With abscess confirmed by CT scan, some evidence and clinical guidelines tentatively support the use of oral or IV antibiotics for smaller abscesses (<5 cm) without systemic inflammation, but percutaneous or laparoscopic drainage may be necessary for larger abscesses (>5 cm).[47][50] Emergency surgery is required for perforated diverticulitis with peritonitis.[47][50]

Mesalamine

Mesalamine is an anti-inflammatory medication used in the treatment of inflammatory bowel diseases.[51] In limited studies, patients with diverticulitis and symptomatic diverticular disease treated with mesalamine have shown improvement in both conditions.[52] Mesalazine may reduce recurrences in symptomatic uncomplicated diverticular disease.[53] In 2022 Germany introduced guidance to use mesalamine to treat acute uncomplicated diverticulitis.[54]

Surgery

Indications for surgery are abscess or fistula formation; and intestinal rupture with peritonitis.[28] These, however, rarely occur.[28] Surgery for abscess or fistula is indicated either urgently or electively. The timing of the elective surgery is determined by evaluating factors such as the stage of the disease, the age of the person, their general medical condition, the severity and frequency of the attacks, and whether symptoms persist after the first acute episode. In most cases, elective surgery is deemed to be indicated when the risks of the surgery are less than the risks of the complications of diverticulitis. Elective surgery is not indicated until at least six weeks after recovery from the acute event.[55] Emergency surgery is indicated for an intestinal rupture with peritonitis.[56]

Technique

The first surgical approach consists of resection and primary anastomosis. This first stage of surgery is performed on people if they have a well-vascularized, nonedematous, and tension-free bowel. The proximal margin should be an area of the pliable colon without hypertrophy or inflammation. The distal margin should extend to the upper third of the rectum where the taenia coalesces. Not all of the diverticula-bearing colon must be removed, since diverticula proximal to the descending or sigmoid colon are unlikely to result in further symptoms.[57]

Approach

Diverticulitis surgery consists of a bowel resection with or without colostomy. Either may be done by the traditional laparotomy or by laparoscopic surgery.[58] The traditional bowel resection is made using an open surgical approach, called colectomy. During a colectomy, the person is placed under general anesthesia. A surgeon performing a colectomy will make a lower midline incision in the abdomen or a lateral lower transverse incision. The diseased section of the large intestine is removed, and then the two healthy ends are sewn or stapled back together. A colostomy may be performed when the bowel has to be relieved of its normal digestive work as it heals. A colostomy implies creating a temporary opening of the colon on the skin surface, and the end of the colon is passed through the abdominal wall with a removable bag attached to it. The waste is collected in the bag.[59]

However, most surgeons prefer performing the bowel resection laparoscopically, mainly because postoperative pain is reduced with faster recovery. Laparoscopic surgery is a minimally invasive procedure in which three to four smaller incisions are made in the abdomen or navel. After incisions into the abdomen are done, placement of trocars occurs which allows a camera and other equipment entry into the peritoneal cavity. The greater omentum is reflected and the affected section of the bowel is mobilized. Alternately, laparoscopic sigmoid resection (LSR) compared to open sigmoid resection (OSR) showed that LSR is not superior over OSR for acute symptomatic diverticulitis. Furthermore, laparoscopic lavage was as safe as resection for perforated diverticulitis with peritonitis.[60]

Maneuvers

All colon surgery involves only three maneuvers that may vary in complexity depending on the region of the bowel and the nature of the disease. The maneuvers are the retraction of the colon, the division of the attachments to the colon, and the dissection of the mesentery.[61] After the resection of the colon, the surgeon normally divides the attachments to the liver and the small intestine. After the mesenteric vessels are dissected, the colon is divided with special surgical staplers that close off the bowel while cutting between the staple lines. After resection of the affected bowel segment, an anvil and spike are used to anastomose the remaining segments of the bowel. Anastomosis is confirmed by filling the cavity with normal saline and checking for any air bubbles.

Bowel resection with colostomy

When excessive inflammation of the colon renders primary bowel resection too risky, bowel resection with colostomy remains an option. Also known as the Hartmann's operation, this is a more complicated surgery typically reserved for life-threatening cases. The bowel resection with colostomy implies a temporary colostomy which is followed by a second operation to reverse the colostomy. The surgeon makes an opening in the abdominal wall (a colostomy) which helps clear the infection and inflammation. The colon is brought through the opening and all waste is collected in an external bag.[62]

The colostomy is usually temporary, but it may be permanent, depending on the severity of the case.[63] In most cases several months later, after the inflammation has healed, the person undergoes another major surgery, during which the surgeon rejoins the colon and rectum and reverses the colostomy.

Epidemiology

Diverticulitis most often affects the elderly. In Western countries, diverticular disease most commonly involves the sigmoid colon (95 percent of people with diverticulitis).[64] Diverticulosis affects 5–45% of individuals with the prevalence of diverticulosis increasing with age from under 20% of individuals affected at age 40 up to 60% of individuals affected by age 60.[64]

Left-sided diverticular disease (involving the sigmoid colon) is most common in the West, while right-sided diverticular disease (involving the ascending colon) is more common in Asia and Africa.[8] Among people with diverticulosis, 4–15% may go on to develop diverticulitis.[3]

References

  1. ↑ 1.00 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.04 1.05 1.06 1.07 1.08 1.09 1.10 1.11 1.12 1.13 1.14 1.15 1.16 1.17 1.18 1.19 1.20 1.21 1.22 1.23 "Diverticular Disease". September 2013. http://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/health-topics/digestive-diseases/diverticular-disease/Pages/facts.aspx. 
  2. ↑ 2.00 2.01 2.02 2.03 2.04 2.05 2.06 2.07 2.08 2.09 2.10 2.11 2.12 2.13 2.14 2.15 2.16 2.17 2.18 Tursi, A (March 2016). "Diverticulosis today: unfashionable and still under-researched". Therapeutic Advances in Gastroenterology 9 (2): 213–28. doi:10.1177/1756283x15621228. PMID 26929783. 
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 Pemberton, John H (16 June 2016). "Colonic diverticulosis and diverticular disease: Epidemiology, risk factors, and pathogenesis". https://www.uptodate.com/contents/colonic-diverticulosis-and-diverticular-disease-epidemiology-risk-factors-and-pathogenesis. 
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Rink, Andreas D.; Nousinanou, Maria Eleni; Hahn, Jasmina; Dikermann, Michael; Paul, Claudia; Vestweber, Karl-Heinz (October 12, 2019). "[Smoldering diverticultis - still a type of chronic recurrent diverticulitis with good indication for surgery? - Surgery for smoldering diverticulitis]". Zeitschrift Fur Gastroenterologie 57 (10): 1200–1208. doi:10.1055/a-0991-0700. PMID 31610583. 
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 "Colonic Diverticular Disease". https://www.clevelandclinicmeded.com/medicalpubs/diseasemanagement/gastroenterology/colonic-diverticular-disease/#:~:text=Smoldering%20diverticulitis%20is%20a%20condition,is%20described%20in%20Table%203. 
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 Mandell, Douglas, and Bennett's Principles and Practice of Infectious Diseases. Churchill Livingstone. 2014. p. 986. ISBN 9781455748013. https://books.google.com/books?id=BseNCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA986. 
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Young-Fadok, TM (October 2018). "Diverticulitis". New England Journal of Medicine 379 (17): 1635–42. doi:10.1056/NEJMcp1800468. PMID 30354951. 
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 Feldman, Mark (2010). Sleisenger & Fordtran's Gastrointestinal and liver disease pathophysiology, diagnosis, management (9th ed.). [S.l.]: MD Consult. p. 2084. ISBN 9781437727678. https://books.google.com/books?id=zEZOqB6r9hwC&pg=PA2084. 
  9. ↑ Young-Fadok TM (2018). "Diverticulitis". The New England Journal of Medicine 379 (17): 1635–1642. doi:10.1056/NEJMcp1800468. PMID 30354951. 
  10. ↑ "Acute Colonic Diverticulitis". Annals of Internal Medicine 168 (9): ITC65–ITC80. 2018. doi:10.7326/AITC201805010. PMID 29710265. 
  11. ↑ Peery, Anne F.; Keku, Temitope O.; Galanko, Joseph A.; Sandler, Robert S. (January 15, 2022). "Colonic Diverticulosis Is Not Associated With Painful Abdominal Symptoms in a US Population". Gastro Hep Advances 1 (4): 659–665. doi:10.1016/j.gastha.2022.04.001. PMID 35821706. 
  12. ↑ "CKS is only available in the UK". https://cks.nice.org.uk/topics/diverticular-disease/background-information/prognosis/. 
  13. ↑ "Epidemiology, Pathophysiology, and Treatment of Diverticulitis". Gastroenterology 156 (5): 1282–1298.e1. April 2019. doi:10.1053/j.gastro.2018.12.033. PMID 30660732. 
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 "Diverticulitis: a comprehensive review with usual and unusual complications". Insights into Imaging 8 (1): 19–27. February 2017. doi:10.1007/s13244-016-0532-3. PMID 27878550. 
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 15.3 Templeton, AW; Strate, LL (August 2013). "Updates in diverticular disease.". Current Gastroenterology Reports 15 (8): 339. doi:10.1007/s11894-013-0339-z. PMID 24010157. 
  16. ↑ Böhm, Stephan K. (29 April 2015). "Risk Factors for Diverticulosis, Diverticulitis, Diverticular Perforation, and Bleeding: A Plea for More Subtle History Taking". Viszeralmedizin 31 (2): 84–94. doi:10.1159/000381867. PMID 26989377. 
  17. ↑ "The role of vitamin D in reducing gastrointestinal disease risk and assessment of individual dietary intake needs: Focus on genetic and genomic technologies". Mol Nutr Food Res 60 (1): 119–33. January 2016. doi:10.1002/mnfr.201500243. PMID 26251177. 
  18. ↑ Peery, Anne F. (March 24, 2021). "Management of colonic diverticulitis". BMJ 372: n72. doi:10.1136/bmj.n72. PMID 33762260. https://www.bmj.com/content/372/bmj.n72. 
  19. ↑ Activities noted were walking; jogging (> 10 minutes/mile); running (≤10 minutes/mile); bicycling (including stationary bike); lap swimming; tennis; squash or racquet ball; calisthenics, rowing, stair or ski machine.
  20. ↑ Strate, Lisa L.; Liu, Yan L.; Aldoori, Walid H.; Giovannucci, Edward L. (May 12, 2009). "Physical activity decreases diverticular complications". The American Journal of Gastroenterology 104 (5): 1221–1230. doi:10.1038/ajg.2009.121. PMID 19367267. 
  21. ↑ Sullivan, S. N. (October 12, 1984). "The effect of running on the gastrointestinal tract". Journal of Clinical Gastroenterology 6 (5): 461–465. doi:10.1097/00004836-198410000-00013. PMID 6094656. 
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  23. ↑ Mari, Amir; Sbeit, Wisam; Haddad, Haya; Abboud, Wisam; Pellicano, Rinaldo; Khoury, Tawfik (2021). "The impact of overweight on diverticular disease: a cross-sectional multicenter study". Polish Archives of Internal Medicine 132 (3). doi:10.20452/pamw.16177. PMID 34935318. https://www.mp.pl/paim/issue/article/16177. 
  24. ↑ Shih, Chi-Wei; Chen, Yu-Hsin; Chen, Wei-Liang (January 15, 2022). "Percentage of body fat is associated with increased risk of diverticulosis: A cross sectional study". PLOS ONE 17 (3): e0264746. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0264746. PMID 35231075. Bibcode: 2022PLoSO..1764746S. 
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  26. ↑ Peery, Anne F.; Barrett, Patrick R.; Park, Doyun; Rogers, Albert J.; Galanko, Joseph A.; Martin, Christopher F.; Sandler, Robert S. (February 15, 2012). "A High-Fiber Diet Does Not Protect Against Asymptomatic Diverticulosis". Gastroenterology 142 (2): 266–72.e1. doi:10.1053/j.gastro.2011.10.035. PMID 22062360. 
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 Weisberger, L; Jamieson, B (July 2009). "Clinical inquiries: How can you help prevent a recurrence of diverticulitis?". Journal of Family Practice 58 (7): 381–2. PMID 19607778. 
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 28.2 Morris, AM; Regenbogen, SE; Hardiman, KM; Hendren, S (Jan 15, 2014). "Sigmoid diverticulitis: a systematic review.". JAMA 311 (3): 287–97. doi:10.1001/jama.2013.282025. PMID 24430321. 
  29. ↑ Lee, Kyoung Ho; Lee, Hye Seung; Park, Seong Ho; Bajpai, Vasundhara; Choi, Yoo Shin; Kang, Sung-Bum; Kim, Kil Joong; Kim, Young Hoon (2007). "Appendiceal Diverticulitis". Journal of Computer Assisted Tomography 31 (5): 763–9. doi:10.1097/RCT.0b013e3180340991. PMID 17895789. 
  30. ↑ Horton, KM; Corl, FM; Fishman, EK (2000). "CT evaluation of the colon: inflammatory disease". Radiographics 20 (2): 399–418. doi:10.1148/radiographics.20.2.g00mc15399. PMID 10715339. 
  31. ↑ "CT scan of diverticulitis". ClariPACS. 2017. http://www.claripacs.com/a.php?a=8o. 
  32. ↑ Sai, V. F.; Velayos, F; Neuhaus, J; Westphalen, A. C. (2012). "Colonoscopy after CT Diagnosis of Diverticulitis to Exclude Colon Cancer: A Systematic Literature Review". Radiology 263 (2): 383–390. doi:10.1148/radiol.12111869. PMID 22517956. 
  33. ↑ Tursi, A (2015). "The role of colonoscopy in managing diverticular disease of the colon". Journal of Gastrointestinal and Liver Diseases 24 (1): 85–93. doi:10.15403/jgld.2014.1121.tur. PMID 25822438. http://www.jgld.ro/2015/1/15.pdf. 
  34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 Kruse, E; Leifeld, L (April 2015). "Prevention and Conservative Therapy of Diverticular Disease.". Viszeralmedizin 31 (2): 103–6. doi:10.1159/000377651. PMID 26989379. 
  35. ↑ Klarenbeek, B. R.; De Korte, N; Van Der Peet, D. L.; Cuesta, M. A. (2011). "Review of current classifications for diverticular disease and a translation into clinical practice". International Journal of Colorectal Disease 27 (2): 207–214. doi:10.1007/s00384-011-1314-5. PMID 21928041. 
  36. ↑ Rottier, SJ; van Dijk, ST; van Geloven, AAW et al. (July 2019). "Meta-analysis of the role of colonoscopy after an episode of left-sided acute diverticulitis.". The British Journal of Surgery 106 (8): 988–997. doi:10.1002/bjs.11191. PMID 31260589. 
  37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 37.2 37.3 37.4 "Diverticulitis prognosis". https://cks.nice.org.uk/topics/diverticular-disease/background-information/prognosis/. 
  38. ↑ 38.0 38.1 Linzay, Catherine D.; Pandit, Sudha (January 14, 2023). "Acute Diverticulitis". StatPearls. StatPearls Publishing. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK459316/. 
  39. ↑ Hanna, Mark H; Kaiser, Andreas M (March 7, 2021). "Update on the management of sigmoid diverticulitis". World Journal of Gastroenterology 27 (9): 760–781. doi:10.3748/wjg.v27.i9.760. PMID 33727769. 
  40. ↑ Rook, Jordan M.; Dworsky, Jill Q.; Curran, Thomas; Banerjee, Sudeep; Kwaan, Mary R. (May 1, 2021). "Elective surgical management of diverticulitis". Current Problems in Surgery 58 (5): 100876. doi:10.1016/j.cpsurg.2020.100876. PMID 33933211. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0011384020301465. 
  41. ↑ Sartelli, Massimo; Weber, Dieter G.; Kluger, Yoram et al. (May 7, 2020). "2020 update of the WSES guidelines for the management of acute colonic diverticulitis in the emergency setting". World Journal of Emergency Surgery 15 (1): 32. doi:10.1186/s13017-020-00313-4. PMID 32381121. 
  42. ↑ Spirt, Mitchell (2010). "Complicated Intra-abdominal Infections: A Focus on Appendicitis and Diverticulitis". Postgraduate Medicine 122 (1): 39–51. doi:10.3810/pgm.2010.01.2098. PMID 20107288. 
  43. ↑ Strate, Lisa L; Keeley, Brieze R; Cao, Yin; Wu, Kana; Giovannucci, Edward L; Chan, Andrew T (April 12, 2017). "Western Dietary Pattern Increases, Whereas Prudent Dietary Pattern Decreases, Risk of Incident Diverticulitis in a Prospective Cohort Study". Gastroenterology 152 (5): 1023–1030.e2. doi:10.1053/j.gastro.2016.12.038. PMID 28065788. 
  44. ↑ Ünlü, C; Daniels, L; Vrouenraets, BC; Boermeester, MA (April 2012). "A systematic review of high-fiber dietary therapy in diverticular disease.". International Journal of Colorectal Disease 27 (4): 419–27. doi:10.1007/s00384-011-1308-3. PMID 21922199. 
  45. ↑ Tarleton, S; DiBaise, JK (April 2011). "Low-residue diet in diverticular disease: putting an end to a myth.". Nutrition in Clinical Practice 26 (2): 137–42. doi:10.1177/0884533611399774. PMID 21447765. 
  46. ↑ Lahner, E; Bellisario, C; Hassan, C; Zullo, A; Esposito, G; Annibale, B (March 2016). "Probiotics in the Treatment of Diverticular Disease. A Systematic Review.". Journal of Gastrointestinal and Liver Diseases 25 (1): 79–86. doi:10.15403/jgld.2014.1121.251.srw. PMID 27014757. 
  47. ↑ 47.0 47.1 47.2 Sartelli, Massimo; Weber, Dieter G.; Kluger, Yoram et al. (2020-05-07). "2020 update of the WSES guidelines for the management of acute colonic diverticulitis in the emergency setting". World Journal of Emergency Surgery 15 (1): 32. doi:10.1186/s13017-020-00313-4. ISSN 1749-7922. PMID 32381121. 
  48. ↑ "Use of antibiotics in uncomplicated diverticulitis". Br. J. Surg. 98 (6): 761–7. June 2011. doi:10.1002/bjs.7376. PMID 21523694. 
  49. ↑ Peery, Anne F.; Shaukat, Aasma; Strate, Lisa L. (February 12, 2021). "AGA Clinical Practice Update on Medical Management of Colonic Diverticulitis: Expert Review". Gastroenterology 160 (3): 906–911.e1. doi:10.1053/j.gastro.2020.09.059. PMID 33279517. 
  50. ↑ 50.0 50.1 Nascimbeni, R.; Amato, A.; Cirocchi, R. et al. (2021). "Management of perforated diverticulitis with generalized peritonitis. A multidisciplinary review and position paper". Techniques in Coloproctology 25 (2): 153–165. doi:10.1007/s10151-020-02346-y. ISSN 1123-6337. PMID 33155148. 
  51. ↑ "Mesalazine: A medicine that treats inflammatory bowel conditions including ulcerative colitis and Crohn's disease". 21 July 2021. https://www.nhs.uk/medicines/mesalazine/#:~:text=Mesalazine%20is%20used%20to%20treat,group%20of%20medicines%20called%20aminosalicylates. 
  52. ↑ Lenza, Christopher; Das, Kiron M. (2011). "Mesalamine in the Treatment of Diverticular Disease". Journal of Clinical Gastroenterology 45: S53–S61. doi:10.1097/MCG.0b013e3182107a37. https://journals.lww.com/jcge/abstract/2011/04001/mesalamine_in_the_treatment_of_diverticular.12.aspx#:~:text=Mesalamine%20seems%20to%20be%20an,in%20patients%20maintained%20on%20mesalamine. 
  53. ↑ Iannone, Andrea; Ruospo, Marinella; Wong, Germaine; Barone, Michele; Principi, Mariabeatrice; Di Leo, Alfredo; Strippoli, Giovanni F. M. (September 16, 2018). "Mesalazine for People with Diverticular Disease: A Systematic Review of Randomized Controlled Trials". Canadian Journal of Gastroenterology & Hepatology 2018: 5437135. doi:10.1155/2018/5437135. PMID 30320044. 
  54. ↑ Peery, Anne F. (November 12, 2022). "New German guidelines for the management of diverticulitis". United European Gastroenterology Journal 10 (9): 913–914. doi:10.1002/ueg2.12331. PMID 36302089. 
  55. ↑ Merck, Sharpe & Dohme. "Diverticulitis treatments" 2010-02-23.
  56. ↑ What's the diverticulitis surgery? Digestive Disorders portal. Retrieved on 2010-02-23
  57. ↑ Diverticulitis: Treatment & Medication eMedicine. 2010-02-23
  58. ↑ Diverticulitis Surgery 2010-02-23
  59. ↑ Gupta, Aditya K.; Chaudhry, Maria; Elewski, Boni (2003). "Tinea corporis, tinea cruris, tinea nigra, and piedra". Dermatologic Clinics 21 (3): 395–400, v. doi:10.1016/S0733-8635(03)00031-7. PMID 12956194. 
  60. ↑ Ahmed, Ali Mahmoud; Mohammed, Abdelrahman Tarek; Mattar, Omar Mohamed et al. (1 July 2018). "Surgical treatment of diverticulitis and its complications: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized control trials". The Surgeon 20 (6): 372–383. doi:10.1016/j.surge.2018.03.011. PMID 30033140. 
  61. ↑ Bowel resection procedure Encyclopedia of surgery. Retrieved on 2010-02-23
  62. ↑ Diverticulitis treatments and drugs Mayo Clinic. 2010-02-23
  63. ↑ "Restoration of bowel continuity after surgery for acute perforated diverticulitis: should Hartmann's procedure be considered a one-stage procedure?". Colorectal Disease 11 (6): 619–24. July 2009. doi:10.1111/j.1463-1318.2008.01667.x. PMID 18727727. 
  64. ↑ 64.0 64.1 Nallapeta, Naren S.; Farooq, Umer; Patel, Krunal (2022), "Diverticulosis", StatPearls (Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing), PMID 28613522, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK430771/, retrieved 2022-10-18 

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