Outline of evolution

Short description: none

The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to evolution:

A diagram showing the relationships among various groups of organisms

In biology, evolution is change in the heritable characteristics of biological organisms over generations due to natural selection, mutation, gene flow, and genetic drift. Also known as descent with modification. Over time these evolutionary processes lead to formation of new species (speciation), changes within lineages (anagenesis), and loss of species (extinction). "Evolution" is also another name for evolutionary biology, the subfield of biology concerned with studying evolutionary processes that produced the diversity of life on Earth.

Fundamentals about evolution

Introduction

• Introduction to evolution
• Evolution
• Evolution as fact and theory

Basic principles

• Biology:Macroevolution
  • Biology:Speciation – Evolutionary process by which populations evolve to become distinct species
    • Natural speciation
      • Biology:Allopatric speciation – Speciation that occurs between geographically isolated populations
      • Biology:Peripatric speciation – Speciation in which a new species is formed from an isolated smaller peripheral population
      • Biology:Parapatric speciation – Speciation within a population where subpopulations are reproductively isolated
      • Biology:Sympatric speciation – Evolution of a new species from an ancestor in the same location
    • Artificial speciation
      • Biology:Plant breeding – Humans changing traits, ornamental/crops
      • Biology:Genetic engineering – Manipulation of an organism's genome
    • Biology:Hybrid speciation – Form of speciation involving hybridization between two different species
  • Biology:Despeciation – Loss of a species of animal due to its combining with another species
  • Biology:Anagenesis – Gradual evolutionary change in a species without splitting
  • Biology:Extinction – Termination of a taxon by the death of its last member
• Biology:Microevolution – Change in allele frequencies that occurs over time within a population
  • Biology:Natural selection – Mechanism of evolution by differential reproduction
    • Biology:Sexual selection – Mode of natural selection involving the choosing of and competition for mates
  • Biology:Mutation – Alteration in the nucleotide sequence of a genome
  • Biology:Gene flow – Transfer of genetic variation from one population to another
  • Biology:Genetic drift – Concept in genetics

Subfields

• Biology:Biology – Science that studies life
  • Biology:Evolutionary biology – Study of the processes that produced the diversity of life
    • Biology:Evolutionary developmental biology – Comparison of organism developmental processes
  • Biology:Genetics – Science of genes, heredity, and variation in living organisms
• Earth:Biogeography – Study of the distribution of species and ecosystems in geographic space and through geological time
• Earth:Ecological genetics – The study of genetics in natural populations
• Biology:Evolutionary biology – Study of the processes that produced the diversity of life
  • Biology:Evolutionary developmental biology – Comparison of organism developmental processes
• Biology:Evolutionary ecology – Interaction of biology and evolution
• Biology:Evolutionary physiology – Study of changes in physiological characteristics
• Biology:Evolutionary taxonomy – Form of biological classification
• Biology:Experimental evolution – Use of laboratory and field experiments to explore evolutionary dynamics
• Biology:Molecular evolution – Process of change in the sequence composition of cellular molecules across generations
• Biology:Phylogenetics – Study of evolutionary relationships between organisms
• Biology:Population genetics – Subfield of genetics
• Biology:Paleontology – Study of life before 11,700 years ago
  • Biology:Paleovirology – The study of ancient viruses
  • Earth:Timeline of paleontology – Timeline of notable events in the sudy of ancient life
• Biology:Systematics – Branch of biology

History

• Biography:Charles Darwin – English naturalist and biologist (1809–1882)
  • Biology:Darwinism – Theory of biological evolution
  • By period or event
    • Philosophy:Evolutionary ideas of the Renaissance and Enlightenment – Changes in evolutionary philosophies
    • Biology:Transmutation of species – 18th and 19th-century evolutionary ideas
    • Religion:1860 Oxford evolution debate – Famous discussion about evolution featuring an exchange between Wilberforce and Huxley
    • Biology:Neo-Darwinism – Used to describe the combination of natural selection and genetics
    • Biology:The eclipse of Darwinism – Period when evolution was widely accepted, but natural selection was not
    • Religion:Scopes Trial – 1925 legal case in Tennessee, USA, testing the legality of teaching evolution in schools
    • Modern synthesis – Fusion of natural selection with Mendelian inheritance
      • Biology:Extended evolutionary synthesis – Set of theoretical concepts concerning evolutionary biology
  • By field
    • Biology:Evolutionary developmental biology – Comparison of organism developmental processes
    • Philosophy:History of evolutionary psychology
    • Biology:History of molecular evolution – History of the field of study of molecular evolution

Evolutionary theory and modelling

See also Basic principles (above)

Population genetics

• Biology:Population genetics – Subfield of genetics
• Process
  • Biology:Mutation – Alteration in the nucleotide sequence of a genome
    • Biology:Natural selection – Mechanism of evolution by differential reproduction
      • Biology:Sexual selection – Mode of natural selection involving the choosing of and competition for mates
    • Biology:Ecological selection – Natural selection without sexual selection
  • Biology:Gene flow – Transfer of genetic variation from one population to another
  • Biology:Genetic drift – Concept in genetics
    • Biology:Small population size – Statistical effects of small numbers on a population
    • Biology:Population bottleneck – Effects of a sharp reduction in numbers on the diversity and robustness of a population
    • Biology:Founder effect – Effect in population genetics
    • Biology:Coalescent theory – Model for tracing the history of genetic variation
• Variation
  • Biology:Genetic variation – Difference in DNA among individuals or populations
    • Biology:Genetic diversity – Total number of genetic characteristics in a species
    • Biology:Polymorphism – Occurrence of two or more clearly different morphs or forms in the population of a species
• Key concepts
  • Hardy-Weinberg law – Principle in genetics
  • Biology:Genetic linkage – Tendency of DNA sequences that are close together on a chromosome to be inherited together
  • Biology:Identity by descent – Identical nucleotide sequence due to inheritance without recombination from a common ancestor
  • Biology:Linkage disequilibrium – Allele association in population genetics
  • Fisher's fundamental theorem – A principle relating genetic variance to fitness
  • Neutral theory
  • Biology:Shifting balance theory – One version of the theory of evolution
  • Biology:Price equation – Description of how a trait or gene changes in frequency over time
  • Biology:Coefficient of relationship – Mathematical guess about inbreeding
  • Fitness – Expected reproductive success
  • Philosophy:Heritability – Estimation of effect of genetic variation on phenotypic variation of a trait
• Effects of selection
  • Biology:Genetic hitchhiking – Incidental selection of non-harmful genes which are close to a beneficial gene on the same DNA chain
  • Biology:Negative selection (natural selection) – Selective removal of alleles that are deleterious
• Related topics
  • Biology:Microevolution – Change in allele frequencies that occurs over time within a population
  • Evolutionary game theory – Application of game theory to evolving populations in biology
  • Biology:Fitness landscape – Model used to visualise relationship between genotypes and reproductive success
  • Biology:Genetic genealogy – DNA testing to infer relationships
  • Biology:Quantitative genetics – Study of the inheritance of continuously variable traits

Evolutionary phenomena

• Biology:Adaptation – Process that fits organisms to their environment
• Biology:Coevolution – Two or more species influencing each other's evolution
• Biology:Concerted evolution
• Biology:Convergent evolution – Independent evolution of similar features
  • Biology:List of examples of convergent evolution
• Biology:Divergent evolution – Accumulation of differences between closely related species populations, leading to speciation
• Biology:Evolution of ageing – Study of the evolutionary development of ageing processes
• Biology:Evolution of biological complexity – Tendency for maximum complexity to increase over time, though without any overall direction
• Biology:Evolution of photosynthesis – Origin and subsequent evolution of the process by which light energy is used to synthesize sugars
• Biology:Evolution of sexual reproduction
• Biology:Evolutionary arms race – Competition of sets of genes, traits, or species, that develop adaptations against each other
• Biology:Evolutionary capacitance – Evolutionary biology hypothesis
• Biology:Evolutionary fauna
• Biology:Evolutionary pressure – Any cause that reduces reproductive success in a proportion of a population
• Biology:Evolutionary trap – Cases in which an evolved, and presumably adaptive, trait has suddenly become maladaptive
• Biology:Evolvability – Capacity of a system for adaptive evolution
• Biology:Exaptation – Function of trait, shifted by evolution
• Biology:Extinction – Termination of a taxon by the death of its last member
• Biology:Fitness – Expected reproductive success
  • Biology:Inclusive fitness – Measure of evolutionary success based on the number of offspring the individual supports
    • Philosophy:Kin selection – Evolutionary strategy favoring relatives
  • Biology:Reproductive success – Passing of genes on to the next generation in a way that they too can pass on those genes
• Biology:Genetic recombination – Production of offspring with combinations of traits that differ from those found in either parent
• Biology:Horizontal gene transfer in evolution – Evolutionary consequences of transfer of genetic material between organisms of different taxa
• Biology:Inversion (evolutionary biology) – Hypothesis in developmental biology
• Biology:Mosaic evolution – Evolution of characters at various rates both within and between species
• Biology:Parallel evolution – Similar evolution in distinct species
• Biology:Quantum evolution – Evolution where transitional forms are particularly unstable and do not last long
• Biology:Recurrent evolution – The repeated evolution of a particular character
• Biology:Robustness (evolution) – Persistence of a biological trait under uncertain conditions
• Biology:Speciation – Evolutionary process by which populations evolve to become distinct species

Modelling

• Philosophy:Emergent evolution – Evolutionary biology
• Astronomy:Epic of evolution – Evolutionary narrative that blends views
• Evolution window – Narrow band of mutation step size that is conducive to significant evolutionary progress
• Biology:Evolutionary dynamics – Study of mathematical principles in evolutionary biology
• Evolutionary game theory – Application of game theory to evolving populations in biology
• Evolutionary graph theory – Approach to studying how topology affects evolution of a population
• Evolutionary invasion analysis – Mathematical modeling of phenotypic evolution
• Biology:Largest-scale trends in evolution – Limits of increased complexity over time

Taxonomy, systematics, and phylogeny

Fundamentals

• Taxonomy – Science of naming, defining and classifying organisms
  • Biology:Binomial nomenclature – System of identifying species of organisms using a two-part name
  • Biology:Evolutionary taxonomy – Form of biological classification
  • Biology:Homonym – Scientific name that is identical in spelling to a name with a different type
  • Biology:Integrated Taxonomic Information System – Authoritative taxonomic information on plants, animals, fungi, and microbes
  • Biology:International Code of Zoological Nomenclature – Code of scientific nomenclature for animals
  • Linnaean taxonomy – A rank based classification system for organisms
  • Biology:Phenetics – Attempt to classify organisms based on overall similarity
  • Organization:Species 2000 – Federated taxonomic database system for species checklists
  • Biology:Taxon – Grouping of biological populations
  • Biology:Taxonomic rank – Level in a taxonomic hierarchy
  • Biology:Type – Specimen(s) to which a scientific name is formally attached
  • Biology:Species description – Formal description of a discovered species
• Biology:Systematics – Branch of biology
  • Biology:Cladogram – Diagram used to show relations among groups of organisms with common origins
  • Biology:Phylogenetic tree – Branching diagram of evolutionary relationships between organisms
• Biology:Phylogenetics – Study of evolutionary relationships between organisms
  • Biology:Cladistics – Method of biological systematics in evolutionary biology
  • Computational phylogenetics – Application of computational algorithms, methods and programs to phylogenetic analyses
  • Biology:Common descent – Characteristic of a group of organisms with a common ancestor
  • Biology:Evidence of common descent – Common ancestor evolutionary evidence
  • Biology:Evolutionary grade – Non-monophyletic grouping of organisms united by morphological or physiological characteristics
  • Biology:Lineage (evolution) – Sequence of populations, organisms, cells, or genes that form a line of descent
  • Biology:Molecular phylogenetics – Branch of phylogeny that analyzes genetic, hereditary molecular differences
  • Biology:Most recent common ancestor – Most recent individual from which all organisms in a group are directly descended

Basic concepts of phylogenetics

• Biology:Phylogenetic tree – Branching diagram of evolutionary relationships between organisms
• Biology:Phylogenetic network – Graph used to visualize evolutionary relationships, including reticulation events
• Biology:Long branch attraction – Systematic error in phylogenetics
• Biology:Clade – Group of a common ancestor and all descendants
• Grade – Non-monophyletic grouping of organisms united by morphological or physiological characteristics
• Biology:Ghost lineage – Phylogenetic lineage that is inferred to exist but has no fossil record

Inference methods

• Biology:Maximum parsimony (phylogenetics) – Optimality criterion in which the shortest possible tree that explains the data is considered best
• Biology:Minimum evolution
• Probabilistic methods
  • Maximum likelihood estimation – Method of estimating the parameters of a statistical model, given observations
  • Bayesian inference – Statistical method for molecular phylogenetics
• Distance matrices in phylogeny – Matrices used in construction of phylogenetic trees
  • Biology:Neighbor joining – Bottom-up clustering method for creating phylogenetic trees
  • Unweighted Pair Group Method with Arithmetic Mean (UPGMA) – Agglomerative hierarchical clustering method
  • Least squares inference in phylogeny – Generation of phylogenetic trees based on an observed matrix of pairwise genetic distances
• Biology:Three-taxon analysis – Cladistic based method of phylogenetic reconstruction

Current topics

• Biology:PhyloCode, also known as International Code of Phylogenetic Nomenclature – Draft for a new code of nomenclature for clades
• Biology:DNA barcoding – Method of species identification using a short section of DNA
• Biology:Molecular phylogenetics – Branch of phylogeny that analyzes genetic, hereditary molecular differences
• Biology:Phylogenetic comparative methods – Use of information on the historical relationships of lineages to test evolutionary hypotheses
• Biology:Phylogenetic network – Graph used to visualize evolutionary relationships, including reticulation events
• Biology:Phylogenetic niche conservatism – Tendency of lineage to retain ancestral traits
• Biology:List of phylogenetics software – Compilation of software used to produce phylogenetic trees
• Biology:Phylogenomics
• Biology:Phylogeography – Field of study

Group Traits

• Biology:Autapomorphy – Distinctive feature, known as a derived trait, that is unique to a given taxon

Group Types

• Biology:Monophyly – Property of a group of including all taxa descendant from a common ancestral species
• Biology:Paraphyly – Type of taxonomic group
• Biology:Polyphyly – Property of a group not united by common ancestry

Evolution of biodiversity

• Biology:Biodiversity – Variety and variability of life forms

Origin and evolutionary history of life

• Biology:Abiogenesis – Natural process by which life arises from non-living matter
• Biology:History of life – Processes by which organisms evolved on Earth
• Biology:Timeline of the evolutionary history of life – Major events during the development of life

Evolution of organisms

Evolution of tetrapods

• Biology:Evolution of tetrapods – Evolution of four legged vertebrates and their derivatives
  • Biology:Evolution of dinosaurs – An outline and examples of dinosaur evolution
    • Biology:Evolution of birds – Derivation of birds from a dinosaur precursor
  • Biology:Evolution of mammals – Derivation of mammals from a synapsid precursor, and the adaptive radiation of mammal species
    • Biology:Evolution of cetaceans
    • Evolution of horses – Derivation of horses from an ungulate precursor
      • • Philosophy:Evolution of human intelligence – Evolution of the brain and the origin of language
        • Biology:Human evolutionary genetics – Study of differences between human genomes
        • Biology:Timeline of human evolution – Chronological outline of major events in the development of the human species
    • Biology:Evolution of sirenians – Development from a Tethytherian ancestor and radiation of species
  • Biology:Evolution of reptiles – Origin and diversification of reptiles through geologic time

Evolution of other animals

• • Biology:Peppered moth evolution – Significance of the peppered moth in evolutionary biology
• Biology:Evolution of molluscs – The origin and diversification of molluscs through geologic time

Evolution of plants

• • Biology:Evolutionary anachronism – Attributes of living species that arose due to coevolution with other now-extinct species
  • Biology:Plant evolution – Subset of evolutionary phenomena that concern plants
  • Biology:Plant evolutionary developmental biology – Study of developmental programs and patterns in plants from an evolutionary perspective
  • Biology:Timeline of plant evolution – Chronological outline of major events in the development of plants

Evolution of other taxa

• Biology:Evolution of fungi – Origin and diversification of fungi through geologic time
  • Biology:Evolution of influenza
• Biology:E. coli long-term evolution experiment – Scientific study

Evolution of cells, organs, and systems

• Biology:Evolution of cells – Evolutionary origin and subsequent development of cells
• Biology:Evolution of mammalian auditory ossicles – Middle ear bones evolved from jaw bones
• Biology:Evolution of snake venom – Origin and diversification of snake venom through geologic time
• Biology:Evolution of the eye – Origins and diversification of the organs of sight through geologic time

Evolution of molecules and genes

• Biology:Directed evolution – Protein engineering method
• Biology:Error threshold (evolution) – Theoretical limit on rate of mutation
• Biology:Gene-centered view of evolution – Theory of the "selfish gene"
• Biology:Genome evolution – Process by which a genome changes in structure or size over time
• Biology:Hologenome theory of evolution – Organism as host plus microbe community
• Biology:Models of DNA evolution – Mathematical models of changing DNA
• Biology:Molecular evolution – Process of change in the sequence composition of cellular molecules across generations
  • Biology:History of molecular evolution – History of the field of study of molecular evolution
  • Biology:Neutral theory of molecular evolution
  • Biology:Nearly neutral theory of molecular evolution – Variant of one theory of evolution
• Biology:Neutral network (evolution) – Set of genes all related by point mutations that have equivalent function or fitness
• Biology:RNA-based evolution – Theory that RNA plays an independent role in determining phenotype

Evolution of behaviour

• Biology:Co-operation (evolution) – Evolutionary process where groups of organisms work or act together for common or mutual benefits
• Biology:Evolution of biparental care in tropical frogs – The evolution of the behaviour in frogs in which both the mother and father raise their offspring
• Philosophy:Evolution of emotion – Study of the evolution of emotions
• Biology:Evolution of eusociality – Origins of cooperative brood care
• Biology:Monogamy in animals – Natural history of mating systems in which species pair bond to raise offspring
• Philosophy:Reciprocal altruism – Form of behaviour between organisms
• Biology:Reciprocity (evolution) – Mechanism favouring cooperative traits

Evolution of other processes

• Biology:Evolution of ageing – Study of the evolutionary development of ageing processes
• Biology:Origin of avian flight – Evolution of birds from non-flying ancestors
• Biology:Evolution of biological complexity – Tendency for maximum complexity to increase over time, though without any overall direction
• Biology:Mosaic evolution – Evolution of characters at various rates both within and between species
• Biology:Evolution of sexual reproduction
  • Biology:Mating type – Term in biologys
  • Life cycles/nuclear phases – Series of stages of an organism

Applications in other disciplines

• Biology:Applications of evolution – Practical application of biological evolution
• Biology:Biological anthropology – Branch of anthropology that studies the physical development of the human species
• Philosophy:Evolutionary aesthetics – Evolutionary psychology theories
• Biology:Evolutionary anthropology – Interdisciplinary study
• Evolutionary computation – Trial and error problem solvers with a metaheuristic or stochastic optimization character
  • Evolutionary algorithm – Subset of evolutionary computation
• Finance:Evolutionary economics – Part of mainstream economics
  • Finance:Kenneth Boulding's evolutionary perspective – Approach to economic theory based on an evolutionary model
• Philosophy:Evolutionary epistemology – Ambiguous term applied to several concepts
• Philosophy:Evolutionary ethics – Study of evolution on morality or ethics
• Biology:Evolutionary linguistics – Sociobiological approaches to linguistics
• Medicine:Evolutionary medicine – Application of modern evolutionary theory to understanding health and disease
• Philosophy:Evolutionary psychology – Branch of psychology
  • Philosophy:Biosocial criminology – Psychosocial examination of crime
  • Philosophy:Criticism of evolutionary psychology –  –
  • Philosophy:Evolution of morality –  –
  • Philosophy:Evolution of schizophrenia –  –
  • Philosophy:Evolutionary aesthetics –  –
  • Philosophy:Evolutionary approaches to depression –  –
  • Philosophy:Evolutionary developmental psychology –  –
  • Philosophy:Evolutionary educational psychology –  –
  • Philosophy:Evolutionary ethics –  –
  • Philosophy:Evolutionary leadership theory –  –
  • Philosophy:Evolutionary musicology –  –
  • Biology:Evolutionary origin of religions –  –
  • Philosophy:Evolutionary psychology of language –  –
  • Philosophy:Evolutionary psychology of parenting –  –
  • Religion:Evolutionary psychology of religion –  –
  • Philosophy:Theoretical foundations of evolutionary psychology –  –
• Evolutionary robotics –  –
• Evolutionary systems –  –
• Philosophy:Sociobiology –  –
  • Social:Sociocultural evolution –  –
• Biology:Universal Darwinism –  –

Evolutionary issues

Controversy about evolution

• Unsolved:Creation–evolution controversy –  –
  • Outline of the creation–evolution controversy –  –
• Philosophy:Criticism of evolutionary psychology –  –
• Philosophy:Evolutionary argument against naturalism –  –
• Biology:Level of support for evolution –  –
• Philosophy:Objections to evolution –  –
• Philosophy:Social effects of evolutionary theory –  –
• Unsolved:Theology of creationism and evolution –  –

Religious and philosophical views of evolution

• Religion:Acceptance of evolution by religious groups –  –
• Biology:Conscious evolution –  –
• Religion:Buddhism and evolution –  –
• Religion:Catholic Church and evolution –  –
• Religion:Hindu views on evolution –  –
• Religion:Islamic views on evolution –  –
• Religion:Jewish views on evolution –  –
• Religion:Mormon views on evolution –  –
• Religion:Theistic evolution –  –

Influence of evolutionary theory

• Philosophy:Social effects of evolutionary theory –  –
• See also Applications in other disciplines

Publications and organizations concerning evolution

Books

• Evolution: The Modern Synthesis – book by Julian Huxley (grandson of Thomas Henry Huxley); one of the most important books of modern evolutionary synthesis, published in 1942
• The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection – book by R.A. Fisher important in modern evolutionary synthesis, first published in 1930
• Genetics and the Origin of Species – 1937 book by Ukrainian-American evolutionary biologist Theodosius Dobzhansky
• On the Origin of Species – seminal book by Charles Darwin concerning evolution by natural selection, first published in 1859
• Systematics and the Origin of Species from the Viewpoint of a Zoologist – book by zoologist and evolutionary biologist Ernst Mayr, canonical publication of modern evolutionary synthesis, first published in 1942 by Columbia University Press
• The Structure of Evolutionary Theory – technical book on macroevolutionary theory by the Harvard paleontologist Stephen Jay Gould

Journals

• Evolutionary Bioinformatics –  –

Organizations

• Organization:European Society for Evolutionary Biology –  –
• Organization:Society for the Study of Evolution –  –
• Philosophy:Evolutionary psychology research groups and centers –  –
• Organization:Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Biology –  –
• Organization:National Evolutionary Synthesis Center –  –
• Organization:Systematic and Evolutionary Biogeography Association –  –

Evolution scholars and researchers

• Biography:List of evolutionary psychologists –  –

Prominent evolutionary biologists

• Biography:Charles Darwin –  –
• Biography:Theodosius Dobzhansky –  –
• Biography:Richard Dawkins –  –
• Biography:Stephen Jay Gould –  –
• Biography:J. B. S. Haldane –  –
• Biography:Julian Huxley –  –
• Biography:Thomas Henry Huxley –  –
• Biography:Ronald Fisher –  –
• Biography:Ernst Mayr –  –
• Biography:Alfred Russel Wallace –  –
• Biography:Sewall Wright –  –

See also

• Biology:Outline of biology –  –
  • Biology:Outline of genetics –  –
• Earth:Biogeography –  –
• Biology:Conscious evolution –  –
• Biology:Effective evolutionary time –  –
• Evolutionary acquisition of neural topologies –  –
• Biology:Evolutionary anachronism –  –
• Philosophy:Evolutionary approaches to depression –  –
• Philosophy:Evolutionary argument against naturalism –  –
• Evolutionary art –  –
  • Evolutionary music –  –
• Biology:Evolutionary baggage –  –
• Philosophy:Evolutionary Humanism –  –
• Biology:Evolutionary landscape –  –
• Biology:Evolutionary Principle –  –
• Biology:Extinction –  –
  • Biology:Extinction event –  –
  • Unsolved:Human extinction –  –
• Software:MEGA, Molecular Evolutionary Genetics Analysis –  –
• Biology:Sloshing bucket model of evolution –  –
• Biology:Spandrel –  –
• Unsolved:Speculative evolution –  –
• Biology:Transitional fossil –  –

External links

General information

• "Evolution". New Scientist. https://www.newscientist.com/topic/evolution. 
• "Evolution Resources from the National Academies". U.S. National Academy of Sciences. http://nationalacademies.org/evolution/. 
• "Understanding Evolution: your one-stop resource for information on Evolution". University of California, Berkeley. http://evolution.berkeley.edu/. 
• "Evolution of Evolution – 150 Years of Darwin's "On the Origin of Species"". National Science Foundation. https://www.nsf.gov/news/special_reports/darwin/textonly/index.jsp. 
• Human Timeline (Interactive) – Smithsonian, National Museum of Natural History (August 2016).

Experiments concerning the process of biological evolution

• Lenski RE. "Experimental Evolution – Michigan State University". http://myxo.css.msu.edu/index.html. 
• Algorithms, games, and evolution, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA

Online lectures

• Carroll SB. "The Making of the Fittest". http://www.molbio.wisc.edu/carroll/Fittest.html. 
• Stearns SC. "Principles of Evolution, Ecology and Behavior". http://oyc.yale.edu/ecology-and-evolutionary-biology/principles-of-evolution-ecology-and-behavior/.