Social:Cirth

Short description: Artificial script in the fantasy works of J. R. R. Tolkien

Cirth
The word "Cirth" written using the Cirth in the Angerthas Daeron mode
Type	Alphabet
Languages	Khuzdul, Sindarin, Quenya, Westron, English
Creator	J. R. R. Tolkien
Direction	Varies
ISO 15924	Cirt, 291

The Cirth (sjn, meaning "runes"; sg. certh sjn) is a semi‑artificial script, based on real‑life runic alphabets, one of several scripts invented by J. R. R. Tolkien for the constructed languages he devised and used in his works. Cirth is written with a capital letter when referring to the writing system; the letters themselves can be called cirth.

In the fictional history of Middle-earth, the original Certhas was created by the Sindar (or Grey Elves) for their language, Sindarin. Its extension and elaboration was known as the Angerthas Daeron, as it was attributed to the Sinda Daeron, despite the fact that it was most probably arranged by the Noldor in order to represent the sounds of other languages like Quenya and Telerin.

Although it was later largely replaced by the Tengwar, the Cirth was nonetheless adopted by the Dwarves to write down both their Khuzdul language (Angerthas Moria) and the languages of Men (Angerthas Erebor). The Cirth was also adapted, in its oldest and simplest form, by various races including Men and even Orcs.

External history

Concept and creation

Rock carving in Cirth in the Sydney Harbour National Park, dating back to the 1980s at least

Many letters have shapes also found in the historical runic alphabets, but their sound values are only similar in a few of the vowels. Rather, the system of assignment of sound values is much more systematic in the Cirth than in the historical runes (e.g., voiced variants of a voiceless sound are expressed by an additional stroke).

The division between the older Cirth of Daeron and their adaptation by Dwarves and Men has been interpreted as a parallel drawn by Tolkien to the development of the Fuþorc to the Younger Fuþark. The original Elvish Cirth "as supposed products of a superior culture" are focused on logical arrangement and a close connection between form and value whereas the adaptations by mortal races introduced irregularities. Similar to the Germanic tribes who had no written literature and used only simple runes before their conversion to Christianity, the Sindarin Elves of Beleriand with their Cirth were introduced to the more elaborate Tengwar of Fëanor when the Noldorin Elves returned to Middle-earth from the lands of the divine Valar.

Internal history and description

Certhas

In the Appendix E to The Return of the King, Tolkien writes that the Sindar of Beleriand first developed an alphabet for their language some time between the invention of the Tengwar by Fëanor (YT 1250) and the introduction thereof to Middle-earth by the Exiled Noldor at the beginning of the First Age.

This alphabet was devised to represent only the sounds of their Sindarin language and its letters were mostly used for inscribing names or brief memorials on wood, stone or metal, hence their angular shapes and straight lines. In Sindarin these letters were named cirth (sing. certh), from the Elvish root *kir- meaning "to cleave, to cut". An abecedarium of cirth, consisting of the runes listed in due order, was commonly known as Certhas (sjn, meaning "rune-rows" in Sindarin and loosely translated as "runic alphabet").

The oldest cirth were the following:

Consonants	p	20px b	20px mh	m
	t	20px d	n
	k	20px g	ng
	r	20px l	20px ~ 20px h or s	20px s or h	ss
Vowels	i	20px u	20px e	o

The form of these letters was somewhat unsystematic, unlike later rearrangements and extensions that made them more featural. The cirth and 16px were used for ⟨h⟩ and ⟨s⟩, but varied as to which was which. Many of the runes consisted of a single vertical line (or "stem") with an appendage (or "branch") attached to one or both sides. If the attachment was made on one side only, it was usually to the right, but "the reverse was not infrequent" and did not change the value of the letter. (For example, the variants 20px or 20px specifically mentioned for h or s, also 16px or for t, etc).

Angerthas Daeron

In Beleriand, before the end of the First Age, the Certhas was rearranged and further developed, partly under the influence of the Tengwar introduced by the Noldor. This reorganisation of the Cirth was commonly attributed to the Elf Daeron, minstrel and loremaster of King Thingol of Doriath. Thus, the new system became known as the Angerthas Daeron (where "angerthas" sjn is from Sindarin "an(d)" sjn + "certhas" sjn, meaning "long rune-rows").

In this arrangement, the assignment of values to each certh is systematic. The runes consisting of a stem and a branch attached to the right are used for voiceless stops, while other sounds are allocated according to the following principles:

1. adding a stroke to a branch adds voice (e.g., [p] → [b]);
2. moving the branch to the left indicates opening to a spirant (e.g., [t] → [θ]);
3. placing the branch on both sides of the stem adds voice and nasality (e.g., [k] → [ŋ]).

The cirth constructed in this way can therefore be arranged into series, each corresponding to a place of articulation:

• labial consonants, based on ;
• dental consonants, based on ;
• front consonants, based on ;
• velar consonants, based on ;
• labialized velar consonants, based on .

Other letters introduced in this system include: and 16px for ⟨a⟩ and ⟨w⟩, respectively; runes for long vowels, evidently originated by doubling and binding the certh of the corresponding short vowel (e.g., 16px16px ⟨oo⟩ → 16px ⟨ō⟩); two front vowels, probably stemming from ligatures of the corresponding back vowel with the ⟨i⟩-certh (i.e., 16px16px → 16px ⟨ü⟩, and 16px16px → 16px ⟨ö⟩); some homorganic nasal + stop clusters (e.g., [nd]).

Back to the fictional history, since the new -series and 16px-series encompass sounds which do not occur in Sindarin but are present in Quenya, they were most probably introduced by the Exiled Noldor who spoke Quenya as a language of knowledge.

By loan-translation, the Cirth became known in Quenya as Certar qya, while a single certh was called certa qya.

After the Tengwar became the sole script used for writing, the Angerthas Daeron was essentially relegated to carved inscriptions. The Elves of the West, for the most part, abandoned the Cirth altogether, with the exception of the Noldor dwelling in the country of Eregion, who maintained it in use and made it known as Angerthas Eregion.

 Note: In this article, the runes of the Angerthas come with the same peculiar transliteration used by Tolkien in the Appendix E, which differs from the (Latin) spelling of both Quenya and Sindarin. The IPA transcription that follows is applicable to both languages, except where indicated otherwise.

Regularly formed cirth

Labial consonants	Certh			20px	20px	20px	20px
	Transliteration		p	b	f	v	m	mh, mb
	IPA		[p]	[b]	[f]	[v]	[m]	(S.) [ṽ] (Q.) [mb]
Dental consonants	Certh			20px	20px	20px	20px	20px or
	Transliteration		t	d	th	dh	n	nd
	IPA		[t]	[d]	[θ]	[ð]	[n]	[nd]
Front consonants	Certh			20px	20px	20px
	Transliteration		ch	j	sh	zh	nj
	IPA	(N.)	[c⁽ȷ̊⁾]	[ɟj]	[ç]	[ʝ]	ɟ[ɲj] ← [ɲɟj]
		(V.)	[t͡ʃ]	[d͡ʒ]	[ʃ]	[ʒ]		[nd͡ʒ]
Velar consonants	Certh			20px	20px	20px	20px
	Transliteration		k	g	kh	gh	ŋ	ng
	IPA		[k]	[ɡ]	[x]	[ɣ]	[ŋ]	[ŋɡ]
Labiovelar consonants	Certh			20px	20px	20px	20px
	Transliteration
	IPA	(Q.)	[kʷ₍w̥₎]	[ɡʷw]	[ʍ]	[w]	[nʷw]←[ŋʷw]	[ŋɡʷw]

Additional cirth

Consonants	Certh		20px	20px	20px	20px or 20px	20px
	Transliteration	r	rh	l	lh	s	ss or z	h
	IPA	[r]	[r̥]	[l]	[l̥]	[s]	[sː] or [z]	[h]
Approximants	Certh
	Transliteration		w	hw
	IPA		[w]	[ʍ]
Vowels	Certh		20px		20px	20px
	Transliteration	i, y	u		e	a	o
	IPA	[i], [j]	[u]		[e]	[a]	[o]
Long vowels	Certh				20px	20px	20px or
	Transliteration		ū		ē	ā	ō
	IPA		[uː]		[eː]	[aː]	[oː]
Fronted vowels	Certh		or 20px				20px or
	Transliteration		ü				ö
	IPA		[y]				[œ]

Notes:

1. ^ The certh was not clearly related in shape to the dentals.
2. ^ The -series, which represents the front consonants of Quenya, is essentially the Cirth counterpart to the Tengwar tyelpetéma (column III in the General Use).
   In this article, each certh of this series comes with two IPA transcriptions. The reason is that these consonants are realised as palatals in Noldorin Quenya, but as postalveolars in Vanyarin Quenya. Although the Angerthas Daeron was devised for the Noldorin variety, it is deemed necessary to show the Vanyarin pronunciation as well, given that the very transliteration used by Tolkien is more akin to the Vanyarin phonology.
3. ^ The certh , much like the tengwa "ñwalme", formerly represented Quenya ⟨ñw⟩ (pronounced [ŋʷw]), occurring only in initial position. This sound later evolved into [nʷw], explaining the transliteration of this certh as ⟨nw⟩. Non-initial occurrences of [nʷw] are most probably interpreted as ⟨n⟩+⟨w⟩ (i.e., two separate cirth).
4. ^ The certh , the theoretical value of which is ⟨z⟩, is instead used as ⟨ss⟩ in both Quenya and Sindarin (cf. the tengwa "esse"/"áze").
5. ^ The new certh was introduced for ⟨h⟩: it is similar in shape both to the certh 16px (formerly used for ⟨h⟩, then reassigned to ⟨ty⟩) and to the tengwa "hyarmen".
6. ^ The certh , the theoretical value of which was ⟨m⟩, was used for Sindarin ⟨hw⟩ for the reasons stated above (cf. the tengwa "hwesta sindarinwa").

Angerthas Moria

According to Tolkien's legendarium, the Dwarves first came to know the runes of the Noldor at the beginning of the Second Age. The Dwarves "introduced a number of unsystematic changes in value, as well as certain new cirth". They modified the previous system to suit the specific needs of their language, Khuzdul. The Dwarves spread their revised alphabet to Moria, where it came to be known as Angerthas Moria, and developed both carved and pen-written forms of these runes.

Many cirth here represent sounds not occurring in Khuzdul (at least in published words of Khuzdul: of course, our corpus is very limited to judge the necessity or not, of these sounds). Here they are marked with a black star (^★).

Certh	Translit.	IPA'	Certh	Translit.	IPA	Certh	Translit.	IPA'	Certh	Translit.	IPA
	p	/p/★					l	/l/		e	/e/
	b	/b/		z	/z/		lh	/ɬ/★		ê	/eː/
	f	/f/		k	/k/		nd	/nd/		a	/a/
	v	/v/★		g	/ɡ/		h	/h/		â	/aː/
	hw	/ʍ/★		kh	/x/★		ʻ	/ʔ/		o	/o/
	m	/m/		gh	/ɣ/★		ŋ	/ŋ/★	or	ô	/oː/
	mb	/mb/		n	/n/		ng	/ŋɡ/	or	ö	/œ/★
	t	/t/		kw	/kʷ/★	or	nj	/ndʒ/★		n	/n/
	d	/d/		gw	/ɡʷ/★		i	/i/		s	/s/
	th	/θ/★		khw	/xʷ/★		y	/j/	or		/ə/
	dh	/ð/★		ghw	/ɣʷ/★		hy	/j̊, ç/★	or		/ʌ/
	r	/ʀ, ʁ, r/		ngw	/ŋɡʷ/★		u	/u/
	ch	/tʃ, c/★		nw	/nʷ/★		û	/uː/
				j	/dʒ, ɟ/★		w	/w/★		+h	/◌ʰ/
	sh	/ʃ/		zh	/ʒ/★	or	ü	/y/★		&

Notes:

A.	^ The Khuzdul language has two glottal consonants: /h/ and /ʔ/, the latter being "the glottal beginning of a word with an initial vowel". Thus, in need of a reversible certh to represent these sounds, and 16px were switched, giving the former the value /s/ and using the latter for /h/, and its reversed counterpart for /ʔ/.
B.	^ These cirth were a halved form of , used for vowels like those in the word ⟨butter⟩ /ˈbʌtə/. Thus, 16px represented a /ə/ sound in unstressed syllables, while 16px represented /ʌ/, a somehow similar sound, in stressed syllables. When weak they were reduced to a stroke without a stem (16px, ).
C.	^ This letter denotes aspiration in voiceless stops, occurring frequently in Khuzdul as kh and th.
D.	^ This certh is a scribal abbreviation used to represent a conjunction, and is basically identical to the ampersand ⟨&⟩ used in Latin script.

Runes in the upper inscription of Balin's tomb use Angerthas Moria, reading left-to-right:

Balin
Fu[nd]inul
UzbadKʰazaddûmu

In Angerthas Moria the cirth /dʒ/ and 16px /ʒ/ were dropped. Thus 16px and 16px were adopted for /dʒ/ and /ʒ/, although they were used for /r/ and /r̥/ in Elvish languages. Subsequently, this script used the certh 16px for /ʀ/ (or /ʁ/), which had the sound /n/ in the Elvish systems. Therefore, the certh 16px (which was previously used for the sound /ŋ/, useless in Khuzdul) was adopted for the sound /n/. A totally new introduction was the certh 16px, used as an alternative, simplified and, maybe, weaker form of 16px. Because of the visual relation of these two cirth, the certh 16px was given the sound /z/ to relate better with that, in this script, had the sound /s/.

Angerthas Erebor

At the beginning of the Third Age the Dwarves were driven out of Moria, and some migrated to Erebor. As the Dwarves of Erebor would trade with the Men of the nearby towns of Dale and Lake-town, they needed a script to write in Westron (the lingua franca of Middle-earth, usually rendered in English by Tolkien in his works). The Angerthas Moria was adapted accordingly: some new cirth were added, while some were restored to their Elvish usage, thus creating the Angerthas Erebor.

While the Angerthas Moria was still used to write down Khuzdul, this new script was primarily used for Mannish languages. It is also the script used in the first and third page of the Book of Mazarbul.

Certh	Translit.	IPA	Certh	Translit.	IPA	Certh	Translit.	IPA	Certh	Translit.	IPA
	p	/p/		zh	/ʒ/		l	/l/		e	/e/
	b	/b/		ks	/ks/
	f	/f/		k	/k/		nd	/nd/		a	/a/
	v	/v/		g	/ɡ/		s	/s/
	hw	/ʍ/		kh	/x/					o	/o/
	m	/m/		gh	/ɣ/		ŋ	/ŋ/
	mb	/mb/		n	/n/		ng	/ŋɡ/	or	ö	/œ/
	t	/t/		kw	/kʷ/					n	/n/
	d	/d/		gw	/ɡʷ/		i	/i/		h	/h/
	th	/θ/		khw	/xʷ/		y	/j/	or		/ə/
	dh	/ð/		ghw	/ɣʷ/		hy	/j̊/ or /ç/	or		/ʌ/
	r	/r/		ngw	/ŋɡʷ/		u	/u/		ps	/ps/
	ch	/tʃ/		nw	/nʷ/		z	/z/		ts	/ts/
	j	/dʒ/		g	/ɡ/		w	/w/		+h	/◌ʰ/
	sh	/ʃ/		gh	/ɣ/	or	ü	/y/		&

Angerthas Erebor also features combining diacritics:

• a circumflex used to denote long consonants;
• a macron below to indicate a long vowel sound;
• an underdot to mark cirth used as numerals. As a matter of fact, in the Book of Mazarbul some cirth are used as numerals: 16px for 1, 16px for 2, 16px for 3, 16px for 4, for 5.

The bottom inscription of Balin's tomb is written in English using the Angerthas Erebor. It reads left-to-right: "Balin sʌn ov Fu[nd]in lord ov Moria"

The Angerthas Erebor is used twice in The Lord of the Rings to write in English:

1. in the upper inscription of the title page, where it reads "[dh]ə·lord·ov·[dh]ə·riŋs·translatᵊd·from·[dh]ə·red·b[oo]k' ..." (the sentence follows in the bottom inscription, written in Tengwar: "... of Westmarch by John Ronald Reuel Tolkien. Herein is set forth/ the history of the War of the Ring and the Return of the King as seen by the Hobbits.");
2. in the bottom inscription of Balin's tomb—being the translation of the upper inscription, which is written in Khuzdul using Angerthas Moria.

The Book of Mazarbul shows some additional cirth used in Angerthas Erebor: one for a double ⟨l⟩ ligature, one for the definite article, and six for the representation of the same number of English diphthongs:

Certh	English spelling
	⟨ll⟩
	⟨the⟩
	⟨ai⟩, ⟨ay⟩
	⟨au⟩, ⟨aw⟩
	⟨ea⟩
	⟨ee⟩
	⟨eu⟩, ⟨ew⟩
	⟨oa⟩
	⟨oo⟩
	⟨ou⟩, ⟨ow⟩

Notes:

A.	^ This certh is a scribal abbreviation used to represent the definite article. Although in English it stands for ⟨the⟩, it can assume different values according to the used language.
∗.	^ The cirth marked with an asterisk are unique to Angerthas Erebor.

Other runic scripts by Tolkien

The Cirth is not the only runic writing system used by Tolkien in his legendarium. In fact, he devised a great number of runic alphabets, of which only a few others have been published. Some of these are included in the "Appendix on Runes" of The Treason of Isengard (The History of Middle-earth, vol. VII), edited by Christopher Tolkien.

Runes from The Hobbit

According to Tolkien himself, those found in The Hobbit are a form of "English runes" used in lieu of the Dwarvish runes proper. They can be interpreted as an attempt made by Tolkien to adapt the Fuþorc (i.e., the Old English runic alphabet) to the Modern English language.

These runes are basically the same found in Fuþorc, but their sound may change according to their position, just like the letters of the Latin script: the writing mode used by Tolkien is, in this case, mainly orthographic. This means that the system has one rune for each Latin letter, regardless of pronunciation. For example, the rune 16px ⟨c⟩ can sound /k/ in ⟨cover⟩, /s/ in ⟨sincere⟩, /ʃ/ in ⟨special⟩, and even /tʃ/ in the digraph 16px ⟨ch⟩.

A few sounds are instead written with the same rune, without considering the English spelling. For example, the sound /ɔː/ is always written with the rune whether in English it is spelt ⟨o⟩ as in ⟨north⟩, ⟨a⟩ as in ⟨fall⟩, or ⟨oo⟩ as in ⟨door⟩. The only two letters that are subject to this phonemic spelling are ⟨a⟩ and ⟨o⟩.

Finally, some runes stand for particular English digraphs and diphthongs.

Here the runes used in The Hobbit are displayed along with their Fuþorc counterpart and corresponding English grapheme:

Rune	Fuþorc	English grapheme		Rune	Fuþorc	English grapheme
	ᚪ	phonemic			ᚱ	⟨r⟩
	ᚫ				ᛋ	⟨s⟩
	ᛒ	⟨b⟩			ᛏ	⟨t⟩
	ᚳ	⟨c⟩			ᚢ	⟨u⟩, ⟨v⟩
	ᛞ	⟨d⟩			ᚹ	⟨w⟩
	ᛖ	⟨e⟩			ᛉ	⟨x⟩
	ᚠ	⟨f⟩, ⟨ph⟩			ᚣ	⟨y⟩
	ᚷ	⟨g⟩			ᛣ	⟨z⟩
	ᚻ	⟨h⟩			ᚦ	⟨th⟩
	ᛁ	⟨i⟩, ⟨j⟩			ᛠ	⟨ea⟩
	ᛱ	⟨k⟩			ᛥ	⟨st⟩
	ᛚ	⟨l⟩			ᛟ	⟨ee⟩
	ᛗ	⟨m⟩			ᛝ	⟨ng⟩
	ᚾ	⟨n⟩			ᛇ	⟨eo⟩
	ᚩ	phonemic			ᛳ	⟨oo⟩
	ᛈ	⟨p⟩			ᛲ	⟨sh⟩

Notes:

1. ^ This table summarises the transcription of English ⟨a⟩ and ⟨o⟩ in runes:

English grapheme	Sound value (IPA)	Rune
⟨a⟩	/æ/
	every other sound
	/ɔː/
⟨o⟩	every sound
⟨oo⟩	/ɔː/
	every other sound

2. ^ The three runes , 16px, and were invented by Tolkien and are not attested in real-life Fuþorc.
3. ^ According to Tolkien, this is a "dwarf-rune" which "may be used if required" as an addendum to the English runes.
4. Tolkien commonly writes the English digraph ⟨wh⟩ (pronounced Template:IPA-endia in some varieties of English) as ⟨hw⟩.
5. There is no rune to transliterate ⟨q⟩: the digraph ⟨qu⟩ (representing the sound Template:IPA-endia, like in ⟨queen⟩) is always written as 16px ⟨cw⟩, reflecting the Anglo-Saxon spelling ⟨Template:Script/Gaelic⟩.

Gondolinic runes

Not all the runes mentioned in The Hobbit are Dwarf-runes. The swords found in the Trolls' cave bore runes that Gandalf could not read. In fact, the swords Glamdring and Orcrist (which were forged in the ancient kingdom of Gondolin) bore a type of letters known as Gondolinic runes. They seem to have become obsolete and been forgotten by the Third Age, and this is supported by the fact that only Elrond could still read the inscriptions on the swords.

Tolkien devised this runic alphabet in a very early stage of his shaping of Middle-earth. Nevertheless, they are known to us from a slip of paper that Tolkien wrote; his son Christopher sent a photocopy of it to Paul Nolan Hyde in February 1992. Hyde published it, with an extensive analysis, in the 1992 Summer issue of Mythlore, no. 69.

The system provides sounds not found in any of the known Elvish languages of the First Age, but perhaps it was designed for a variety of languages. However, the consonants seem to be, more or less, the same found in Welsh phonology, a theory supported by the fact that Tolkien was heavily influenced by Welsh when creating Elvish languages.

Consonants

	Labial			Dentals									Palatal			Dorsal			Glottal
	Rune		IPA	Rune		IPA	Rune		IPA	Rune		IPA	Rune		IPA	Rune		IPA	Rune		IPA
Plosive		p	/p/					t	/t/								k (c)	/k/
		b	/b/					d	/d/								g	/ɡ/
Fricative		f	/f/		þ	/θ/		s	/s/		š	/ʃ/					χ	/x/		h	/h/
		v	/v/		ð	/ð/		z	/z/		ž	/ʒ/
Affricate											tš (ch)	/t͡ʃ/
											dž (j)	/d͡ʒ/
Nasal		m	/m/					n	/n/								ŋ	/ŋ/
		(mh)	/m̥/					χ̃	/n̥/?								(ŋh)	/ŋ̊/
Trill								r	/r/
								rh	/r̥/
Lateral								l	/l/
							20px	lh	/ɬ/
Approximant													20px	j (i̯)	/j/		w (u̯)	/w/
																	ƕ	/ʍ/

Vowels

Rune		IPA	Rune		IPA	Rune		IPA	Rune		IPA	Rune		IPA
	a	/a/		e	/ɛ/		i	/i/		o	/ɔ/		u	/u/
	ā	/aː/		ē	/eː/		ī	/iː/		ō	/oː/		ū	/uː/
	æ	/æ/								œ	/œ/		y	/y/
	ǣ	/æː/								œ̄	/œː/	20px 20px	ȳ	/yː/

Encoding schemes

Unicode

Equivalents for some (but not all) cirth can be found in the Runic block of Unicode.

Tolkien's mode of writing Modern English in Anglo-Saxon runes received explicit recognition with the introduction of his three additional runes to the Runic block with the release of Unicode 7.0, in June 2014. The three characters represent the English ⟨k⟩, ⟨oo⟩ and ⟨sh⟩ graphemes, as follows:

• U+16F1 ᛱ RUNIC LETTER K
• U+16F2 ᛲ RUNIC LETTER SH
• U+16F3 ᛳ RUNIC LETTER OO

A formal Unicode proposal to encode Cirth as a separate script was made in September 1997 by Michael Everson. No action was taken by the Unicode Technical Committee (UTC) but Cirth appears in the Roadmap to the SMP.

ConScript Unicode Registry

Short description: Unicode character block

Cirth (in Private Use Area)
Range	U+E080..U+E0FF (128 code points)
Plane	BMP
Scripts	Artificial Scripts
Major alphabets	Cirth
Assigned	109 code points
Unused	19 reserved code points
Source standards	CSUR
Note: Part of Private Use Area; possible conflicting fonts

Unicode Private Use Area layouts for Cirth are defined at the ConScript Unicode Registry (CSUR) and the Under-ConScript Unicode Registry (UCSUR).

Two different layouts are defined by the CSUR/UCSUR:

• 1997-11-03 proposal implemented by fonts like GNU Unifont and Code2000.
• 2000-04-22 discussion paper implemented by fonts like Constructium and Fairfax.

Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols below instead of Cirth.

See also

• List of runestones