Biology:Haplogroup C-M217

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Short description: Human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup
Haplogroup C-M217
C2 (previously C3)[1]
Haplogrupo C3 (ADN-Y).PNG
Possible time of origin50,865 [95% CI 38,317 <-> 61,900] ybp[2]

52,500 or 44,900 ybp[3]

48,400 [95% CI 46,000 <-> 50,900] ybp[4]
Coalescence age35,383 [95% CI 25,943 <-> 44,092] ybp[2]

34,000 [95% CI 31,500 <-> 36,700] ybp[4]
Possible place of originProbably Central Asia or East Asia
AncestorC-M130
DescendantsC-M93 (C2a); C-CTS117 (C2b); C-P53.1 (C2c); C-P62 (C2d); C-F2613/Z1338 (C2e)
Defining mutationsM217, P44, PK2
Highest frequenciesOroqen 61%[5]-91%,[6] Evenks 12.9%[7] - 71%,[8][9] Ulchi 69%,[10] Nivkhs 38%[11]-71%,[12] Kazakhs 50.85%[13] (5.3% Ysty[13] - 80.3% Baiuly[13]),[14] Buryats 7%[15]-84%,[11] Evens 5%[9]-74%,[16] Mongolians 52.3%[16] (22.9% China,[17] 24.39% China,[18] 45% Northeast Mongolia,[19] 46.7% Oroqen Autonomous Banner,[5] 47.8% Southeast Mongolia,[19] 52.6% Northwest Mongolia,[19] 53.8% Batsümber,[5] 55% Central and Southwest Mongolia[19]), Tanana 42%,[20] Koryaks 33%[8][9]-48%,[12] Hazaras 35%[19]–40%,[21] Yukaghir 31%,[22] Daur 30.8%[5]-42.5%,[23] Sibe (Xinjiang) 26.8% (11/41)[5] - 29.5% (18/61),[24] Hezhe (Heilongjiang) 23%,[5][17] Manchu 17.67%[25] (9.3% Bijie[26] - 44.0% Heilongjiang[24]), Tujia ≈21% (16%,[27] 18% Jishou,[16] 21% Guizhou,[24] 23% Hubei,[24] 27% Hunan[28]), North Korean 23% (19%[29]-27%[24]), Altai 22%[16]-24%,[6] Dong 21% (6% Guangxi,[24] 20% Hunan,[28] 22% Hunan,[24] 30% Guizhou[24]), Kyrgyz 20%[19]-26.6%,[30] Uzbeks 20% (Uzbekistan[6]) - 54% (Takhar[31]), Hani 18% (12% Mường Tè,[32] 18%,[5] 22% Yunnan[24]), South Korean 16% (11.6%[33]-21%[34]), Cheyenne 16%,[20] Apache 15%,[20] Northern Han 14.7% (4.3%-29.6%),[24] Tuvans 11%[35] – 15%,[22] Ainu 12.5%[11]-25%,[16] Hui 11%,[5][6] Sioux 11%,[20] Nogais 14%,[36] Crimean Tatars 9%,[36] Uyghurs 8.27% (0% Ürümqi,[5] 0% Turpan area,[24] 2.6% Keriya,[37] 3.1% Lopnur,[37] 6.0%,[16] 6.0% Ürümqi area,[24] 6.3% Bortala area,[24] 7.0% Yining area,[24] 7.7% Yili,[5] 8.37% Hetian area,[38] 11.8% Horiqol Township,[37] 16.08% Turpan area[38]), Vietnamese 7.6% (4.3%-12.5%[39]), Tajiks (Afghanistan) 7.6% (3.6%[31]-9.2%[19]), Southern Han 7.1% (0%-23.5%),[24] Tabassarans 7%[40]}, Abazinians 7%,[41] Japanese 5.9% (0% Tokyo,[42][43] Okinawa,[16] Aomori,[16] - 7.8% Fukuoka[44]), Adygei 2.9%,[40] Kabardians 2.4%,[40] Pasthun 2.04%[31]

Haplogroup C-M217, also known as C2 (and previously as C3),[1] is a Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup. It is the most frequently occurring branch of the wider Haplogroup C (M130). It is found mostly in Central Asia, Eastern Siberia and significant frequencies in parts of East Asia and Southeast Asia including some populations in the Caucasus, Middle East, South Asia, East Europe. It is found in a much more widespread areas with a low frequency of less than 2%.

The haplogroup C-M217 is now found at high frequencies among Central Asian peoples, indigenous Siberians, and some Native peoples of North America. In particular, males belonging to peoples such as the Buryats,[16][35] Evens,[16] Evenks,[16] Itelmens,[15] Kalmyks,[35][45][46] Kazakhs, Koryaks,[15] Mongolians,[16][19] Negidals,[15] Nivkhs,[15] Udege,[15] and Ulchi[10] have high levels of M217.[6][16][47]

One particular haplotype within Haplogroup C2-M217 has received a great deal of attention, because of the possibility that it may represent direct patrilineal descent from Genghis Khan,[48] though that hypothesis is controversial. According to the recent result, C2's subgroups are divided into C2b and C2e, and in Mongolia, most belong to C2b(Genghis Khan modal), while very few are C2e. On the other hand, C2b takes minority and most are C2e in Japan and Korea and Southern East Asia. The specific subclade Haplogroup C3b2b1*-M401(xF5483) of the broader C-M48 subclade, which has been identified as a possible marker of the Manchu Aisin Gioro and has been found in ten different ethnic minorities in northern China, is totally absent from all Han Chinese populations (Heilongjiang, Gansu, Guangdong, Sichuan and Xinjiang).[49][50][51][52]

Y chromosome haplogroup C2c1a1a1-M407 is carried by Mongol descendants of the Northern Yuan ruler from 1474 to 1517, Dayan Khan, who is a male line descendant of Genghis Khan which was found out after geneticists in Mongolia conducted tests on them.
C2b1a3a1c2-F5481 clade of C2*-ST which is also widespread in Central Asia among Kazakhs, Hazaras and ordinary commoner Mongols.[53] The Kerey clan of the Kazakhs have a high amount of the C3* star-cluster (C2*-ST) Y chromosome and is very high among Hazaras, Kazakhs and Mongols in general.[54]

Toghan, Genghis Khan's sixth son has claimed descendants who have Y haplogroup C2b1a1b1-F1756 just like the first son of Genghis Khan, Jochi's descendants in the Kazakh Tore[disambiguation needed] clan.[55]

Origin

After sharing a most recent common ancestor with Haplogroup C-F3393 approximately 48,400 [95% CI 46,000 <-> 50,900] years before present,[2] Haplogroup C-M217 is believed to have begun spreading approximately 34,000 [95% CI 31,500 <-> 36,700] years before present[2] in eastern or central Asia.

The extremely broad distribution of Haplogroup C-M217 Y-chromosomes, coupled with the fact that the ancestral paragroup C is not found among any of the modern Siberian or North American populations among whom Haplogroup C-M217 predominates, makes the determination of the geographical origin of the defining M217 mutation exceedingly difficult. The presence of Haplogroup C-M217 at a low frequency but relatively high diversity throughout East Asia and parts of Southeast Asia makes that region one likely source. In addition, the C-M217 haplotypes found with high frequency among North Asian populations appear to belong to a different genealogical branch from the C-M217 haplotypes found with low frequency among East and Southeast Asians, which suggests that the marginal presence of C-M217 among modern East and Southeast Asian populations may not be due to recent admixture from Northeast or Central Asia.[56]

More precisely, haplogroup C2-M217 is now divided into two primary subclades: C2a-L1373 (sometimes called the "northern branch" of C2-M217) and C2b-F1067 (sometimes called the "southern branch" of C2-M217). The oldest sample with C2-M217 is AR19K in the Amur River basin (19,587-19,175 cal BP).[57]

C2a-L1373 (estimated TMRCA 16,000 [95% CI 14,300 <-> 17,800] ybp[4]) has been found often in populations from Central Asia through North Asia to the Americas, and rarely in individuals from some neighboring regions, such as Europe or East Asia. C2a-L1373 subsumes two subclades: C2a1-F3447 and C2a2-BY63635/MPB374. C2a1-F3447 includes all extant Eurasian members of C2a-L1373, whereas C2a2-BY63635/MPB374 contains extant South American members of C2a-L1373 as well as ancient archaeological specimens from South America and Chertovy Vorota Cave in Primorsky Krai. C2a1-F3447 (estimated TMRCA 16,000 [95% CI 14,700 <-> 17,400] ybp[4]) includes the Y-DNA of an approximately 14,000-year-old specimen from the Ust'-Kyakhta 3 site (located on the right bank of the Selenga River in Buryatia, near the present-day international border with Mongolia) and C2a1b-BY101096/ACT1942 (found in individuals from present-day Liaoning Province of China, South Korea , Japan , and a Nivkh from Russia) in addition to the expansive C2a1a-F1699 clade. C2a1a-F1699 (estimated TMRCA 14,000 [95% CI 12,700 <-> 15,300] ybp[4]) subsumes four subclades: C2a1a1-F3918, C2a1a2-M48, C2a1a3-M504, and C2a1a4-M8574. C2a1a1-F3918 subsumes C2a1a1a-P39, which has been found at high frequency in samples of some indigenous North American populations, and C2a1a1b-FGC28881, which is now found with varying (but generally quite low) frequency all over the Eurasian steppe, from Heilongjiang and Jiangsu in the east to Jihočeský kraj, Podlaskie Voivodeship, and Giresun in the west.[4] Haplogroup C2a1a2-M48 is especially frequent and diverse among present-day Tungusic peoples, but branches of it also constitute the most frequently observed Y-DNA haplogroup among present-day Mongols in Mongolia, Alshyns in western Kazakhstan, and Kalmyks in Kalmykia. Extant members of C2a1a3-M504 all share a relatively recent common ancestor (estimated TMRCA 3,900 [95% CI 3,000 <-> 4,800] ybp[4]), and they are found often among Mongols, Manchus (e.g. Aisin Gioro), Kazakhs (most tribes of the Senior Zhuz as well as the Kerei tribe of the Middle Zhuz), Kyrgyz, and Hazaras. C2a1a4-M8574 is sparsely attested and deeply bifurcated into C-Y176542, which has been observed in an individual from Ulsan and an individual from Japan,[4] and C-Y11990. C-Y11990 is likewise quite ancient (estimated TMRCA 9,300 [95% CI 7,900 <-> 10,700] ybp according to YFull[4] or 8,946 [99% CI 11,792 - 6,625] ybp according to FTDNA[58]) but rare, with one branch (C-Z22425) having been found sporadically in Jammu and Kashmir, Germany , and the United States of America and another branch (C-ZQ354/C-F8513) having been found sporadically in Slovakia (Prešov Region), China , Turkey, and Kipchak of the central steppe (Lisakovsk 23 Kipchak in Kazakhstan, medieval nomad from 920 ± 25 BP uncal or 1036 - 1206 CE).[4][58]

The predominantly East Asian distributed C-F1067 subsumes a major clade, C-F2613, and a minor clade, C-CTS4660. The minor clade C-CTS4660 has been found in China (including a Dai and several Han from southern China as well as a Han from Anhui and a Han from Inner Mongolia; according to Chinese genomics company 23mofang, C-CTS4660 is currently mainly concentrated in the Liangguang region of China, accounting for about 0.24% of the national male population[59]) and Thailand[58] (including Northern Thai and Lao Isan[60]). The major clade C-F2613 has known representatives from China (Oroqen,[61] Hezhe,[61] Manchu,[62] Uyghur,[62] Han, Tibetan,[62] Tujia,[61] Dai), Korea, Japan, Laos, Thailand, Vietnam, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Mongolia,[19][62] Kyrgyzstan (Dungan, Kyrgyz),[19] Tajikistan (Tajik[62]), Afghanistan (Hazara, Tajik),[19] Pakistan (Burusho, Hazara),[19] Nakhchivan, Chechnya, and Syria and includes the populous subclades C-F845, C-CTS2657, and C-Z8440. C-M407, a notable subclade of C-CTS2657, has expanded in a post-Neolithic time frame[63] to include large percentages of modern Buryat, Soyot, and Hamnigan males in Buryatia and Barghut males in Hulunbuir[64] in addition to many Kalmyks and other Mongols[35][45][19][65] and members of the Qongirat tribe in Kazakhstan[13] (but only 2 or 0.67% of a sample of 300 Korean males[66]).

The specific subclade haplogroup C3b2b1*-M401(xF5483)[67][68][69] has been identified as a possible marker of the Aisin Gioro and is found in ten different ethnic minorities in northern China, but completely absent from Han Chinese.[70][71][69]

Genetic testing also showed that the haplogroup C3b1a3a2-F8951 of the Aisin Gioro family came to southeastern Manchuria after migrating from their place of origin in the Amur river's middle reaches, originating from ancestors related to Daurs in the Transbaikal area. The Tungusic speaking peoples mostly have C3c-M48 as their subclade of C3 which drastically differs from the C3b1a3a2-F8951 haplogroup of the Aisin Gioro which originates from Mongolic speaking populations like the Daur. Jurchen (Manchus) are a Tungusic people. The Mongol Genghis Khan's haplogroup C3b1a3a1-F3796 (C3*-Star Cluster) is a fraternal "brother" branch of C3b1a3a2-F8951 haplogroup of the Aisin Gioro.[72] A genetic test was conducted on seven men who claimed Aisin Gioro descent with three of them showing documented genealogical information of all their ancestors up to Nurhaci. Three of them turned out to share the C3b2b1*-M401(xF5483) haplogroup, out of them, two of them were the ones who provided their documented family trees. The other four tested were unrelated.[73] The Daur Ao clan carries the unique haplogroup subclade C2b1a3a2-F8951, the same haplogroup as Aisin Gioro and both Ao and Aisin Gioro only diverged merely a couple of centuries ago from a shared common ancestor. Other members of the Ao clan carry haplogroups like N1c-M178, C2a1b-F845, C2b1a3a1-F3796 and C2b1a2-M48. People from northeast China, the Daur Ao clan and Aisin Gioro clan are the main carriers of haplogroup C2b1a3a2-F8951. The Mongolic C2*-Star Cluster (C2b1a3a1-F3796) haplogroup is a fraternal branch to Aisin Gioro's C2b1a3a2-F8951 haplogroup.[74]

Distribution

Haplogroup C-M217 is the modal haplogroup among Mongolians and most indigenous populations of the Russian Far East, such as the Buryats, Northern Tungusic peoples, Nivkhs, Koryaks, and Itelmens. The subclade C-P39 is common among males of the indigenous North American peoples whose languages belong to the Na-Dené phylum. The frequency of Haplogroup C-M217 tends to be negatively correlated with distance from Mongolia and the Russian Far East, but it still comprises more than ten percent of the total Y-chromosome diversity among the Manchus, Koreans, Ainu, and some Turkic peoples of Central Asia. Beyond this range of high-to-moderate frequency, which contains mainly the northeast quadrant of Eurasia and the northwest quadrant of North America, Haplogroup C-M217 continues to be found at low frequencies, and it has even been found as far afield as Northwest Europe, Turkey, Pakistan, Bhutan,[75] Bangladesh,[4] Nepal[76] and adjacent regions of India,[77][78][79] Vietnam, Maritime Southeast Asia, and the Wayuu people of South America. It is found in Ossetians 4.7% (1/21),[40] and in Russians 0.73% (3/406),frequency ranges depending on the district.[35]), It's found 0.2% in Central/Southern Russia but 0.9% Rovslav and 0.7% Belgorod. It is found 0.5% in ethnic Bulgarians but 1.2% in Montana Province, 0.8% Sofia Province and 1.4% in an unknown area[80] some of whom exhibit divergent Y-STR haplotypes.[24] Haplogroup C-M127 also has been found with high frequency in a small sample of Uzbeks from Takhar, Afghanistan (7/13 = 54% C-M217[31]).

In an early study of Japanese Y-chromosomes, haplogroup C-M217 was found relatively frequently among Ainus (2/16=12.5%[11] or 1/4=25%[16]) and among Japanese of the Kyūshū region (8/104=7.7%[11]). However, in other samples of Japanese, the frequency of haplogroup C-M217 was found to be only about one to three percent.[11][5][16][42] In a study published in 2014, large samples of males from seven different Japanese cities were examined, and the frequency of C-M217 varied between a minimum of 5.0% (15/302 university students in Sapporo) and a maximum of 7.8% (8/102 adult males in Fukuoka), with a total of 6.1% (146/2390) of their sampled Japanese males belonging to this haplogroup; the authors noted that no marked geographical gradient was detected in the frequencies of haplogroups C-M217 or C-M8 in that study.[44]

The frequency of Haplogroup C-M217 in samples of Han from various areas has ranged from 0% (0/27) in a sample of Han from Guangxi[7] in southern China to 23.5% (4/17) in a sample of Han from Shanghai[7] in eastern China, 23.5% (8/34) in a sample of Han from Xi'an[39] in northwestern China, and 29.6% (8/27) in a sample of Han from Jilin[7] in northeastern China, with the frequency of this haplogroup in several studies' pools of all Han samples ranging between 6.0% and 12.0%.[5][6][16][11][24][39] C-M217 also has been found in many samples of ethnic minority populations from central and southern China, such as Dong (8/27 = 29.6% from Guizhou,[24] 10/45 = 22.2% from Hunan,[24] 1/17 = 5.9% from Guangxi[24]), Bulang (3/11 = 27.3% from Yunnan[24]), Tujia (6/26 = 23.1% from Hubei,[24] 7/33 = 21.2% from Guizhou,[24] 9/49 = 18.4% from Jishou, Hunan), Hani (13/60 = 21.7% from Yunnan,[24] 6/34 = 17.6%[5]), Yi (4/32 = 12.5% Boren from Yunnan,[24] 3/24 = 12.5% Yi from Sichuan,[24] 4/61 = 6.6% Yi from Yunnan[24]), Mulao (1/11 = 9.1% from Guangxi[24]), Naxi (1/12 = 8.3% from Yunnan[24]), Miao (7/92 = 7.6% from Guizhou,[24] 2/58 = 3.4%), Shui (2/29 = 6.9% from Guizhou[24]), She (3/47 = 6.4% from Fujian,[24] 1/34 = 2.9%[5]), Wa (1/16 = 6.3% from Yunnan[24]), Dai (1/18 = 5.6% from Yunnan[24]), Gelao (1/21 = 4.8% from Guizhou[24]), ethnic Vietnamese (2/45 = 4.4% from Guangxi[24]), Yao (1/28 = 3.6% from Guangdong,[24] 1/35 = 2.9% from Liannan, Guangdong,[5] 2/113 = 1.8% from Guangxi[24]), Bai (1/34 = 2.9% from Yunnan[24]), Tibetans (4/156 = 2.6%), Buyi (2/109 = 1.8% from Guizhou[24]), and Taiwanese aborigines (1/48 = 2.1%).[81][5][76]

In Vietnam, Y-DNA that belongs to haplogroup C-M217 has been found in about 7.5% of all published samples, including 12.5% (6/48) of a sample of Vietnamese from Hanoi, Vietnam,[39] 11.8% (9/76) of another sample of Kinh ("ethnic Vietnamese") from Hanoi, Vietnam, 10% (1/10) of a sample from Vietnam,[82] 8.5% (5/59) of a sample of Cham people from Binh Thuan, Vietnam, 8.3% (2/24) of another sample of Vietnamese from Hanoi,[83] 4.3% (3/70) of a sample of Vietnamese from an unspecified location in Vietnam,[81] 2.2% (1/46) of the KHV ("Kinh in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam") sample of the 1000 Genomes Project,[4][3] and 0% (0/27) of one study's samples of Kinh and Muong.[84] Macholdt et al. (2020) have found Y-DNA that belongs to haplogroup C-M217 in 4.67% (28/600) of a set of samples from Vietnam, including 26.8% (11/41) of a sample of Hmong from Điện Biên Phủ, 13.9% (5/36) of a sample of Pathen from Quang Bình District, 12.1% (4/33) of a sample of Hanhi from Mường Tè District, 10.3% (3/29) of a sample of Sila from Mường Tè District, and 10.0% (5/50) of a sample of Kinh (n=42 from Hanoi, including all five members of haplogroup C-M217).[32]

Haplogroup C-M217 has been found less frequently in other parts of Southeast Asia and nearby areas, including Myanmar (3/72 = 4.2% Bamar and Rakhine[85]), Laos (1/25 = 4.0% Lao from Luang Prabang), Malaysia (2/18 = 11.1% Malaysia,[82] 0/8 Malaysia,[83] 0/12 Malaysian (ordinary Malay near Kuala Lumpur),[11] 0/17 Orang Asli,[86] 0/27 Malay,[86] 0/32 Malaysia[81]), Java (1/37 = 2.7%, 1/141 = 0.71%[83]), Nepal (2/77 = 2.6% general population of Kathmandu), Thailand (1/40 = 2.5% Thai, mostly sampled in Chiang Mai;[39] 13/500 = 2.6% Northern Thailand, or 11/290 = 3.8% Northern Thai people and 2/91 = 2.2% Tai Lü[87]), the Philippines (1/48 = 2.1%, 1/64 = 1.6%), and Bali (1/641 = 0.2%).[76][81]

Although C-M217 is generally found with only low frequency (<5%) in Tibet and Nepal, there may be an island of relatively high frequency of this haplogroup in Meghalaya, India. The indigenous tribes of this state of Northeast India, where they comprise the majority of the local population, speak Khasian languages or Tibeto-Burman languages. A study published in 2007 found C-M217(xM93, P39, M86) Y-DNA in 8.5% (6/71) of a sample of Garos, who primarily inhabit the Garo Hills in the western half of Meghalaya, and in 7.6% (27/353) of a pool of samples of eight Khasian tribes from the eastern half of Meghalaya (6/18 = 33.3% Nongtrai from the West Khasi Hills, 10/60 = 16.7% Lyngngam from the West Khasi Hills, 2/29 = 6.9% War-Khasi from the East Khasi Hills, 3/44 = 6.8% Pnar from the Jaintia Hills, 1/19 = 5.3% War-Jaintia from the Jaintia Hills, 3/87 = 3.4% Khynriam from the East Khasi Hills, 2/64 = 3.1% Maram from the West Khasi Hills, and 0/32 Bhoi from Ri-Bhoi District).[78]

Subclade distribution

The subclades of Haplogroup C-M217 with their defining mutation(s), according to the 2017 ISOGG tree:

  • C2 (previously C3) M217 Typical of Mongolians, Kazakhs, Buryats, Daurs, Kalmyks, Hazaras, Afghan Uzbeks, Evenks, Evens, Oroqen, Ulchi, Udegey, Manchus, Sibes, Nivkhs, Koryaks, and Itelmens, with a moderate distribution among other Tungusic peoples, Ainus, Koreans, Han, Vietnamese, Altaians, Tuvinians, Uyghurs, Uzbeks, Kyrgyzes, Nogais, and Crimean Tatars.[5][16][15][11][21][36][47][88] It is found in moderate to low frequencies among Japanese, Tai peoples, North Caucasian peoples, Abazinians, Adygei, Tabassarans, Kabardians,[41][40] Tajiks, Pashtuns, etc.[31]
    • C2b L1373, F1396
      • C2b L1373* Ecuador (Bolívar Province),[4] USA[58]
      • C2b F3447, F3914
        • C2b Y163913, ACT1932, BY75034
          • C2b ACT5638 China (Liaoning[4]), Nivkh[4]
          • C2b BY72441, Z31698 China (Liaoning[4]), South Korea,[4][58] Japan[58]
        • C2b1 F4032
          • C2b1a F1699, F6301
            • C2b1a* Japanese,[4] Germany[89]
            • C2b1a1 F3918, Y10418/FGC28813/F8894
              • C2b1a1* Yugurs[90]
              • C2b1a1a P39 Canada,[89] USA[89] (Found in several indigenous peoples of North America, including some Na-Dené-, Algonquian-, or Siouan-speaking populations[20])
                • C2b1a1a1 BY1360/Z30568
                • C2b1a1a2 Z38874
              • C2b1a1b FGC28881.2
                • C2b1a1b1 F1756, F3985
                  • C2b1a1b1 F1756* Poland[89]
                  • C2b1a1b1a F3830 China (Kazakh, Yugur, Mongol, Manchu, Hezhen, Xibe, Hui, northern Han), Russian Federation[89] (Altai Kizhi, etc.), Kazakhstan, Afghanistan (Uzbek, Hazara,[90] Pashtun), Saudi Arabia,[citation needed] Syria[89]
                    • C-F3887 Kazakhstan (East Kazakhstan Region[4]), Russia (Tatarstan[4])
                    • C-F9721 Greece[89]
                      • C-F9721* China (Jiangsu[4])
                      • C-F12439 China (Heilongjiang[4])
                        • C-F12439* China (Shandong[4])
                        • C-BY197432 Kazakhstan[4]
                      • C-Z603 Kazakhstan[89][4]
                  • C2b1a1b1b Y10420/Z30402, Y10428/Z30415
                    • C-Y10420* Turkey (Giresun)[4]
                    • C-Y11606 United Kingdom[89]
                      • C-Y11606* China (Shaanxi[4]), Russia (Bashkortostan[4]), Poland (Podlaskie[4]), Czech Republic (South Bohemian Region[4])
                      • C-Y147607 Kazakhstan[4]
                • C2b1a1b2 B77 Koryak[2]
            • C2b1a2 (previously C3c) M48
              • C2b1a2a M77 Typical of Northern Tungusic peoples, Kazakhs, Oirats, Kalmyks, Outer Mongolians, Yukaghirs, Nivkhs, Itelmens, and Udegeys, with a moderate distribution among other Southern Tungusic peoples, Inner Mongolians, Buryats, Tuvinians, Yakuts, Chukchi, Kyrgyz, Uyghurs, Uzbeks, Karakalpaks, and Tajiks[15][22][91]
                • C-M77* China (Xibo),[4] Russian Federation (Ulchi,[10] Even,[4] Evenk,[2] Buryat,[2] Derbet Kalmyks,[46] Torgut Kalmyks[46]), Mongolia (Zakhchin,[2] Derbet[46]), Kazakhstan,[89] Turkey[89]
                • C2b1a2a1 F11120, SK1061, Z40439
                  • C2b1a2a1a B469
                    • C2b1a2a1a2 B470 Zakhchin, Ulchi
                    • C2b1a2a1a1 B87 Xibo
                      • C2b1a2a1a1b B88 Buryat
                      • C2b1a2a1a1a B89 Evenk, Even
                  • C2b1a2a1b B80/Z32868 Evens
                  • C-B1049 Tozhu Tuvan[46]
                • C-F11611/ZQ1
                  • C2b1a2a2 Y12792/F6379
                    • C-Y138418
                    • C-Y12825/SK1064/F5485
                      • C-SK1066, F6193 Russian Federation[89] (Kalmyks[4]), Kazakhstan,[89] Mongolia (Bulgan,[46] Tsaatan[46])
                      • C-Y15849/F12970 Mongolia,[89] Kazakhstan,[89] Russian Federation[89] (Tatarstan[4])
                      • C-Y15844
                        • C-ZQ149 Tomsk Tatar[4]
                        • C-Y15552 Kazakhstan,[4][89] Russian Federation,[4] Karakalpak[4]
              • C2b1a2b B90 Found frequently in Koryaks and sporadically among Ulchi,[10] Evenks, Evens, and Yukaghirs
            • C2b1a Y4553/FGC16371/F11250
              • C2b1a3 F1918, M504
                • C2b1a3a M401 Kazakhs (especially tribes of the Senior Jüz and the Kereys), Hazaras,[19] Mongols,[19] Kyrgyz,[19] Uzbeks,[19] Dungans,[19] Tajiks,[19] Pashtuns,[19] Turkmens[19]
                  • C2b1a3a1 Y11121/FGC16431/F12308
                    • C2b1a3a1 BY154208 China (Liaoning,[4] Shandong[4])
                    • C2b1a3a1 F3796, F4002 Kazakhstan, Russian Federation, Hungary, Mongolia, Kyrgyzstan, Ukraine, Uzbekistan[89]
                      • C-F3796* China (Liaoning[4])
                      • C2b1a3a1a Y4580, F9700
                        • C2b1a3a1a Y4580* China (Heilongjiang[4])
                        • C-Y25681 China (Liaoning[4])
                        • C-Y4633
                          • C-Y4633* Golden Horde (aka Jochi Ulus; 1220 – 1350 cal years CE)[92][4]
                          • C-FGC16336/Y8818/F10216
                            • C-Y8818* China (Liaoning[4])
                            • C-Y80821 Buryat[4]
                            • C-Y4541/FGC16328/SK1075/F5481 Mongolia (Derbet[46][4]), China (Inner Mongolia[4]), Russia (Tatarstan[4])
                              • C-BY182928 Uzbekistan[89]
                              • C-ZQ31/F10091 Kyrgyzstan (Naryn Region[4])
                              • C-Y4569
                                • C-Y4569* China (Gansu[4])
                                • C-FGC29011 China (Beijing[4])
                                • C-Y125520
                                  • C-Y125520* China (Xinjiang)[4]
                                  • C-Y125522, SK1076 Hazaras[4]
                                • C-FGC16217 Russia (Ryazan Oblast[4])
                              • C-Y12782
                                • C-Y12782* Ukraine[89][4]
                                • C-BY18686 Kazakhstan[89]
                                • C-Y20795 Kazakhstan[89]
                                • C-Y20085, Y20086 Kazakhstan[89]
                      • C2b1a3a1b F3960
                      • C2b1a3a1c SK1072
                        • C-SK1072* Kalmyk[4]
                        • C-Y174643
                          • C-Y174643* China (Shandong[4])
                          • C-F12663 Kazakhstan[89]
                        • C-ZQ394
                          • C-ZQ394* Russia (Nizhny Novgorod Oblast[4]), Uyghur[4]
                          • C-FT37001 Russia (Tatarstan,[4] Republic of Crimea[4])
                          • C-Y187693 China (Shandong[4])
                  • C2b1a3a2 F10283 Manchu (Aisin Gioro),[93] Oroqen, Manchurian Evenk, Xibe, Daur, Buryat, Mongol
              • C2b1a4 Y11990, F9992/Y12018/Z30601
                • C2b1a4a Z22425
                • C2b1a4b Z30635 Slovakia (Prešov Region),[4] Kipchak of the central steppe of 920 ± 25 BP uncal[92][4]
            • C2b1a5 B79 Koryak[2]
        • C2b2 Z31698 Japan[89]
    • C2c C-F1067
      • C2c1 F2613/Z1338, CTS10762 Germany,[89] Poland[89]
        • C2c1a Z1300, CTS4021
          • C2c1a CTS4021*
          • C2c1a1 CTS2657
            • C2b1a1b-A14895/A14901
              • C2b1a1b2-Y37069/MF1580 South Korea,[4][18] North Korea,[18] China (esp. Jilin,[18] Heilongjiang,[18] Liaoning,[18] Ningxia,[18] Gansu,[18] and Hubei[4][18])
              • C2b1a1b1-A14909/A14912 China,[89] Ireland[89]
                • C2b1a1b1a-MF1549/MF1553 China (esp. Shandong, Liaoning, Heilongjiang, Tianjin, Jilin, Jiangsu[18][4]), Taiwan,[18] South Korea (Ulsan[4])
                • C2b1a1b1b-ACT108/A14908 China (esp. Shanghai, Jiangsu, Anhui, Zhejiang, Liaoning, Shandong[18][4]), North Korea[18]
            • C2c1a1 CTS11990, Z18177, F3921
              • C2c1a1 CTS11990* Japan[89]
              • C2c1a1a CTS8579 Vietnam (Hà Nhì from Mường Tè,[32] Kinh from Gia Lâm[32])
                • C2c1a1a CTS8579* Japan[89]
                • C2c1a1a F3836, F6346
                  • C2c1a1a1 Y13856
                    • C2c1a1a1 MF1605 China (Guangdong)[4]
                      • C-MF1605* Shanxi (Han), Jiangsu, Hunan, Liaoning, Shandong, etc.
                      • C-MF1601/S20873 China (Shandong, Zhejiang, Hebei, Liaoning, Beijing, Henan, Anhui, Heilongjiang, Jiangsu, Jilin, Inner Mongolia, Tianjin, etc.[18]), Korean[4]
                      • C-MF1724 China (Beijing, Shandong, Shanghai, Anhui, etc.)
                        • C-MF1711 China (Shandong, Anhui, Liaoning, etc.)
                          • C-MF1718/MF1721 China (Jiangsu, Beijing, Hebei, Shandong, Shanxi, etc.)
                            • C-MF1722
                              • C-MF1745
                              • C-MF187252
                                • C-MF5052
                    • C2c1a1a1 M407 Found with high frequency in some samples of Barghuts, Buryats, Khamnigans, Soyots, and the Qongirat tribe of Kazakhs, moderate frequency in Mongols and Kalmyks, and low frequency in some other Kazakh tribes (Naiman,[13] Alban,[13] Jetyru,[13] Alimuly,[13] Baiuly,[13] Syrgeli,[citation needed] Ysty,[citation needed] Qangly,[citation needed] Jalair[citation needed]), Bai, Cambodian, Evenk, Han, Japanese, Korean,[66] Manchu, Teleut, Tujia, Tuvinian, Uyghur, and Yakut populations[21][24][19][35]
                      • C2c1a1a1* M407 China (esp. Shandong, Hebei, Liaoning, Henan, Beijing, Shaanxi, Inner Mongolia, Jiangsu, Gansu, Heilongjiang, Shanxi[18]), Kazakhstan,[89] Russian Federation[89]
                      • C2c1a1a1b Z45401 Armenia,[4][89] China (Lüliang Han,[18] Dalian Han[18])
                      • C2c1a1a1a F3850
                        • C F29522
                          • C F29522* Gansu (Han), Hubei (Han), Sichuan (Ersu), Shandong (Han)
                          • C F8465 China (Hebei, Henan, etc.[18])
                            • C-F10378 China (Inner Mongolia, Beijing, Xinjiang, etc.[18]), Russia[18] (Kalmyk Hoshut[46][4])
                              • C-F9733/F8536 China (esp. Inner Mongolia[18]), Mongolia (Ulaanbaatar[4])
                              • C-Z4328 Russia (Buryat,[4] Yakut[4]), Kazakhstan (Kazakh from Kostanay Region[4])
                          • C MF3197, SK1027 Northern Han Chinese (HGDP01288), Sichuan (Han), Hubei (Han), Liaoning,[4] Shanghai[4]
                        • C2c1a1a1a3 F7542, F3753
                          • C F7542* Henan (Han)
                          • C F26027 Shanghai (Han), Jilin (Han), Sichuan (Han)/Uyghur?
                        • C2c1a1a1a4 Y12960, F3916/F13679 China (Shandong, Beijing, Hebei, Henan, Liaoning, Jiangsu, Shaanxi, etc.[18]), Japan (Tokyo)[4]
                          • C-F3881
                            • C-Y263263 Xinjiang (Uyghur[4])
                  • C2c1a1a2 CTS4449, CTS8629 China (Beijing, Gansu, Fujian),[4] Korea,[89] Pakistan (Hazaras)[4]
                    • C F12768
                      • C F11494 Gansu (Han), Beijing (Han)
                      • C FGC54908 Beijing (Han), Zhejiang (Han), Jiangxi (Han), Fujian (Han)
                    • C F15754
                      • C F15754* Beijing (Han)
                      • C K696
                        • C K696* Heilongjiang (Han)
                        • C F2471 Heilongjiang (Han), Shandong (Han), Zhejiang (Han), South Korea
              • C2b1a1a2-Z31668/BY59164 China (esp. Liaoning, Heilongjiang, Jilin, Jiangsu, Shandong, Tianjin, Hebei[18][4])
                • C2c1a1b Y112121, F18822, Z40537 China (Hebei, Jiangsu, Liaoning, etc.[18]), Japan (Nagasaki[4])
                  • C2c1a1b MF1792 China (Jiangsu,[4] Yingkou[18])
                  • C2c1a1b MF2816, F20457 China[4] (esp. Jiangsu, Shandong, Hebei, Liaoning[18])
                    • C Y86025 Korea,[4][18] China (Liaoning, Jilin, Inner Mongolia, Shandong, etc.[18])
          • C2c1a2 K700/Z12209, F3880
            • C2c1a2a F1319 Japan,[89] Laos (Laotian in Vientiane[94]), Thailand (Mon,[94] Tai Yuan,[94] Thai,[94] Phutai,[95] Hmong,[95] Lisu[95]), Vietnam (Hmong from Điện Biên Phủ[32])
              • C2c1a2a1 F3777 Japan,[89] Bhutan[75]
                • C-F3777* Bangladesh[4]
                • C-F9966
                  • C-F3735 China (Beijing Han,[4] Guangdong[4])
                  • C-Z43727 China (Jiangsu,[4] Shandong,[4] Jilin[4])
              • C2c1a2a2 F9935, F9765, F10056/Z36838 China, Japan (Saga), Nakhchivan
                • C2c1a2a2* China (Jilin)[4]
                • C-MF1955 China (Jiangsu, Shandong, Hebei, Zhejiang, Shaanxi, Anhui, Liaoning, Beijing, Henan,[4] etc.[18]), South Korea[4]
                  • C-MF1960 China (Liaoning Manchus, Shandong, Hebei, Shanxi, Shanghai, Guangdong[18])
                  • C-MF3000 China (Jiangsu, Shandong, Hebei, Henan, Tongliao[18])
                    • C-MF3096 China (Shandong, Beijing, Tianjin, etc.[18])
                • C2c1a2a2 MF1881 Azerbaijan (Nakhchivan),[4][89] South Korea[4]
                  • C MF2720 China (Jiangsu, Liaoning, Shandong, etc.[18])
                  • C MF2824 China (Anhui, Shanghai, etc.[18])
                • C2c1a2a2 MF1029
                  • C-MF1029* China (Zhejiang[4])
                  • C-MF1031
                    • C-MF1031* China (Shanxi[4])
                    • C-MF1037
                      • C-MF1935
                        • C-MF1935* China (Shandong[4])
                        • C-Y174024
                          • C-Y174024* China (Hebei,[4] Jilin[4])
                          • C-Y173881 China (Shandong[4])
                      • C-MF1048
                        • C-Y9412
                          • C-Y9412* China (Liaoning[4])
                          • C-Y172835 China (Hebei[4])
                        • C-MF1055 China (Shandong,[4] Guizhou,[4] Guangdong[4])
                • C-F2883 China
                  • C2c1a2a2 Y35926, F3909 China (Shandong, Sichuan, Jiangxi, Henan, Hebei, Chongqing, Jilin, Liaoning),[4] Japan[89]
                    • C-F22689 China (Shandong[4])
                    • C-F3555
                      • C-F3555* China (Shandong[4])
                      • C-F11377
                        • C-F11377* China (Shandong[4])
                        • C-F10356
                          • C-F10356* China (Anhui,[4] Jiangxi[4])
                          • C-MF1892 China (Hunan,[4] Sichuan[4])
                          • C-F13864
                            • C-F13864* China (Henan,[4] Shandong[4])
                            • C-F8841
                              • C-F8841* China (Hebei,[4] Liaoning[4])
                              • C-F13136 China (Jilin,[4] Liaoning,[4] Shandong,[4] Henan,[4] Sichuan,[4] Chongqing,[4] Fujian[4])
            • C2c1a2b CTS3385, F13857, PH1064 South Korea,[89] Syria,[89] Russia,[89] Germany,[89] Vietnam (Kinh from Gia Lâm, Hoài Đức, and Đan Phượng[32]), Mae Hong Son Province of Thailand (Lisu[95])
              • C-FGC45553 China (Fujian, Sichuan,[4] Guangdong, Zhejiang, Henan, Shanghai, Hunan[18])
                • C-PH1906/F15516 China (Mongol from Inner Mongolia,[4] Hinggan League, Liaoning, Tianjin, Hebei, Jiangsu[18])
                  • C2c1a2b2-FGC45548 China (Shandong, Shanxi, Jiangsu, Shaanxi, Anhui, Hubei, Zhejiang, etc.[18])
                    • C-Z45207 China (Shandong, Hebei,[4] Jiangsu, Beijing, Sichuan, Henan, Liaoning, Shanxi, Guangdong, Anhui, Shaanxi, etc.[18])
                      • C-MF2000 China (Beijing,[4] Zunyi,[18] Jincheng,[18] Shangrao[18])
                        • C-MF4453 China (Hebei, Hubei, Shanxi, Zhejiang, Beijing, Shaanxi[4][18])
                        • C-MF610668 China (Hebei, Henan, Guangxi Zhuang, Guangdong, Taiwan[4][18])
                      • C-PH2194/FGC45566 China (Shanghai, Shandong, Hebei, Beijing, etc.[4][18]), South Korea[4]
                        • C-Z31672 China (Shandong, Hunan, Henan, Beijing, Shanxi, Hebei, Liaoning, etc.[18])
                          • C-Z31669 China (Guangdong, Sichuan, Hunan, Guangxi, Hainan, Jilin, Shaanxi[18]), Taiwan[18]
                        • C-F21131/MF142553 China (Jiangsu, Shandong, Henan,[4] Anhui, Shaanxi, Shanxi, Hubei, etc.[18]), Germany[4]
                        • C-FGC45589/FGC45614 China (Shangqiu[18])
                          • C-FTA20473/MF38210 China (Shanxi, Beijing, Hebei, Zhejiang,[4] Shaanxi, Hunan,[4] etc.[18]), Syria[4]
                          • C-Y37829 China (Guangdong, Hebei, Shandong, Beijing,[4] etc.[18])
              • C2c1a2b-MF1061 China (Zhejiang, Shandong,[4] Jiangsu, Hebei, Henan, Beijing, Shanxi, Guangdong, Shaanxi, Anhui, Sichuan, etc.[18])
                • C-S3190/MF37040 China (Jiangsu,[4] Beijing, Nanyang, Sichuan,[4] Longnan, Jinzhou, Tongliao[18])
                • C-Y125448/MF2001 China (Henan, Shanxi,[4] Hebei, Shandong, Zhejiang, Beijing, etc.[18])
                  • C-FGC66275 China (Shanghai, Jiangsu, Hubei, etc.[18])
                  • C-Y146673 China (Henan, Shandong,[4] Hebei,[4] Beijing, Dandong, Daqing[18])
        • C2c1b F845 Found in Han Chinese, Bai, Tujia, Hani, Yi, Lahu,[95] Pathen (Quang Bình[32]), Hmong[95] (Điện Biên Phủ[32]), Iu Mien,[95] Blang, Nyah Kur, Mon, Gelao, Vietnamese (Ho Chi Minh City,[4] Hà Đông[32]), Tai, Buryat, Manchu, Korean, and Japanese populations
          • C2c1b MF2091
            • C MF2091* China (Chongqing Han, Handan,[18] Taiyuan[18])
            • C MF2105, MF2106 Vietnam[58] (Pa Then[60]), China[58] (Oroqen,[4] Guangdong[4]), Philippines[89]
              • C MF2106* Henan (Han), Beijing (Han)
              • C MF2110 Henan (Han), Beijing (Han)
          • C2c1b K548
            • C2c1b K548* Shandong[4]
            • C2c1b Y17534
              • C2c1b Y17534* Shandong, Zhejiang
              • C2c1b F10015 Shanxi, Jiangxi,[4] Ho Chi Minh City (Kinh)
              • C2c1b1 K511 Xishuangbanna (Dai)
              • C2c1b Y170903 Jiangsu
              • C2c1b Y81530 South Korea (Seoul)
              • C2c1b2 F5477/SK1036 China (currently accounts for approximately 1.28% of the male population of China, mainly distributed in the Southwestern and Central-South regions[96])
                • C-MF223883 China (Ye County[18])
                • C-MF601003 China (Pingyuan County,[18] Miyun District[18])
                • C-MF189718 China (Xingtai County,[18] Yanzhou District,[18] Feicheng[18])
                • C-MF56861 China (Ziyang County,[18] Zhanyi District,[18] Haimen District,[18] Lianping County,[18] Ningbo,[18] Putuo District[18])
                • C-MF10313 China (Yantai,[18] Rizhao,[18] Huoqiu County,[18] Lubei District,[18] Yixing,[18] Chongming District,[18] Tianning District[18])
                • C-Y23336 (CTS4833) China (Luozhuang District[18])
                  • C-MF15330 Japan (Tokyo)[4]
                    • C-Y241305 (MF14218, M1668) China (Jiangsu,[4] Xinglongtai District Manchu,[18] Keqiao District,[18] Gangzha District,[18] Huancui District,[18] Pingshan District Manchu[18]), Singapore,[4] Japan[58]
                  • C-MF10318 China (Yangzhou, Fuyang, Laiyang, Gaizhou, Yongji County Manchu, Nanyang, Dongyang[18])
                    • C2c1b2 MF5067 (MF10317) China (Guizhou Han, Fujian Han, etc.; currently mainly distributed in Southern China, accounting for approximately 0.11% of the national male population[97])
                • C-MF52991 (F14054)
                  • C2b1b1b4 M93 China (Hebei, Heilongjiang, Shandong, Yanta District,[18] Zhejiang,[60] Jinzhong,[60] etc.), Japan[21][98]
                  • C2c1b2 F10273
                    • C-MF36579 China (Yuanshi County,[18] Wenxi County,[18] Fengrun District,[18] Laizhou,[18] Zengcheng District[18])
                    • C2c1b2 F11898
                      • C-Y171915 (Y171981) China (Guangxi,[4] Shuicheng District,[18] Sheqi County[18])
                        • C-FTB22377 Malaysia,[58] Thailand[58] (White Hmong[60]), China[58]
                        • C-Y171747 (Y171754, Y171797) China (Shuangfeng County,[18] Qixingguan District,[18] Mianning County,[18] Guidong County,[18] Baise,[60] Guizhou Tujia[60]), Thailand (White Hmong,[60] Black Hmong,[60] Iu Mien[60]), Vietnam (Hmong[60])
                      • C-F29519
                        • C-F29519* Sichuan (Yi)
                        • C-F29454 Guizhou (Tujia), Guangdong (Han), Beijing (Han)
                      • C2c1b2b SK1038/MF1015
                        • C2c1b2b-SK1038* Hunan,[4] Heilongjiang (Manchu)
                        • C2c1b2b MF10312 Sichuan, Tujia
                        • C2c1b2b F29490
                          • C-F29490* Jiangsu (Han)
                          • C-F29446 Hunan (Tujia)
                        • C2c1b2b F9683 (MF5307)
                          • C-F9683* Fujian (Han)
                          • C-F9819 Hulunbuir (Buryat), Sichuan (Han), Hunan (Tujia)
                        • C-MF3763 (FT320799)
                          • C-MF390745 Cangxi County[18]
                          • C-MF10312 (MF4311)
                            • C-MF241040 Tongzi County[18]
                            • C-SK1041
                              • C-MF3746 Changyang Tujia Autonomous County Tujia,[18] Yuzhong District,[18] Chibi,[18] Linying County,[18] Yunyang County,[18] Gong'an County,[18] Guiyang,[18] Yanhe Tujia Autonomous County Tujia,[18] Nan'an District Tujia[18]
                              • C-SK1037 China (Jiangsu,[60] Pengze County,[60] Xuan'en County,[60] Sichuan[4] Guang'an,[60] Tujia,[4][60] etc.; currently accounts for approximately 0.24% of the Chinese male population[99]), South Korea[60]
                        • C2c1b2b1 MF1017
                          • C2c1b2b1a MF1020 China (currently accounts for approximately 0.17% of the Chinese male population[100])
                            • C-MF1020* Hunan,[4] Jiangkou Tujia,[60] Peng'an County,[18] Gucheng County,[18] Anji County,[18] Cili County Tujia,[18] Xiangxi Tujia[18]
                            • C-MF1022 (MF1024, Y35928, CTS10765)
                              • C-MF1022* Jiangkou County Tujia,[60] Jingzhou[60]
                              • C-MF1023 Hubei[4] (Wuhan,[60] Jiangxia District[18]), Beijing[4] (Haidian District[60]), Changsha,[18] Yu'an District of Lu'an[18]
                              • C-MF3823 (MF3443, Y139684) Sichuan Han,[60] Guye District of Tangshan,[18] Xindu District of Chengdu,[18] Youyang Tujia,[18] Muli Han[18]
                          • C2c1b2b1b Z45203/Y81534 China (currently accounts for approximately 0.09% of the Chinese male population[101])
              • C2c1b3 CTS4187
              • C2c1b4 FGC57604/F29493/F29494
                • C2c1b4 FGC57604* Yunnan (Bai), Sichuan(Yi),[4] Guangdong (Han), Korea (Chungcheongnamdo[4])
                • C2c1b4 F29476 Jilin (Han), Jiangsu (Han), Fujian (Han)
                • C2c1b4 FGC39587, FGC39579
                  • C2c1b4* FGC39587* Tianjin (Han)
                  • C2c1b4a FGC39603
                    • C2c1b4a FGC39603* Shandong,[4] Jiangsu[4]
                    • C2c1b4a FGC39588 Sichuan
                    • C2c1b4b Y63501 Henan, Hubei
                    • C F19076 Guangdong (Han), Hunan (Han), Shandong (Han)
                    • C Z38903 Sichuan (Han)
              • C2c1b5 CTS2123/S4350
              • C2c1b6 Z45272
              • C2c1b7 MF2040/F18007
                • C F18007* Zhejiang (Han)
                • C F29469 Shanxi (Han)
                • C F20118
                  • C F20118* Heilongjiang (Han)
                  • C F29504 Anhui (Han)
              • C2c1b8 Z45349
              • C2c1b9 Z45354
      • C2c2 CTS4660 China[58] (esp. Hainan, Guangdong, and Guangxi[18]), Thailand[58]
        • C2c2 CTS4660* Inner Mongolia (Han)
        • C2c2a F29558
          • C2c2a1 F9436
            • C2c2a1a F15270 Guangdong (Han), Yunnan (Dai[4])
            • C2c2a1b F29553 Hunan (Han), Jiangxi (Han)
          • C2c2a2 F10025 Anhui (Han), Fujian (Han)[4]

Others

P53.1 has been used in multiple studies, but at testing in the commercial labs it appears in too many parts of the Y tree, including multiple parts of haplogroup C. Listed 16 April 2016.

  • C2-P53.1 Found in about 10% of Xinjiang Sibe and with low frequency in Inner Mongolian Mongol and Evenk, Ningxia Hui, Xizang Tibetan, Xinjiang Uyghur, and Gansu Han[24]

Phylogenetics

Phylogenetic history

Main page: Biology:Conversion table for Y chromosome haplogroups

Prior to 2002, there were in academic literature at least seven naming systems for the Y-Chromosome Phylogenetic tree. This led to considerable confusion. In 2002, the major research groups came together and formed the Y-Chromosome Consortium (YCC). They published a joint paper that created a single new tree that all agreed to use. Later, a group of citizen scientists with an interest in population genetics and genetic genealogy formed a working group to create an amateur tree aiming at being above all timely. The table below brings together all of these works at the point of the landmark 2002 YCC Tree. This allows a researcher reviewing older published literature to quickly move between nomenclatures.

YCC 2002/2008 (Shorthand) (α) (β) (γ) (δ) (ε) (ζ) (η) YCC 2002 (Longhand) YCC 2005 (Longhand) YCC 2008 (Longhand) YCC 2010r (Longhand) ISOGG 2006 ISOGG 2007 ISOGG 2008 ISOGG 2009 ISOGG 2010 ISOGG 2011 ISOGG 2012
C-M216 10 V 1F 16 Eu6 H1 C C* C C C C C C C C C C
C-M8 10 V 1F 19 Eu6 H1 C C1 C1 C1 C1 C1 C1 C1 C1 C1 C1 C1
C-M38 10 V 1F 16 Eu6 H1 C C2* C2 C2 C2 C2 C2 C2 C2 C2 C2 C2
C-P33 10 V 1F 18 Eu6 H1 C C2a C2a C2a1 C2a1 C2a C2a C2a1 C2a1 C2a1 removed removed
C-P44 10 V 1F 17 Eu6 H1 C C3* C3 C3 C3 C3 C3 C3 C3 C3 C3 C3
C-M93 10 V 1F 17 Eu6 H1 C C3a C3a C3a C3a C3a C3a C3a C3a C3a C3a C3a1
C-M208 10 V 1F 17 Eu6 H1 C C3b C2b C2a C2a C2b C2b C2a C2a C2a C2a C2a
C-M210 36 V 1F 17 Eu6 H1 C C3c C2c C4a C4a C4b C4b C4a C4a C4a C4a C4a

Phylogenetic trees

See also

Genetics

Y-DNA C subclades

Y-DNA backbone tree

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 ISOGG, 2015 "Y-DNA Haplogroup C and its Subclades – 2015" (15 September 2015).
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 Monika Karmin, Lauri Saag, Mário Vicente, et al. (2015), "A recent bottleneck of Y chromosome diversity coincides with a global change in culture." Genome Research 25:1–8 Published by Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press; ISSN 1088-9051/15; http://www.genome.org/cgi/doi/10.1101/gr.186684.114.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 "Punctuated bursts in human male demography inferred from 1,244 worldwide Y-chromosome sequences". Nature Genetics 48 (6): 593–599. June 2016. doi:10.1038/ng.3559. PMID 27111036. 
  4. ↑ 4.000 4.001 4.002 4.003 4.004 4.005 4.006 4.007 4.008 4.009 4.010 4.011 4.012 4.013 4.014 4.015 4.016 4.017 4.018 4.019 4.020 4.021 4.022 4.023 4.024 4.025 4.026 4.027 4.028 4.029 4.030 4.031 4.032 4.033 4.034 4.035 4.036 4.037 4.038 4.039 4.040 4.041 4.042 4.043 4.044 4.045 4.046 4.047 4.048 4.049 4.050 4.051 4.052 4.053 4.054 4.055 4.056 4.057 4.058 4.059 4.060 4.061 4.062 4.063 4.064 4.065 4.066 4.067 4.068 4.069 4.070 4.071 4.072 4.073 4.074 4.075 4.076 4.077 4.078 4.079 4.080 4.081 4.082 4.083 4.084 4.085 4.086 4.087 4.088 4.089 4.090 4.091 4.092 4.093 4.094 4.095 4.096 4.097 4.098 4.099 4.100 4.101 4.102 4.103 4.104 4.105 4.106 4.107 4.108 4.109 4.110 4.111 4.112 4.113 4.114 4.115 4.116 4.117 4.118 4.119 4.120 4.121 4.122 4.123 4.124 4.125 4.126 4.127 4.128 4.129 4.130 4.131 4.132 4.133 4.134 4.135 4.136 4.137 4.138 4.139 4.140 4.141 4.142 4.143 4.144 4.145 4.146 4.147 4.148 4.149 4.150 4.151 4.152 4.153 4.154 4.155 4.156 4.157 4.158 4.159 4.160 4.161 4.162 4.163 4.164 4.165 4.166 4.167 4.168 4.169 4.170 4.171 4.172 4.173 4.174 4.175 4.176 4.177 4.178 4.179 4.180 4.181 4.182 4.183 4.184 4.185 4.186 4.187 YFull Haplogroup YTree v7.02.01 as of 15 March 2019
  5. ↑ 5.00 5.01 5.02 5.03 5.04 5.05 5.06 5.07 5.08 5.09 5.10 5.11 5.12 5.13 5.14 5.15 5.16 "Male demography in East Asia: a north-south contrast in human population expansion times". Genetics 172 (4): 2431–9. April 2006. doi:10.1534/genetics.105.054270. PMID 16489223. PMC 1456369. http://www.genetics.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=16489223. 
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 "Paternal population history of East Asia: sources, patterns, and microevolutionary processes". Am. J. Hum. Genet. 69 (3): 615–28. September 2001. doi:10.1086/323299. PMID 11481588. 
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 "Extended Y Chromosome Investigation Suggests Postglacial Migrations of Modern Humans into East Asia via the Northern Route". Molecular Biology and Evolution 28 (1): 717–727. January 2011. doi:10.1093/molbev/msq247. PMID 20837606. 
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 "High levels of Y-chromosome differentiation among native Siberian populations and the genetic signature of a boreal hunter-gatherer way of life". Hum. Biol. 74 (6): 761–89. December 2002. doi:10.1353/hub.2003.0006. PMID 12617488. http://digitalcommons.wayne.edu/humbiol/vol74/iss6/2/. 
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 "Mating patterns amongst Siberian reindeer herders: inferences from mtDNA and Y-chromosomal analyses". Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 133 (3): 1013–27. July 2007. doi:10.1002/ajpa.20590. PMID 17492671. 
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3 E. V. Balanovska, Y. V. Bogunov, E. N. Kamenshikova, et al., "Demographic and Genetic Portraits of the Ulchi Population." ISSN 1022-7954, Russian Journal of Genetics, 2018, Vol. 54, No. 10, pp. 1245–1253. doi:10.1134/S1022795418100046
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 11.5 11.6 11.7 11.8 Tajima, Atsushi; Hayami, Masanori; Tokunaga, Katsushi; Juji, T; Matsuo, M; Marzuki, S; Omoto, K; Horai, S (2004). "Genetic origins of the Ainu inferred from combined DNA analyses of maternal and paternal lineages". Journal of Human Genetics 49 (4): 187–193. doi:10.1007/s10038-004-0131-x. PMID 14997363. 
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 "KHARKOV, Vladimir Nikolaevich, "СТРУКТУРА И ФИЛОГЕОГРАФИЯ ГЕНОФОНДА КОРЕННОГО НАСЕЛЕНИЯ СИБИРИ ПО МАРКЕРАМ Y-ХРОМОСОМЫ," Genetika 03.02.07 and "АВТОРЕФЕРАТ диссертации на соискание учёной степени доктора биологических наук, Tomsk 2012". http://www.medgenetics.ru/UserFile/File/Doc/Diss_sovet/Vladimir%20Kharkov.pdf. 
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 13.3 13.4 13.5 13.6 13.7 13.8 E. E. Ashirbekov, D. M. Botbaev, A. M. Belkozhaev, A. O. Abayldaev, A. S. Neupokoeva, J. E. Mukhataev, B. Alzhanuly, D. A. Sharafutdinova, D. D. Mukushkina, M. B. Rakhymgozhin, A. K. Khanseitova, S. A. Limborska, and N. A. Aytkhozhina, "Distribution of Y-Chromosome Haplogroups of the Kazakh from the South Kazakhstan, Zhambyl, and Almaty Regions." Reports of the National Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Kazakhstan, ISSN 2224-5227, Volume 6, Number 316 (2017), 85 – 95.
  14. ↑ "Y-chromosome variation in Altaian Kazakhs reveals a common paternal gene pool for Kazakhs and the influence of Mongolian expansions". PLOS ONE 6 (3): e17548. 2011. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0017548. PMID 21412412. Bibcode: 2011PLoSO...617548D. 
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4 15.5 15.6 15.7 "The dual origin and Siberian affinities of Native American Y chromosomes". Am. J. Hum. Genet. 70 (1): 192–206. January 2002. doi:10.1086/338457. PMID 11731934. 
  16. ↑ 16.00 16.01 16.02 16.03 16.04 16.05 16.06 16.07 16.08 16.09 16.10 16.11 16.12 16.13 16.14 16.15 16.16 "Dual origins of the Japanese: common ground for hunter-gatherer and farmer Y chromosomes". J. Hum. Genet. 51 (1): 47–58. 2006. doi:10.1007/s10038-005-0322-0. PMID 16328082. 
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 Guang‐Lin He, Meng‐Ge Wang, Xing Zou, Hui‐Yuan Yeh, Chang‐Hui Liu, Chao Liu, Gang Chen, and Chuan‐Chao Wang, "Extensive ethnolinguistic diversity at the crossroads of North China and South Siberia reflects multiple sources of genetic diversity." J. Syst. Evol. 00 (0): 1–21, 2022. doi: 10.1111/jse.12827
  18. ↑ 18.000 18.001 18.002 18.003 18.004 18.005 18.006 18.007 18.008 18.009 18.010 18.011 18.012 18.013 18.014 18.015 18.016 18.017 18.018 18.019 18.020 18.021 18.022 18.023 18.024 18.025 18.026 18.027 18.028 18.029 18.030 18.031 18.032 18.033 18.034 18.035 18.036 18.037 18.038 18.039 18.040 18.041 18.042 18.043 18.044 18.045 18.046 18.047 18.048 18.049 18.050 18.051 18.052 18.053 18.054 18.055 18.056 18.057 18.058 18.059 18.060 18.061 18.062 18.063 18.064 18.065 18.066 18.067 18.068 18.069 18.070 18.071 18.072 18.073 18.074 18.075 18.076 18.077 18.078 18.079 18.080 18.081 18.082 18.083 18.084 18.085 18.086 18.087 18.088 18.089 18.090 18.091 18.092 18.093 18.094 18.095 18.096 18.097 18.098 18.099 18.100 18.101 18.102 18.103 18.104 18.105 18.106 18.107 18.108 18.109 18.110 18.111 18.112 18.113 18.114 18.115 18.116 18.117 18.118 18.119 18.120 18.121 18.122 18.123 18.124 18.125 18.126 18.127 18.128 18.129 18.130 18.131 18.132 Phylogenetic tree of Haplogroup C2-M217 at 23mofang
  19. ↑ 19.00 19.01 19.02 19.03 19.04 19.05 19.06 19.07 19.08 19.09 19.10 19.11 19.12 19.13 19.14 19.15 19.16 19.17 19.18 19.19 19.20 19.21 "Afghan Hindu Kush: Where Eurasian Sub-Continent Gene Flows Converge". PLOS ONE 8 (10): e76748. 2013. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0076748. PMID 24204668. Bibcode: 2013PLoSO...876748D. 
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 20.2 20.3 20.4 "High-resolution SNPs and microsatellite haplotypes point to a single, recent entry of Native American Y chromosomes into the Americas". Mol. Biol. Evol. 21 (1): 164–75. January 2004. doi:10.1093/molbev/msh009. PMID 14595095. 
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 21.2 21.3 "Polarity and temporality of high-resolution y-chromosome distributions in India identify both indigenous and exogenous expansions and reveal minor genetic influence of Central Asian pastoralists". Am. J. Hum. Genet. 78 (2): 202–21. February 2006. doi:10.1086/499411. PMID 16400607. 
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 22.2 "Investigating the effects of prehistoric migrations in Siberia: genetic variation and the origins of Yakuts". Hum. Genet. 120 (3): 334–53. October 2006. doi:10.1007/s00439-006-0213-2. PMID 16845541. 
  23. ↑ Wang Chi-zao，Shi Mei-sen, and Li Hui (2018), "The Origin of Daur from the Perspective of Molecular Anthropology" [分子人类学视野下的达斡尔族族源研究], Journal of North Minzu University (Philosophy and Social Science Edition) [北方民族大学学报(哲学社会科学版)], No. 5, Gen. No. 143.
  24. ↑ 24.00 24.01 24.02 24.03 24.04 24.05 24.06 24.07 24.08 24.09 24.10 24.11 24.12 24.13 24.14 24.15 24.16 24.17 24.18 24.19 24.20 24.21 24.22 24.23 24.24 24.25 24.26 24.27 24.28 24.29 24.30 24.31 24.32 24.33 24.34 24.35 24.36 24.37 24.38 24.39 24.40 24.41 Zhong, Hua; Shi, Hong; Xue-, XB; Qi, Bin; Jin, L; Ma, RZ; Su, B (2010). "Global distribution of Y-chromosome haplogroup C reveals the prehistoric migration routes of African exodus and early settlement in East Asia". Journal of Human Genetics 55 (7): 428–35. doi:10.1038/jhg.2010.40. PMID 20448651. 
  25. ↑ A brief introduction to patrilineal haplogroups and national ancestry composition of the Manchu population in China by 23mofang (2021/1/21)
  26. ↑ Chen J, He G, Ren Z, Wang Q, Liu Y, Zhang H, Yang M, Zhang H, Ji J, Zhao J, Guo J, Zhu K, Yang X, Wang R, Ma H, Wang C-C, and Huang J (2021), "Genomic Insights Into the Admixture History of Mongolic- and Tungusic-Speaking Populations From Southwestern East Asia." Front. Genet. 12:685285. doi: 10.3389/fgene.2021.685285
  27. ↑ A brief introduction to the patrilineal haplogroups and national ancestry composition of the Tujia people in China by 23mofang (2021/1/21)
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 Xia, Zi-YangExpression error: Unrecognized word "etal". (2019), Inland-coastal bifurcation of southern East Asians revealed by Hmong-Mien genomic history, doi:10.1101/730903 
  29. ↑ "47z TAT : 네이버 블로그". https://m.blog.naver.com/qudro/221055419613. 
  30. ↑ Guo, Y.; Xia, Z.; Cui, W.; Chen, C.; Jin, X.; Zhu, B. Joint Genetic Analyses of Mitochondrial and Y-Chromosome Molecular Markers for a Population from Northwest China. Genes 2020, 11, 564. doi:10.3390/genes11050564
  31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 31.2 31.3 31.4 Haber, MarcExpression error: Unrecognized word "etal". (28 March 2012). "Afghanistan's Ethnic Groups Share a Y-Chromosomal Heritage Structured by Historical Events". PLoS One 7 (3): e34288. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0034288. PMID 22470552. 
  32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 32.2 32.3 32.4 32.5 32.6 32.7 32.8 Enrico Macholdt, Leonardo Arias, Nguyen Thuy Duong, et al., "The paternal and maternal genetic history of Vietnamese populations." European Journal of Human Genetics (2020) 28:636–645. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41431-019-0557-4
  33. ↑ "47z TAT : 네이버 블로그". https://m.blog.naver.com/qudro/220837725593. 
  34. ↑ "47z TAT : 네이버 블로그". https://m.blog.naver.com/qudro/221055379237. 
  35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 35.2 35.3 35.4 35.5 "Phylogeography of the Y-chromosome haplogroup C in northern Eurasia". Annals of Human Genetics 74 (6): 539–546. 2010. doi:10.1111/j.1469-1809.2010.00601.x. PMID 20726964. 
  36. ↑ 36.0 36.1 36.2 "Culture creates genetic structure in the Caucasus: autosomal, mitochondrial, and Y-chromosomal variation in Daghestan". BMC Genet. 9: 47. 2008. doi:10.1186/1471-2156-9-47. PMID 18637195. 
  37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 37.2 LIU Shuhu, NIZAM Yilihamu, RABIYAMU Bake, ABDUKERAM Bupatima, and DOLKUN Matyusup, "A study of genetic diversity of three isolated populations in Xinjiang using Y-SNP." Acta Anthropologica Sinica, 2018, 37(1): 146-156.
  38. ↑ 38.0 38.1 Lu Yan (2011), "Genetic Mixture of Populations in Western China." Shanghai: Fudan University, 2011: 1-84. (Doctoral dissertation in Chinese: 陆艳, "中国西部人群的遗传混合", 上海：复旦大学，2011: 1-84.)
  39. ↑ 39.0 39.1 39.2 39.3 39.4 "High frequencies of Y-chromosome haplogroup O2b-SRY465 lineages in Korea: a genetic perspective on the peopling of Korea". Investig Genet 2 (1): 10. 2011. doi:10.1186/2041-2223-2-10. PMID 21463511. 
  40. ↑ 40.0 40.1 40.2 40.3 40.4 Bayazit Yunusbayev, Mait Metspalu, Mari Järve, et al. (2012), "The Caucasus as an Asymmetric Semipermeable Barrier to Ancient Human Migrations." Molecular Biology and Evolution 29(1):359–365. doi:10.1093/molbev/msr221 Advance Access publication 13 September 2011.
  41. ↑ 41.0 41.1 Nasidze2004a
  42. ↑ 42.0 42.1 "Y-chromosomal Binary Haplogroups in the Japanese Population and their Relationship to 16 Y-STR Polymorphisms". Annals of Human Genetics 71 (4): 480–495. 2007. doi:10.1111/j.1469-1809.2006.00343.x. PMID 17274803. 
  43. ↑ Sae Naitoh, Iku Kasahara-Nonaka, Kiyoshi Minaguchi, and Phrabhakaran Nambiar, "Assignment of Y-chromosomal SNPs found in Japanese population to Y-chromosomal haplogroup tree." Journal of Human Genetics (2013) 58, 195–201. doi:10.1038/jhg.2012.159
  44. ↑ 44.0 44.1 "Overview of genetic variation in the Y chromosome of modern Japanese males". Anthropological Science 122 (3): 131–136. 2014. doi:10.1537/ase.140709. 
  45. ↑ 45.0 45.1 Boris Malyarchuk, Miroslava Derenko, Galina Denisova, Sanj Khoyt, Marcin Wozniak, Tomasz Grzybowski, and Ilya Zakharov, "Y-chromosome diversity in the Kalmyks at the ethnical and tribal levels." Journal of Human Genetics (2013) 58, 804–811; doi:10.1038/jhg.2013.108; published online 17 October 2013.
  46. ↑ 46.0 46.1 46.2 46.3 46.4 46.5 46.6 46.7 46.8 Natalia Balinova, Helen Post, Alena Kushniarevich, Siiri Rootsi, et al. (2019), "Y-chromosomal analysis of clan structure of Kalmyks, the only European Mongol people, and their relationship to Oirat-Mongols of Inner Asia." European Journal of Human Genetics. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41431-019-0399-0
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  48. ↑ "The genetic legacy of the Mongols". Am. J. Hum. Genet. 72 (3): 717–21. March 2003. doi:10.1086/367774. PMID 12592608.  as PDF
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  50. ↑ Xue, Y; Zerjal, T; Bao, W; Zhu, S; Lim, SK; Shu, Q; Xu, J; Du, R et al. (2005). "Recent Spread of a Y-Chromosomal Lineage in Northern China and Mongolia". The American Journal of Human Genetics 77 (6): 1112–1116. doi:10.1086/498583. PMID 16380921. 
  51. ↑ Xue, Y.; Zerjal, T.; Bao, W.; Zhu, S.; Lim, S. K.; Shu, Q.; Xu, J.; Du, R. et al. (December 2005). "Recent Spread of a Y-Chromosomal Lineage in Northern China and Mongolia". Am J Hum Genet 77 (6): 1112–1116. doi:10.1086/498583. PMID 16380921. 
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  53. ↑ Wei, Lan-Hai; Yan, Shi; Lu, Yan; Wen, Shao-Qing; Huang, Yun-Zhi; Wang, Ling-Xiang; Li, Shi-Lin; Yang, Ya-Jun et al. (22 January 2018). "Whole-sequence analysis indicates that the Y chromosome C2*-Star Cluster traces back to ordinary Mongols, rather than Genghis Khan". European Journal of Human Genetics 26 (2): 230–237. doi:10.1038/s41431-017-0012-3. PMID 29358612. 
  54. ↑ Abilev, Serikbai; Malyarchuk, Boris; Derenko, Miroslava; Wozniak, Marcin; Grzybowski, Tomasz; Zakharov, Ilya (2012). "The Y-chromosome C3* star-cluster attributed to Genghis Khan's descendants is present at high frequency in the Kerey clan from Kazakhstan". Human Biology 84 (1, Article 12): 79–89. doi:10.3378/027.084.0106. PMID 22452430. https://digitalcommons.wayne.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1012&context=humbiol_preprints. 
  55. ↑ Wen, Shao-Qing; Yao, Hong-Bing; Du, Pan-Xin; Wei, Lan-Hai; Tong, Xin-Zhu; Wang, Ling-Xiang; Wang, Chuan-Chao; Zhou, Bo-Yan et al. (August 2019). "Molecular genealogy of Tusi Lu's family reveals their paternal relationship with Jochi, Genghis Khan's eldest son" (in en). Journal of Human Genetics 64 (8): 815–820. doi:10.1038/s10038-019-0618-0. ISSN 1434-5161. PMID 31164702. http://www.nature.com/articles/s10038-019-0618-0. 
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  58. ↑ 58.00 58.01 58.02 58.03 58.04 58.05 58.06 58.07 58.08 58.09 58.10 58.11 58.12 58.13 Haplogroup C-M217 on Discover by FamilyTreeDNA
  59. ↑ "C-Cts4660单倍群详情". https://www.23mofang.com/ancestry/ytree/C-CTS4660/detail. 
  60. ↑ 60.00 60.01 60.02 60.03 60.04 60.05 60.06 60.07 60.08 60.09 60.10 60.11 60.12 60.13 60.14 60.15 60.16 60.17 60.18 60.19 60.20 60.21 60.22 60.23 60.24 60.25 Phylogenetic tree of Haplogroup O-F175 at TheYtree
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  62. ↑ 62.0 62.1 62.2 62.3 62.4 Tatiana M. Karafet, Ludmila P. Osipova, Olga V. Savina, Brian Hallmark, and Michael F. Hammer (2018), "Siberian genetic diversity reveals complex origins of the Samoyedic-speaking populations." Am J Hum Biol. 2018;e23194. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajhb.23194. doi:10.1002/ajhb.23194
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  70. ↑ Xue, Yali; Zerjal, Tatiana; Bao, Weidong; Zhu, Suling; Lim, Si-Keun; Shu, Qunfang; Xu, Jiujin; Du, Ruofu et al. (2005). "Recent Spread of a Y-Chromosomal Lineage in Northern China and Mongolia". The American Journal of Human Genetics 77 (6): 1112–1116. doi:10.1086/498583. PMID 16380921. 
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  74. ↑ Wang, Chi-Zao; Wei, Lan-Hai; Wang, Ling-Xiang; Wen, Shao-Qing; Yu, Xue-Er; Shi, Mei-Sen; Li, Hui (August 2019). "Relating Clans Ao and Aisin Gioro from northeast China by whole Y-chromosome sequencing". Journal of Human Genetics (Japan Society of Human Genetics) 64 (8): 775–780. doi:10.1038/s10038-019-0622-4. PMID 31148597. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31148597/. 
  75. ↑ 75.0 75.1 Pille Hallast, Chiara Batini, Daniel Zadik, et al., "The Y-Chromosome Tree Bursts into Leaf: 13,000 High-Confidence SNPs Covering the Majority of Known Clades." Molecular Biology and Evolution doi:10.1093/molbev/msu327 Advance Access publication 2 December 2014.
  76. ↑ 76.0 76.1 76.2 "The Himalayas as a directional barrier to gene flow". Am. J. Hum. Genet. 80 (5): 884–94. May 2007. doi:10.1086/516757. PMID 17436243.  2/77=2.6% C-M217 in a sample of the general population of Kathmandu.
  77. ↑ "Mitochondrial and Y-chromosome diversity of the Tharus (Nepal): a reservoir of genetic variation". BMC Evol. Biol. 9 (1): 154. 2009. doi:10.1186/1471-2148-9-154. PMID 19573232. Bibcode: 2009BMCEE...9..154F.  1/26=3.8% C-M217 in a sample of Hindu Indians from the Terai.
  78. ↑ 78.0 78.1 "Austro-Asiatic tribes of Northeast India provide hitherto missing genetic link between South and Southeast Asia". PLOS ONE 2 (11): e1141. 2007. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0001141. PMID 17989774. Bibcode: 2007PLoSO...2.1141R.  Haplogroup C-M217 in 8.5% of a sample of 71 Garos and 7.7% of a pool of eight samples of Khasians totalling 353 individuals
  79. ↑ "The genetic heritage of the earliest settlers persists both in Indian tribal and caste populations". Am. J. Hum. Genet. 72 (2): 313–32. February 2003. doi:10.1086/346068. PMID 12536373.  C-M217 in 1/31=3.2% of a sample from West Bengal.
  80. ↑ Y-Chromosome Diversity in Modern Bulgarians: New Clues about Their Ancestry, Karachanak S, Grugni V, Fornarino S, Nesheva D, Al-Zahery N, et al. (2013) Retrieved Oct 2013.
  81. ↑ 81.0 81.1 81.2 81.3 Karafet, Tatiana M. et al. (2010). "Major East–West Division Underlies Y Chromosome Stratification across Indonesia". Mol. Biol. Evol. 27 (8): 1833–1844. doi:10.1093/molbev/msq063. PMID 20207712. 
  82. ↑ 82.0 82.1 "Melanesian and Asian Origins of Polynesians: mtDNA and Y Chromosome Gradients Across the Pacific". Molecular Biology and Evolution 23 (11): 2234–2244. 2006. doi:10.1093/molbev/msl093. PMID 16923821. 
  83. ↑ 83.0 83.1 83.2 "Taiwan Y-chromosomal DNA variation and its relationship with Island Southeast Asia". BMC Genetics 15: 77. 2014. doi:10.1186/1471-2156-15-77. PMID 24965575. 
  84. ↑ "Human Migration through Bottlenecks from Southeast Asia into East Asia during Last Glacial Maximum Revealed by Y Chromosomes". PLOS ONE 6 (8): e24282. 2011. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0024282. PMID 21904623. Bibcode: 2011PLoSO...624282C. 
  85. ↑ "Retrieving Y chromosomal haplogroup trees using GWAS data". European Journal of Human Genetics 22 (8): 1046–50. August 2014. doi:10.1038/ejhg.2013.272. PMID 24281365. 
  86. ↑ 86.0 86.1 Bing Su, Li Jin, Peter Underhill, Jeremy Martinson, Nilmani Saha, Stephen T. McGarvey, Mark D. Shriver, Jiayou Chu, Peter Oefner, Ranajit Chakraborty, and Ranjan Deka, "Polynesian origins: Insights from the Y chromosome." PNAS (18 July 2000), vol. 97, no. 15, 8225–8228.
  87. ↑ "Y chromosomal evidence on the origin of northern Thai people". PLOS ONE 12 (7): e0181935. 2017. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0181935. PMID 28742125. Bibcode: 2017PLoSO..1281935B. 
  88. ↑ "Genetic evidence for the Mongolian ancestry of Kalmyks". Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 128 (4): 846–54. December 2005. doi:10.1002/ajpa.20159. PMID 16028228. 
  89. ↑ 89.00 89.01 89.02 89.03 89.04 89.05 89.06 89.07 89.08 89.09 89.10 89.11 89.12 89.13 89.14 89.15 89.16 89.17 89.18 89.19 89.20 89.21 89.22 89.23 89.24 89.25 89.26 89.27 89.28 89.29 89.30 89.31 89.32 89.33 89.34 89.35 89.36 89.37 89.38 89.39 89.40 89.41 89.42 89.43 89.44 89.45 89.46 "FamilyTreeDNA – Genetic Testing for Ancestry, Family History & Genealogy". https://www.familytreedna.com/public/y-dna-haplotree/C. 
  90. ↑ 90.0 90.1 Lan-Hai Wei, Yun-Zhi Huang, Shi Yan, et al., "Phylogeny of Y-chromosome haplogroup C3b-F1756, an important paternal lineage in Altaic-speaking populations." Journal of Human Genetics advance online publication, 1 June 2017; doi:10.1038/jhg.2017.60
  91. ↑ "[The origin of Yakuts: analysis of Y-chromosome haplotypes]" (in ru). Mol. Biol. (Mosk.) 42 (2): 226–37. 2008. PMID 18610830. 
  92. ↑ 92.0 92.1 Peter de Barros Damgaard, Nina Marchi, Simon Rasmussen, et al. (2018), "137 ancient human genomes from across the Eurasian steppes." Nature, volume 557, pages 369–374 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-018-0094-2
  93. ↑ Lan-Hai Wei, Shi Yan, Ge Yu, et al. (2016), "Genetic trail for the early migrations of Aisin Gioro, the imperial house of the Qing dynasty." Journal of Human Genetics (2016), 1–5. doi:10.1038/jhg.2016.142
  94. ↑ 94.0 94.1 94.2 94.3 94.4 94.5 94.6 94.7 94.8 Wibhu Kutanan, Jatupol Kampuansai, Metawee Srikummool, Andrea Brunelli, Silvia Ghirotto, Leonardo Arias, Enrico Macholdt, Alexander Hübner, Roland Schröder, and Mark Stoneking, "Contrasting Paternal and Maternal Genetic Histories of Thai and Lao Populations." Mol. Biol. Evol. Advance Access publication 12 April 2019. doi:10.1093/molbev/msz083
  95. ↑ 95.0 95.1 95.2 95.3 95.4 95.5 95.6 95.7 Wibhu Kutanan, Rasmi Shoocongdej, Metawee Srikummool, et al. (2020), "Cultural variation impacts paternal and maternal genetic lineages of the Hmong-Mien and Sino-Tibetan groups from Thailand." European Journal of Human Genetics. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41431-020-0693-x
  96. ↑ "C-F5477单倍群详情". https://www.23mofang.com/ancestry/ytree/C-F5477/detail. 
  97. ↑ "C-Mf10317单倍群详情". https://www.23mofang.com/ancestry/ytree/C-MF10317/detail. 
  98. ↑ "Y chromosome sequence variation and the history of human populations". Nat. Genet. 26 (3): 358–61. November 2000. doi:10.1038/81685. PMID 11062480. 
  99. ↑ "C-Sk1037单倍群详情". https://www.23mofang.com/ancestry/ytree/C-SK1037/detail. 
  100. ↑ "C-Mf1020单倍群详情". https://www.23mofang.com/ancestry/ytree/C-MF1020/detail. 
  101. ↑ "C-Z45203单倍群详情". https://www.23mofang.com/ancestry/ytree/C-Z45203/detail. 

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