Biology:Island gigantism

Short description: Evolutionary phenomena leading to an increase of the size of species with insularity

Size comparison of the giant gymnure (moonrat) Deinogalerix from the Late Miocene of Gargano, Italy, with a European hedgehog.

Island gigantism, or insular gigantism, is a biological phenomenon in which the size of an animal species isolated on an island increases dramatically in comparison to its mainland relatives. Island gigantism is one aspect of the more general "island effect" or "Foster's rule", which posits that when mainland animals colonize islands, small species tend to evolve larger bodies, and large species tend to evolve smaller bodies (insular dwarfism). This is itself one aspect of the more general phenomenon of island syndrome which describes the differences in morphology, ecology, physiology and behaviour of insular species compared to their continental counterparts. Following the arrival of humans and associated introduced predators (dogs, cats, rats, pigs), many giant as well as other island endemics have become extinct (e.g. the dodo and Rodrigues solitaire, giant flightless pigeons related to the Nicobar pigeon). A similar size increase, as well as increased woodiness, has been observed in some insular plants such as the Mapou tree (Cyphostemma mappia) in Mauritius which is also known as the "Mauritian baobab" although it is member of the grape family (Vitaceae).

Possible causes

Diagram displaying the change in size of weta species in two ecosystems. The size and population of weta are affected by predation. Rats introduced on the mainland began to prey on weta, reducing their population; weta shrank in response. On an island isolated from predation, such as Little Barrier Island, weta have a dense population and have grown to a massive size. Insular species of giant weta are the only ones not facing extinction. As weta grow over time, bird predation declines.^{[citation needed]}

Large mammalian carnivores are often absent on islands because of insufficient range or difficulties in over-water dispersal. In their absence, the ecological niches for large predators may be occupied by birds, reptiles or smaller carnivorans, which can then grow to larger-than-normal size. For example, on prehistoric Gargano Island in the Miocene-Pliocene Mediterranean, on islands in the Caribbean like Cuba, and on Madagascar and New Zealand, some or all apex predators were birds like eagles, falcons and owls, including some of the largest known examples of these groups. However, birds and reptiles generally make less efficient large predators than advanced carnivorans.

Since small size usually makes it easier for herbivores to escape or hide from predators, the decreased predation pressure on islands can allow them to grow larger.^[1]^{[lower-alpha 1]} Small herbivores may also benefit from the absence of competition from missing types of large herbivores.

Benefits of large size that have been suggested for island tortoises include decreased vulnerability to scarcity of food and/or water, through ability to survive for longer intervals without them, or ability to travel longer distances to obtain them. Periods of such scarcity may be a greater threat on oceanic islands than on the mainland.^[4]

Thus, island gigantism is usually an evolutionary trend resulting from the removal of constraints on the size of small animals related to predation and/or competition.^[5] Such constraints can operate differently depending on the size of the animal, however; for example, while small herbivores may escape predation by hiding, large herbivores may deter predators by intimidation. As a result, the complementary phenomenon of island dwarfism can also result from the removal of constraints related to predation and/or competition on the size of large herbivores.^[6] In contrast, insular dwarfism among predators more commonly results from the imposition of constraints associated with the limited prey resources available on islands.^[6] As opposed to island dwarfism, island gigantism is found in most major vertebrate groups and in invertebrates.

Territorialism may favor the evolution of island gigantism. A study on Anaho Island in Nevada determined that reptile species that were territorial tended to be larger on the island compared to the mainland, particularly in the smaller species. In territorial species, larger size makes individuals better able to compete to defend their territory. This gives additional impetus to evolution toward larger size in an insular population.^[7]

A further means of establishing island gigantism may be a founder effect operative when larger members of a mainland population are superior in their ability to colonize islands.^[8]

Island size plays a role in determining the extent of gigantism. Smaller islands generally accelerate the rate of evolution of changes in organism size, and organisms there evolve greater extremes in size.^[9]

Examples

Examples of island gigantism include:

Mammals

Many rodents grow larger on islands, whereas carnivorans, proboscideans and artiodactyls usually become smaller.

Eulipotyphlans

Example	Binomial name	Native range	Current status	Continental relative
Balearic giant shrew	Nesiotites hidalgo	Majorca and Menorca	Extinct (3000-2000 BC)	Red-toothed shrews
Sardinian giant shrew	Asoriculus similis	Sardinia and Corsica	Extinct (Holocene)
Sicilian giant shrew	Asoriculus burgioi	Sicily	Extinct (Early Pleistocene)
Deinogalerix	Deinogalerix spp.	Gargano Island	Extinct (Late Miocene)	Moon rats

Rodents

Example	Binomial name	Native range	Current status	Continental relative	Insular / mainland length or mass ratio
Blunt-toothed giant hutia	Amblyrhiza inundata	Anguilla and Saint Martin	Extinct (Pleistocene)	Neotropical spiny rats
Larger Jamaican giant hutia	Clidomys osborni	Jamaica	Extinct (Late Pleistocene)
Plate-toothed giant hutia	Elasmodontomys obliquus	Puerto Rico	Extinct (c. 1 AD)
Twisted-toothed mouse	Quemisia gravis	Hispaniola	Extinct
Arboreal giant hutia^[10]	Tainotherium valei	Puerto Rico	Extinct
Lesser Jamaica giant hutia	Xaymaca fulvopulvis	Jamaica	Extinct
Majorcan giant hamsters	Apocricetus darderi Tragomys macpheei	Majorca	Extinct	Apocricetus alberti^[11] Cricetus kormosi^[12]
Gargano giant hamster	Hattomys gargantua	Gargano Island	Extinct	Apocricetus alberti^[11] Cricetus kormosi^[12]
St Kilda field mouse	Apodemus sylvaticus hirtensis	St Kilda	Least Concern	120px Wood mouse	MR ≈ 2 ^[13]
Hensel's field mouse	Rhagamys orthodon	Corsica and Sardinia	Extinct (After 1300 BC)	120px Wood mouse
Tenerife giant rat	Canariomys bravoi	Tenerife	Extinct (Late Pleistocene)	African rufous-nosed rats
Gran Canaria giant rat	Canariomys tamarani	Gran Canaria	Extinct (before AD 1500)	African rufous-nosed rats
Formentera black-tailed garden dormouse	Eliomys quercinus ophiusae	Formentera	Rare (Introduced by humans)^[14]	Garden dormouse and other Leithiinae dormice
Balearic giant dormice	Hypnomys spp.	Mallorca & Menorca	Extinct (Holocene)
Balearic giant dormice	Hypnomys spp.	Mallorca & Menorca	Extinct (Holocene)
Sicilian-Maltese giant dormice	Leithia cartei	Sicily and Malta	Extinct
Sicilian-Maltese giant dormice	Leithia melitensis	Sicily and Malta	Extinct
Orkney vole	Microtus arvalis orcadensis	Orkney Islands	Vulnerable	120px Common vole and other meadow voles
Gargano giant voles	Mikrotia magna M. maiuscula M. parva	Gargano Island	Extinct (Early Pliocene)	120px Common vole and other meadow voles
St Kilda house mouse	Mus musculus muralis	St Kilda	Extinct (c. AD 1930)	120px House mouse
Flores giant rat	Papagomys armandvillei	Flores	Near Threatened	North African black rat and other true rats
Sulawesi giant rat	Paruromys dominator	Sulawesi	Least Concern
Admiralty giant rat	Rattus detentus	Manus Island	Unknown / Likely threatened^[15]
Congreso black rat population^[16]	Rattus rattus	Isla del Congreso	Least Concern
Channel Islands deer mice	Peromyscus anyapahensis P. nesodytes	Northern Channel Islands of California	Extinct (c. 6000 BC)	North American deer mouse
Gargano giant dormouse	Stertomys laticrestatus^[17]	Gargano Island	Extinct	120px Glirinae dormice

Lagomorphs

Example	Binomial name	Native range	Current status	Continental relative
Minorcan giant lagomorph	Nuralagus rex	Minorca	Extinct (Middle Pliocene)	Alilepus (?) Trischizolagus (?)
	Prolagus imperialis	Gargano Island	Extinct	Pikas
Sardinian pika	Prolagus sardus	Corsica, Sardinia and Tavolara	Extinct (c. AD 1800)	Pikas

Primates

Example	Binomial name	Native range	Current status	Continental relative
Hispaniola monkey	Antillothrix bernensis	Hispaniola	Extinct (before AD 1600)	Cheracebus
Haitian monkey	Insulacebus toussaintiana	Southwestern Haiti	Extinct
Cuban monkeys	Paralouatta marianae^[18] P. varonai^[18]	Cuba	Extinct (Pleistocene)
Jamaican monkey	Xenothrix mcgregori	Jamaica	Extinct
Gorilla lemur	Archaeoindris fontoynontii	Central Madagascar	Extinct (c. 350 BC)	120px Lorisoids
Baboon lemurs	Archaeolemur spp. Hadropithecus spp.	Madagascar	Extinct (before AD 1280)
Sloth lemurs	Babakotia spp. Palaeopropithecus spp.	Western and Central Madagascar	Extinct (c. AD 1500)
Koala lemurs	Megaladapis edwardsi M. grandidieri M. madagascariensis	Madagascar	Extinct (AD 1280–1420)

Carnivorans

Example	Binomial name	Native range	Current status	Continental relative
Sardinian giant otter	Megalenhydris barbaricina	Sardinia	Extinct (Late Pleistocene)	120px Otters
Fossa	Cryptoprocta ferox	Madagascar	Vulnerable	Mongooses
Giant fossa	Cryptoprocta spelaea	Madagascar	Extinct (before AD 1400)

Birds

Stem birds

Example	Binomial name	Native range	Current status	Continental relative
Balaur	B. bondoc	Hateg Island	Extinct (Late Cretaceous)	120px Jeholornis^[19]
Gargantuavis	G. philohinos	Ibero-Armorican Island	Extinct (Late Cretaceous)	120px Patagopteryx (?)

Ratites

Example	Binomial name	Native range	Current status	Continental relative
Kiwis	Apterygidae	New Zealand	Variable	Proapteryx^{[lower-alpha 2]}
Greater elephant birds	Aepyornithidae	Madagascar	Extinct (c. AD 1700)
Lesser elephant birds	Mullerornithidae	Madagascar	Extinct (c. AD 1260)
Giant moas	Dinornithidae	New Zealand	Extinct (c. AD 1450)	120px Tinamous
Lesser moas	Emeidae	New Zealand	Extinct (c. AD 1460)
Upland moas	Megalapterygidae	New Zealand	Extinct (c. AD 1300)

Waterfowl

Example	Binomial name	Native range	Current status	Continental relative
New Zealand musk duck	Biziura delautouri	New Zealand	Extinct (after AD 1500)	Australian musk duck
New Zealand geese	Cnemiornis calcitrans C. gracilis	New Zealand	Extinct	120px Cape Barren goose
Garganornis	G. ballmanni	Gargano and Scontrone islands	Extinct (Late Miocene)	Geese^[21]
Turtle-jawed moa-nalo	Chelychelynechen quassus	Kauai	Extinct (c. AD 1000)	Dabbling ducks
Small-billed moa-nalo	Ptaiochen pau	Maui	Extinct (c. AD 1000)
Large-billed moa-nalo	Thambetochen chauliodous	Maui Nui	Extinct (c. AD 1000)
O'ahu moa-nalo	Thambetochen xanion	O'ahu	Extinct (c. AD 1000)
Giant swan	Cygnus falconeri	Sicily and Malta	Extinct (Middle Pleistocene)	120px Mute swan
Scarlett's duck	Malacorhynchus scarletti	New Zealand	Extinct (after AD 1500)	Pink-eared duck

Pangalliformes

Example	Binomial name	Native range	Current status	Continental relative
Pile-builder megapode	Megapodius molistructor	New Caledonia and Tonga	Extinct (c. 1500 BC)	Scrubfowl
Megavitiornis	Megavitiornis altirostris	Fiji	Extinct	Galliformes
Sylviornis	Sylviornis neocaledoniae	New Caledonia and Isle of Pines	Extinct	Galliformes

Gruiformes

Example	Binomial name	Native range	Current status	Continental relative
Red rail	Aphanapteryx bonasia	Mauritius	Extinct (c. AD 1700)	120px Rails
Hawkins' rail	Diaphanapteryx hawkinsi	Chatham Islands	Extinct (c. AD 1900)
Antillean cave rail	Nesotrochis debooyi	Puerto Rico and Virgin Islands	Extinct
Cuban cave rail	Nesotrochis picapicensis	Cuba	Extinct
Haitian cave rail	Nesotrochis steganinos	Hispaniola	Extinct
South Island takahē	Porphyrio hochstetteri	South Island, New Zealand	Endangered
North Island takahē	Porphyrio mantelli	North Island, New Zealand	Extinct (before AD 1900)
Adzebills	Aptornis defossor A. otidiformis	New Zealand	Extinct	120px Madagascar flufftail^[22]
Chatham coot	Fulica chathamensis	Chatham Islands	Extinct (after AD 1500)	120px Red-knobbed coot and other coots
Mascarene coot	Fulica newtonii	Mauritius and Réunion	Extinct (c. AD 1700)
New Zealand coot	Fulica prisca	New Zealand	Extinct (after AD 1280)
Réunion swamphen	Porphyrio coerulescens	Plaine des Cafres, Réunion	Extinct (c. AD 1730)	120px Purple swamphens

Pigeons

Example	Binomial name	Native range	Current status	Continental relative
Viti Levu giant pigeon	Natunaornis gigoura	Viti Levu, Fiji	Extinct	Crowned pigeons
Kanaka pigeon	Caloenas canacorum	New Caledonia	Extinct (c. 500 BC)	Nicobar pigeon
Rodrigues solitaire	Pezophaps solitaria	Rodrigues	Extinct (before AD 1778)
Dodo	Raphus cucullatus	Mauritius	Extinct (c. AD 1662)

Birds of prey

Example	Binomial name	Native range	Current status	Continental relative
Liko Cave golden eagle	Aquila chrysaetos simurgh	Crete	Extinct (Late Pleistocene)	Golden eagle
Giant crab-hawk^[23]	Buteogallus borrasi	Cuba	Extinct	Great black hawk and other hawks
Giant hawk	Gigantohierax sp.	Cuba	Extinct
Titan-hawk	Titanohierax gloveralleni	Cuba, Hispaniola and the Bahamas	Extinct
Jamaican caracara	Caracara tellustris	Jamaica	Extinct	Caracaras
Eyles' harrier	Circus eylesi	New Zealand	Extinct (c. AD 1000)	Swamp harrier
Gargano Island eagles	Garganoaetus freudenthali G. murivorus	Gargano Island	Extinct (Late Miocene)	Aquila delphinensis
Haast's eagle	Hieraaetus moorei	New Zealand	Extinct (c. AD 1400)	120px Little eagle
Philippine eagle	Pithecophaga jefferyi	Philippines	Critically endangered	120px Bateleur^[24]

Parrots

Example	Binomial name	Native range	Current status	Continental relative
Hercules parrot	Heracles inexpectatus	New Zealand	Extinct (Miocene)	Other parrots
Kakapo	Strigops habroptilus	New Zealand	Critically Endangered	Other parrots
Broad-billed parrot	Lophopsittacus mauritianus	Mauritius	Extinct (c. AD 1680)	120px Psittaculine parrots

Owls

Example	Binomial name	Native range	Current status	Continental relative
Cretan owl	Athene cretensis	Crete	Extinct (Pleistocene)	Little owl
Cuban giant owls	Ornimegalonyx spp.	Cuba	Extinct (Pleistocene)	120px Wood owls
Greater Gargano giant owl	Tyto gigantea	Gargano Island	Extinct (Late Miocene)	120px Barn owls
Andros Island barn owl	Tyto pollens	Andros Island, Bahamas	Extinct (before AD 1600)
Rivero's barn owl	Tyto riveroi	Cuba	Extinct
Lesser Gargano giant owl	Tyto robusta	Gargano Island	Extinct (Early Pliocene)

Caprimulgiformes

Example	Binomial name	Native range	Current status	Continental relative
New Zealand owlet-nightjar	Aegotheles novazelandiae	New Zealand	Extinct (c. AD 1200)	Australian owlet-nightjar
New Caledonian owlet-nightjar	Aegotheles savesi	New Caledonia	Critically endangered	Australian owlet-nightjar

Passeriforms

Example	Binomial name	Native range	Current status	Continental relative
Chatham raven	Corvus moriorum	Chatham Islands	Extinct	New Zealand raven
Long-legged bunting	Emberiza alcoveri	Tenerife	Extinct (after AD 1)	120px Cabanis's bunting
Giant nukupu'u	Hemignathus vorpalis	Hawaii	Extinct (after AD 1000)	Finches
Tasmanian superb fairywren	Malurus cyaneus cyaneus	Tasmania	Least Concern	Superb fairywren
Kangaroo Island superb fairywren	Malurus cyaneus ashbyi	Kangaroo Island	Least Concern	Superb fairywren
Stout-legged wren	Pachyplichas yaldwyni	South Island of New Zealand	Extinct	Other passeriforms
St Kilda wren	Troglodytes troglodytes hirtensis	St Kilda, Scotland	Unknown	Eurasian wren
Capricorn silvereye	Zosterops lateralis chlorocephalus	Capricorn and Bunker Group of the Australia n Great Barrier Reef	Unknown	120px Silvereye

Reptiles

Pterosaurs

Example	Binomial name	Native range	Current status	Continental relative
Hatzegopteryx	H. thambema	Hateg Island	Extinct (Late Cretaceous)	120px Quetzalcoatlus

Iguanids

Example	Binomial name	Native range	Current status	Continental relative	Insular / mainland length or mass ratio
Tongan giant iguana^[25]	Brachylophus gibbonsi	Tonga	Extinct (c. 800 BC)	120px South American iguanas
Fijian giant iguana ^[26]	Lapitiguana impensa	Fiji	Extinct (c. 1000 BC)	120px South American iguanas
Angel Island chuckwalla	Sauromalus hispidus	Isla Ángel de la Guarda, Baja California	Near Threatened	Peninsular chuckwalla	MR ≈ 5 ^[27]
San Esteban chuckwalla	Sauromalus varius	San Esteban Island, Baja California	Endangered	Peninsular chuckwalla	MR ≈ 5 ^[27]

Geckos

Example	Binomial name	Native range	Current status	Continental relative	Insular / mainland length or mass ratio
Delcourt's giant gekko	Gigarcanum delcourti	New Caledonia	Extinct (c. AD 1870)	120px Diplodactylid geckos	LR ≈ 6.75 ^{[lower-alpha 3]}
New Caledonian giant gecko	Rhacodactylus leachianus	New Caledonia	Least Concern	120px Diplodactylid geckos	LR ≈ 4.4 ^{[lower-alpha 4]} MR ≈ 60 ^{[lower-alpha 5]}
Rodrigues giant day gecko	Phelsuma gigas	Rodrigues	Extinct (c. AD 1850)	Day geckos

Skinks

Example	Binomial name	Native range	Current status	Continental relative
Vaillant's mabuya	Chioninia vaillanti	Cape Verde	Endangered	Mainland mabuyine skinks
Cape Verde giant skink	Macroscincus coctei	Cape Verde	Extinct (after AD 1900)	Mainland mabuyine skinks
Mauritius giant skink	Leiolopisma mauritiana	Mauritius	Extinct (after AD 1600)	Mainland eugongyline skinks
Terror skink	Phoboscincus bocourti	Île des Pins off New Caledonia	Endangered	Mainland eugongyline skinks
Kishinoue's giant skink	Plestiodon kishinouyei	Miyako Islands and Yaeyama Islands, Japan	Vulnerable	Asian Plestiodon spp.

Wall lizards

Example	Binomial name	Native range	Current status	Continental relative
La Palma giant lizard	Gallotia auaritae	La Palma	Critically endangered	Mediterranean sandrunner lizards
La Gomera giant lizard	Gallotia bravoana	Gomera	Critically endangered
Tenerife giant lizard^[31]	Gallotia goliath	Tenerife	Extinct (c. AD 1500)
El Hierro giant lizard	Gallotia simonyi	El Hierro	Critically endangered
Gran Canaria giant lizard	Gallotia stehlini	Gran Canaria	Least Concern

Snakes

Example	Binomial name	Native range	Current status	Continental relative
Angel de la Guarda Island speckled rattlesnake	Crotalus mitchellii angelensis	Isla Ángel de la Guarda off Baja California	Least Concern	Speckled rattlesnake
Tadanae-jima striped snake population^[32]	Elaphe quadrivirgata	Tadanae-jima island off Tokyo	Unknown	Japanese striped snake
Island tiger snake populations	Notechis scutatus	Islands Mount Chappell (Tasmania); Williams, Hopkins, and the Nuyts Archipelago (all South Australia)^[33]	Least Concern^[34]	Tiger snake
Isla Cerralvo long-nosed snake	Rhinocheilus lecontei etheridgei	Jacques Cousteau Island off Baja California Sur	Unknown	Long-nosed snake

Dubious examples

Komodo dragon (Lesser Sundas)

Galápagos giant tortoise

The Komodo dragon of Flores and nearby islands, the largest extant lizard, and a similar (extinct) giant monitor lizard from Timor have been regarded as examples of giant insular carnivores. Since islands tend to offer limited food and territory, their mammalian carnivores (if present) are usually smaller than continental ones. These cases involve ectothermic carnivores on islands too small to support much mammalian competition. However, these lizards are not as large as their extinct Australian relative megalania, and it has been proposed based on fossil evidence that the ancestors of these varanids first evolved their large size in Australia and then dispersed to Indonesia.^[35] If this is true, rather than being insular giants they would be viewed as examples of phyletic gigantism. Supporting this interpretation is evidence for a lizard in Pliocene India, Varanus sivalensis, comparable in size to V. komodoensis.^[35] Nevertheless, given that Australia is often described as the world's largest island and that the related megalania, the largest terrestrial lizard known in the fossil record, was restricted to Australia, the perception of the largest Australasian/Indonesian lizards as insular giants may still have some validity.
Giant tortoises in the Galápagos Islands and the Seychelles, the largest extant tortoises, as well as extinct tortoises of the Mascarenes and Canary Islands, are often considered examples of island gigantism. However, during the Pleistocene, comparably sized or larger tortoises were present in Australia (Meiolania), southern Asia (Megalochelys), Europe^[36] (Titanochelon), Madagascar (Aldabrachelys), North America^[37] (Hesperotestudo) and South America^[38] (Chelonoidis, the same genus now found in the Galápagos^[39]), and on a number of other, more accessible islands of Oceania and the Caribbean.^[37] In the late Pliocene they were also present in Africa ("Geochelone" laetoliensis^[40]). The present situation of large tortoises being found only on remote islands appears to reflect that these islands were discovered by humans recently and have not been heavily populated, making their tortoises less subject to overexploitation.

Amphibians

Example	Binomial name	Native range	Current status	Continental relative	Insular / mainland length or mass ratio
São Tomé giant tree frog	Hyperolius thomensis^[41]	São Tomé Island	Endangered	African reed frogs
Palm forest tree frog	Leptopelis palmatus^[41]	Príncipe Island	Vulnerable	Red tree frog	LR ≈ 1.2 ^{[lower-alpha 6]}
Giant Fiji ground frog	Platymantis megabotoniviti^[44]	Viti Levu, Fiji	Extinct	Asian platymantines
São Tomé giant grass frog	Ptychadena newtoni^[41]	São Tomé Island	Endangered	Mascarene grass frog

Arthropods

Example	Binomial name	Native range	Current status	Continental relative
Coconut crab	Birgus latro	Indian Ocean islands and Polynesia^[45]	Vulnerable	120px Coenobita hermit crabs
Giant weta	Deinacrida spp.	New Zealand	Variable	120px South African king crickets
Giant pseudoscorpion^[46]	Garypus titanius	Boatswain Bird Island	Critically Endangered	Garypoids
Hissing cockroaches	Gromphadorhini spp.	Madagascar	Unknown	120px Blaberids
Saint Helena earwig	Labidura herculeana	Saint Helena	Extinct (c. AD 1967)	120px Shore earwig
Wallace's giant bee	Megachile pluto	North Moluccas	Vulnerable	120px Callomegachile
Megalara	Megalara garuda	Mekongga Mountains, Sulawesi	Unknown	120px Crabronine wasps
Madagascan giant pill-millipedes	Microsphaerotherium spp. Sphaeromimus spp. Zoosphaerium spp.	Madagascar	Unknown	Indian giant pill-millipedes (Arthrosphaera)
Orsonwelles	Orsonwelles spp.	Hawaii	Unknown	120px Money spiders
Conant's giant Nihoa tree cricket	Thaumatogryllus conanti	Nihoa	Unknown	Tree crickets
Giant Fijian long-horned beetle^[47]	Xixuthrus heros	Viti Levu, Fiji	Endangered	120px Australasian Xixuthrus
Taveuni beetle	Xixuthrus terribilis	Taveuni, Fiji	Unknown	120px Australasian Xixuthrus

Gastropods

Example	Binomial name	Native range	Current status	Continental relative
Kauri land snails	Paryphanta spp. Powelliphanta spp.	New Zealand	Near Threatened	120px Other rhytidids

Flora

In addition to size increase, island plants may also exhibit "insular woodiness".^[48] The most notable examples are the megaherbs of New Zealand's subantarctic islands.^{[citation needed]} Increased leaf and seed size was also reported in some island species regardless of growth form (herbaceous, bush, or tree).^[49]

Example	Binomial name	Native range	Current status	Continental relative
Campbell Island carrot	Anisotome latifolia	Campbell and Auckland Islands	Unknown	120px Apiaceae
Ross lily	Bulbinella rossii	Campbell and Auckland Islands	Naturally Uncommon	New Zealand Maori lily
Chatham Islands korokio^[49]^[50]	Corokia macrocarpa	Chatham Islands	Unknown	120px New Zealand korokio^[51]
Black-eyed daisy	Damnamenia vernicosa	Auckland and Campbell Islands	Naturally Uncommon	120px Astereae
Cucumber tree^[52]	Dendrosicyos socotranus	Socotra	Vulnerable	120px Gourds
Coco de mer^[53]^[52]	Lodoicea maldivica	Seychelles	Endangered	120px Borassoid palms
	Pleurophyllum criniferum	Antipodes, Auckland and Campbell Islands	Unknown	120px Cineraria
Silver-leaf daisy	Pleurophyllum hookeri	Macquarie Island, Auckland and Campbell Islands	Unknown
Campbell Island daisy	Pleurophyllum speciosum	Campbell and Auckland Islands	Naturally Uncommon
Macquarie Island cabbage	Stilbocarpa polaris	Macquarie Island and New Zealand subantarctic islands	Vulnerable	120px Araliaceae

Notes

↑ The reduction in predation on islands often also leads to tamer behavior of island prey species, a trend that has been analyzed in lizards.^[2]^[3]
↑ The earliest known New Zealand kiwi ancestor, a presumed recent arrival from Australia.^[20]
↑ Based on the estimated total length of H. delcourti, ~23.6 in,^[28] and the average length of a member of Diplodactylus, the most species-rich genus of Australian diplodactylid geckos, ~3.5 in.^[29]
↑ Based on the average total length of the larger subspecies, R. l. leachianus, ~15.5 in,^[30] and the average length of a member of Diplodactylus, the most species-rich genus of Australian diplodactylid geckos, ~3.5 in.^[29]
↑ Based on the average mass of the larger subspecies, R. l. leachianus, ~240 g,^[30] with the average weight of a member of Diplodactylus, the most species-rich genus of Australian diplodactylid geckos, ~4 g.^[29]
↑ Based on the average female snout to vent length (SVL) of L. palmatus, ~96 mm,^[42] with the average female SVL of L. rufus, ~80 mm.^[43]

References

↑ Herczeg, G. B.; Gonda, A. L.; Merilä, J. (2009-07-16). "Evolution of Gigantism in Nine-Spined Sticklebacks". Evolution 63 (12): 3190–3200. doi:10.1111/j.1558-5646.2009.00781.x. PMID 19624722.
↑ Cooper, W. E.; Pyron, R. A.; Garland, T. (2014-01-08). "Island tameness: Living on islands reduces flight initiation distance". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 281 (1777): 20133019. doi:10.1098/rspb.2013.3019. PMID 24403345.
↑ Yong, E. (2014-01-08). "Islands make animals tamer". Nature. doi:10.1038/nature.2014.14462.
↑ Jaffe, A. L.; Slater, G. J.; Alfaro, M. E. (2011-01-26). "The evolution of island gigantism and body size variation in tortoises and turtles". Biology Letters 7 (4): 558–561. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2010.1084. PMID 21270022.
↑ Barahona, F.; Evans, S.E.; Mateo, J.A.; Garcia-Marquez, M.; Lopez-Jurado, L.F. (March 2000). "Endemism, Gigantism and Extinction in Island Lizards: The Genus Gallotia on the Canary Islands". Journal of Zoology 250 (3): 373–388. doi:10.1017/s0952836900003101. http://journals.cambridge.org/article_S0952836900003101.
↑ ^6.0 ^6.1 Raia, P.; Meiri, S. (August 2006). "The island rule in large mammals: paleontology meets ecology". Evolution 60 (8): 1731–1742. doi:10.1111/j.0014-3820.2006.tb00516.x. PMID 17017072.
↑ Keehn, J. E.; Nieto, N. C.; Tracy, C. R.; Gienger, C. M.; Feldman, C. R. (2013-08-27). "Evolution on a desert island: Body size divergence between the reptiles of Nevada's Anaho Island and the mainland around Pyramid Lake". Journal of Zoology 291 (4): 269–278. doi:10.1111/jzo.12066.
↑ Lomolino, M. V. (2005-09-05). "Body size evolution in insular vertebrates: generality of the island rule". Journal of Biogeography 32 (10): 1683–1699. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2699.2005.01314.x.
↑ Filin, I.; Ziv, Y. (2004). "New Theory of Insular Evolution: Unifying the Loss of Dispersability and Body-mass Change.". Evolutionary Ecology Research 6: 115–124. http://lifeserv.bgu.ac.il/wb/yziv/media/Filin+Ziv-2004-Evolutionary_Ecology_Research.pdf. Retrieved 2014-11-18.
↑ Turvey, S. T. (2006). "A new genus and species of giant hutia (Tainotherium valei) from the Quaternary of Puerto Rico: an extinct arboreal quadruped?". Journal of Zoology 270 (4): 585–594. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7998.2006.00170.x.
↑ Torres-Roig, E.; Agustí, J.; Bover, P.; Alcover, J.A. (2017). "A new giant cricetine from the basal Pliocene of Mallorca (Balearic Islands, western Mediterranean): biostratigraphic nexus with continental mammal zones". Historical Biology 31 (5): 559–573. doi:10.1080/08912963.2017.1377194.
↑ Freudenthal, M. (1985). Cricetidae (Rodentia) from the Neogene of Gargano (Prov. of Foggia, Italy). Rijksmuseum van Geologie en Mineralogie.
↑ "St Kilda's 'super-sized' field mice studied". BBC. 2010-09-03. https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-highlands-islands-11168757.
↑ "Error". http://www.mapama.gob.es/es/biodiversidad/temas/conservacion-de-especies-amenazadas/LIRON_tcm7-20977.pdf.
↑ Timm, R. M.; Weijola, V.; Aplin, K. P.; Donnellan, S. C.; Flannery, T. F.; Thomson, V.; Pine, R. H. (2016-04-12). "A new species of Rattus (Rodentia: Muridae) from Manus Island, Papua New Guinea". Journal of Mammalogy 97 (3): 861–878. doi:10.1093/jmammal/gyw034.
↑ http://www.raco.cat/index.php/Orsis/article/viewFile/24434/24268 ^{[bare URL PDF]}
↑ Daams, R.; Freudenthal, M. (1985). "Stertomys laticrestatus, a new glirid (dormice, Rodentia) from the insular fauna of Gargano (Prov. of Foggia, Italy)". Scripta Geologica 77: 21–27. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/241887510.
↑ ^18.0 ^18.1 MacPhee, R.D.E., Iturralde-Vinent, M.A., and Gaffney, E.S. (February 2003). "Domo de Zaza, an Early Miocene Vertebrate Locality in South-Central Cuba, with Notes on the Tectonic Evolution of Puerto Rico and the Mona Passage". American Museum Novitates (3394): 1–42. doi:10.1206/0003-0082(2003)394<0001:DDZAEM>2.0.CO;2. https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/178184.
↑ "Late Cretaceous Animals of Romania's Haţeg Island--a More Complex View". https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/tetrapod-zoology/late-cretaceous-animals-of-romania-s-hateg-island-a-more-complex-view/.
↑ Worthy, Trevor H. (2013). Miocene fossils show that kiwi (Apteryx, Apterygidae) are probably not phyletic dwarves. Paleornithological Research 2013, Proceedings of the 8th International Meeting of the Society of Avian Paleontology and Evolution. https://dinosaurs.group.uq.edu.au/files/2272/Worthy_et_al_2013.pdf. Retrieved 16 September 2017.
↑ Pavia, M.; Meijer, H. J. M.; Rossi, M. A.; Göhlich, U. B. (2017-01-11). "The extreme insular adaptation of Garganornis ballmanni Meijer, 2014: a giant Anseriformes of the Neogene of the Mediterranean Basin". Royal Society Open Science 4 (1): 160722. doi:10.1098/rsos.160722. PMID 28280574. Bibcode: 2017RSOS....460722P.
↑ "African Origins for the Enigmatic Adzebill". https://www.canterburymuseum.com/about-us/media-releases/african-origins-for-the-enigmatic-adzebill/.
↑ "Titan-hawks and other super-raptors". Tetrapod Zoology blog. ScienceBlogs LLC. 2008-01-28. http://scienceblogs.com/tetrapodzoology/2008/01/28/titan-hawks-super-raptors/.
↑ Lerner, Heather R.L.; Mindell, David P. (2005). "Phylogeny of eagles, Old World vultures, and other Accipitridae based on nuclear and mitochondrial DNA". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 37 (2): 327–346. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2005.04.010. PMID 15925523.
↑ Pregill, G. K.; Steadman, D. W. (March 2004). "South Pacific Iguanas: Human Impacts and a New Species". Journal of Herpetology 38 (1): 15–21. doi:10.1670/73-03A.
↑ Pregill, G. K.; Worthy, T. H. (March 2003). "A New Iguanid Lizard (Squamata, Iguanidae) from the Lare Quaternary of Fiji, Southwest Pacific". Herpetologica 59 (1): 57–67. doi:10.1655/0018-0831(2003)059[0057:ANILSI2.0.CO;2]. ISSN 0018-0831.
↑ ^27.0 ^27.1 Petren, K.; Case, T.J. (1997). "A Phylogenetic Analysis of Body Size Evolution and Biogeography in Chuckwallas (Sauromalus) and Other Iguanines". Evolution 51 (1): 206–219. doi:10.1111/j.1558-5646.1997.tb02402.x. PMID 28568786.
↑ Wilson, K.-J. (2004). Flight of the Huia: Ecology and Conservation of New Zealand's Frogs, Reptiles, Birds and Mammals. Canterbury University Press. ISBN 0-908812-52-3. OCLC 937349394. https://books.google.com/books?id=BXbwAAAAMAAJ.
↑ ^29.0 ^29.1 ^29.2 Stewart, C. (9 May 2014). "Diplodactylus Geckos of Australia". http://www.reptilesmagazine.com/Lizard-Species/Diplodactylus-Geckos-of-Australia/.
↑ ^30.0 ^30.1 Bergman, J.; Hamper, R. (2016). "New Caledonian Giant Gecko Care Sheet". http://www.reptilesmagazine.com/Care-Sheets/Lizards/New-Caledonian-Giant-Gecko/.
↑ Maca-Meyer, N.; Carranza, S.; Rando, J. C.; Arnold, E. N.; Cabrera, V. M. (2003-12-01). "Status and relationships of the extinct giant Canary Island lizard Gallotia goliath (Reptilia: Lacertidae), assessed using ancient mtDNA from its mummified remains". Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 80 (4): 659–670. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8312.2003.00265.x.
↑ https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/hsj2000/21/1/21_1_43/_pdf ^{[bare URL PDF]}
↑ Keogh, J. S.; Scott, I. A. W.; Hayes, C. (January 2005). "Rapid and repeated origin of insular gigantism and dwarfism in Australian tiger snakes". Evolution 59 (1): 226–233. doi:10.1111/j.0014-3820.2005.tb00909.x. PMID 15792242.
↑ Michael, D.; Clemann, N.; Robertson, P. (2018). "Notechis scutatus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2018: e.T169687A83767147. https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/169687/83767147. Retrieved 19 December 2019.
↑ ^35.0 ^35.1 Hocknull, S.A.; Piper, P.J.; van den Bergh, G.D.; Due, R.A.; Morwood, M.J.; Kurniawan, I. (2009). "Dragon's Paradise Lost: Palaeobiogeography, Evolution and Extinction of the Largest-Ever Terrestrial Lizards (Varanidae)". PLOS ONE 4 (9): e7241. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0007241. PMID 19789642. Bibcode: 2009PLoSO...4.7241H.
↑ Pérez-García, A., Vlachos, E., & Arribas, A. (2017). The last giant continental tortoise of Europe: A survivor in the Spanish Pleistocene site of Fonelas P-1. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 470, 30–39.
↑ ^37.0 ^37.1 Hansen, D. M.; Donlan, C. J.; Griffiths, C. J.; Campbell, K. J. (April 2010). "Ecological history and latent conservation potential: large and giant tortoises as a model for taxon substitutions". Ecography 33 (2): 272–284. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0587.2010.06305.x. http://www.torreyaguardians.org/hansen-2010.pdf. Retrieved 2012-03-02.
↑ Cione, A. L.; Tonni, E. P.; Soibelzon, L. (2003). "The Broken Zig-Zag: Late Cenozoic large mammal and tortoise extinction in South America". Rev. Mus. Argentino Cienc. Nat.. N.S. 5 (1): 1–19. doi:10.22179/REVMACN.5.26. ISSN 1514-5158.
↑ Fariña, R.A., Vizcaíno, S.F. & De Iuliis, G. (2013) Megafauna: Giant Beasts of South America. Indiana University Press, 448 pages.
↑ Harrison, T. (2011). "Tortoises (Chelonii, Testudinidae)". Paleontology and Geology of Laetoli: Human Evolution in Context, Vol. 2: Fossil Hominins and the Associated Fauna. Vertebrate Paleobiology and Paleoanthropology. Springer Science+Business Media. pp. 479–503. doi:10.1007/978-90-481-9962-4_17. ISBN 978-90-481-9961-7.
↑ ^41.0 ^41.1 ^41.2 Measey, G.J.; Vences, M.; Drewes, R.C.; Chiari, Y.; Melo, M.; Bourles, B. (2006). "Freshwater paths across the ocean: molecular phylogeny of the frog Ptychadena newtoni gives insights into amphibian colonization of oceanic islands". Journal of Biogeography 34 (1): 7–20. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2699.2006.01589.x.
↑ "Leptopelis palmatus". University of California, Berkeley. 2008. http://amphibiaweb.org/species/3668.
↑ "Leptopelis rufus". University of California, Berkeley. 2008. http://amphibiaweb.org/species/3673.
↑ Worthy, T.H. (2001). "A New Species of Platymantis (Anura: Ranidae) from Quaternary Deposits On Viti Levu, Fiji". Palaeontology 44 (4): 665–680. doi:10.1111/1475-4983.00197. Bibcode: 2001Palgy..44..665W.
↑ Neither coconut crabs nor their relatives can swim beyond the larva stage, making the adults land animals in practice. Coconut crabs can weigh over 4 kg (9 pounds); the largest hermit crabs of the related genus Coenobita, C. brevimanus of coastal Africa and Asia, only reaches 230 grams (0.5 pounds).
↑ "Ascension Island Biodiversity Action Plan: Garypus titanius species action plan". Georgetown, Ascension Island: Ascension Island Government Conservation Department. 2015-02-26. http://www.ascension-island.gov.ac/wp-content/uploads/2012/12/GIANT-PSEUDOSCORPION-SAP.pdf.
↑ Keppel, Gunnar; Lowe, Andrew J.; Possingham, Hugh P. (2009). "Changing perspectives on the biogeography of the tropical South Pacific: influences of dispersal, vicariance and extinction". Journal of Biogeography 36 (6): 1035–1054. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2699.2009.02095.x. ISSN 0305-0270.
↑ Bowen, Lizabeth; Vuren, Dirk Van (1997). "Insular Endemic Plants Lack Defenses Against Herbivores". Conservation Biology 11 (5): 1249–1254. doi:10.1046/j.1523-1739.1997.96368.x. ISSN 0888-8892.
↑ ^49.0 ^49.1 "Small islands breed big seeds". https://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/resources/2289-small-islands-breed-big-seeds.
↑ "Website Not Available". http://www.terrain.net.nz/friends-of-te-henui-group/table-1/corokia-macrocarpa-chatham-is-korokio.html.
↑ "T.E.R:R.A.I.N - Taranaki Educational Resource: Research, Analysis and Information Network - Corokia cotoneaster (Korokio)". http://www.terrain.net.nz/friends-of-te-henui-group/table-1/korokio.html.
↑ ^52.0 ^52.1 Burns, K.C. (May 2019). Evolution in Isolation: The Search for an Island Syndrome in Plants. Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781108379953. ISBN 978-1108379953. OCLC 1105218367. https://books.google.com/books?id=wbOQDwAAQBAJ.
↑ Proctor, J. (1984). "Vegetation of the granitic islands of the Seychelles". in Stoddart, D. R.. Biogeography and Ecology of the Seychelles Islands. W. Junk. ISBN 978-90-6193-881-1. OCLC 906429733. https://books.google.com/books?id=XAZUuAAACAAJ.

External links

PBS NOVA: Why Do Islands Breed Giants (And Sometimes Dwarfs)?

0.00

(0 votes)

Original source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Island gigantism. Read more

[4] The reduction in predation on islands often also leads to tamer behavior of island prey species, a trend that has been analyzed in lizards.^[2]^[3]

[22] The earliest known New Zealand kiwi ancestor, a presumed recent arrival from Australia.^[20]

[32] Based on the estimated total length of H. delcourti, ~23.6 in,^[28] and the average length of a member of Diplodactylus, the most species-rich genus of Australian diplodactylid geckos, ~3.5 in.^[29]

[34] Based on the average total length of the larger subspecies, R. l. leachianus, ~15.5 in,^[30] and the average length of a member of Diplodactylus, the most species-rich genus of Australian diplodactylid geckos, ~3.5 in.^[29]

[35] Based on the average mass of the larger subspecies, R. l. leachianus, ~240 g,^[30] with the average weight of a member of Diplodactylus, the most species-rich genus of Australian diplodactylid geckos, ~4 g.^[29]

[49] Based on the average female snout to vent length (SVL) of L. palmatus, ~96 mm,^[42] with the average female SVL of L. rufus, ~80 mm.^[43]

[Herczeg2009-1] Herczeg, G. B.; Gonda, A. L.; Merilä, J. (2009-07-16). "Evolution of Gigantism in Nine-Spined Sticklebacks". Evolution 63 (12): 3190–3200. doi:10.1111/j.1558-5646.2009.00781.x. PMID 19624722.

[Cooper2014-2] Cooper, W. E.; Pyron, R. A.; Garland, T. (2014-01-08). "Island tameness: Living on islands reduces flight initiation distance". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 281 (1777): 20133019. doi:10.1098/rspb.2013.3019. PMID 24403345.

[Yong2014-3] Yong, E. (2014-01-08). "Islands make animals tamer". Nature. doi:10.1038/nature.2014.14462.

[Jaffe2011-5] Jaffe, A. L.; Slater, G. J.; Alfaro, M. E. (2011-01-26). "The evolution of island gigantism and body size variation in tortoises and turtles". Biology Letters 7 (4): 558–561. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2010.1084. PMID 21270022.

[Barahona2000-6] Barahona, F.; Evans, S.E.; Mateo, J.A.; Garcia-Marquez, M.; Lopez-Jurado, L.F. (March 2000). "Endemism, Gigantism and Extinction in Island Lizards: The Genus Gallotia on the Canary Islands". Journal of Zoology 250 (3): 373–388. doi:10.1017/s0952836900003101. http://journals.cambridge.org/article_S0952836900003101.

[Raia-7] 6.0 ^6.1 Raia, P.; Meiri, S. (August 2006). "The island rule in large mammals: paleontology meets ecology". Evolution 60 (8): 1731–1742. doi:10.1111/j.0014-3820.2006.tb00516.x. PMID 17017072.

[Keehn2013-8] Keehn, J. E.; Nieto, N. C.; Tracy, C. R.; Gienger, C. M.; Feldman, C. R. (2013-08-27). "Evolution on a desert island: Body size divergence between the reptiles of Nevada's Anaho Island and the mainland around Pyramid Lake". Journal of Zoology 291 (4): 269–278. doi:10.1111/jzo.12066.

[Lomolino-9] Lomolino, M. V. (2005-09-05). "Body size evolution in insular vertebrates: generality of the island rule". Journal of Biogeography 32 (10): 1683–1699. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2699.2005.01314.x.

[Filin2004-10] Filin, I.; Ziv, Y. (2004). "New Theory of Insular Evolution: Unifying the Loss of Dispersability and Body-mass Change.". Evolutionary Ecology Research 6: 115–124. http://lifeserv.bgu.ac.il/wb/yziv/media/Filin+Ziv-2004-Evolutionary_Ecology_Research.pdf. Retrieved 2014-11-18.

[11] Turvey, S. T. (2006). "A new genus and species of giant hutia (Tainotherium valei) from the Quaternary of Puerto Rico: an extinct arboreal quadruped?". Journal of Zoology 270 (4): 585–594. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7998.2006.00170.x.

[Torres-Roig2017-12] Torres-Roig, E.; Agustí, J.; Bover, P.; Alcover, J.A. (2017). "A new giant cricetine from the basal Pliocene of Mallorca (Balearic Islands, western Mediterranean): biostratigraphic nexus with continental mammal zones". Historical Biology 31 (5): 559–573. doi:10.1080/08912963.2017.1377194.

[13] Freudenthal, M. (1985). Cricetidae (Rodentia) from the Neogene of Gargano (Prov. of Foggia, Italy). Rijksmuseum van Geologie en Mineralogie.

[bbcSt.K-14] "St Kilda's 'super-sized' field mice studied". BBC. 2010-09-03. https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-highlands-islands-11168757.

[15] "Error". http://www.mapama.gob.es/es/biodiversidad/temas/conservacion-de-especies-amenazadas/LIRON_tcm7-20977.pdf.

[Timm2016-16] Timm, R. M.; Weijola, V.; Aplin, K. P.; Donnellan, S. C.; Flannery, T. F.; Thomson, V.; Pine, R. H. (2016-04-12). "A new species of Rattus (Rodentia: Muridae) from Manus Island, Papua New Guinea". Journal of Mammalogy 97 (3): 861–878. doi:10.1093/jmammal/gyw034.

[17] ttp://www.raco.cat/index.php/Orsis/article/viewFile/24434/24268 ^{[bare URL PDF]}

[18] Daams, R.; Freudenthal, M. (1985). "Stertomys laticrestatus, a new glirid (dormice, Rodentia) from the insular fauna of Gargano (Prov. of Foggia, Italy)". Scripta Geologica 77: 21–27. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/241887510.

[MacPhee2003-19] 18.0 ^18.1 MacPhee, R.D.E., Iturralde-Vinent, M.A., and Gaffney, E.S. (February 2003). "Domo de Zaza, an Early Miocene Vertebrate Locality in South-Central Cuba, with Notes on the Tectonic Evolution of Puerto Rico and the Mona Passage". American Museum Novitates (3394): 1–42. doi:10.1206/0003-0082(2003)394<0001:DDZAEM>2.0.CO;2. https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/178184.

[20] "Late Cretaceous Animals of Romania's Haţeg Island--a More Complex View". https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/tetrapod-zoology/late-cretaceous-animals-of-romania-s-hateg-island-a-more-complex-view/.

[Worthy2013-21] Worthy, Trevor H. (2013). Miocene fossils show that kiwi (Apteryx, Apterygidae) are probably not phyletic dwarves. Paleornithological Research 2013, Proceedings of the 8th International Meeting of the Society of Avian Paleontology and Evolution. https://dinosaurs.group.uq.edu.au/files/2272/Worthy_et_al_2013.pdf. Retrieved 16 September 2017.

[Pavia2017-23] Pavia, M.; Meijer, H. J. M.; Rossi, M. A.; Göhlich, U. B. (2017-01-11). "The extreme insular adaptation of Garganornis ballmanni Meijer, 2014: a giant Anseriformes of the Neogene of the Mediterranean Basin". Royal Society Open Science 4 (1): 160722. doi:10.1098/rsos.160722. PMID 28280574. Bibcode: 2017RSOS....460722P.

[24] "African Origins for the Enigmatic Adzebill". https://www.canterburymuseum.com/about-us/media-releases/african-origins-for-the-enigmatic-adzebill/.

[Naish-25] "Titan-hawks and other super-raptors". Tetrapod Zoology blog. ScienceBlogs LLC. 2008-01-28. http://scienceblogs.com/tetrapodzoology/2008/01/28/titan-hawks-super-raptors/.

[Lerner2005-26] Lerner, Heather R.L.; Mindell, David P. (2005). "Phylogeny of eagles, Old World vultures, and other Accipitridae based on nuclear and mitochondrial DNA". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 37 (2): 327–346. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2005.04.010. PMID 15925523.

[Pregill2-27] Pregill, G. K.; Steadman, D. W. (March 2004). "South Pacific Iguanas: Human Impacts and a New Species". Journal of Herpetology 38 (1): 15–21. doi:10.1670/73-03A.

[Pregill-28] Pregill, G. K.; Worthy, T. H. (March 2003). "A New Iguanid Lizard (Squamata, Iguanidae) from the Lare Quaternary of Fiji, Southwest Pacific". Herpetologica 59 (1): 57–67. doi:10.1655/0018-0831(2003)059[0057:ANILSI2.0.CO;2]. ISSN 0018-0831.

[Petren1997-29] 27.0 ^27.1 Petren, K.; Case, T.J. (1997). "A Phylogenetic Analysis of Body Size Evolution and Biogeography in Chuckwallas (Sauromalus) and Other Iguanines". Evolution 51 (1): 206–219. doi:10.1111/j.1558-5646.1997.tb02402.x. PMID 28568786.

[Wilson2004-30] Wilson, K.-J. (2004). Flight of the Huia: Ecology and Conservation of New Zealand's Frogs, Reptiles, Birds and Mammals. Canterbury University Press. ISBN 0-908812-52-3. OCLC 937349394. https://books.google.com/books?id=BXbwAAAAMAAJ.

[StewartC-31] 29.0 ^29.1 ^29.2 Stewart, C. (9 May 2014). "Diplodactylus Geckos of Australia". http://www.reptilesmagazine.com/Lizard-Species/Diplodactylus-Geckos-of-Australia/.

[Bergman2016-33] 30.0 ^30.1 Bergman, J.; Hamper, R. (2016). "New Caledonian Giant Gecko Care Sheet". http://www.reptilesmagazine.com/Care-Sheets/Lizards/New-Caledonian-Giant-Gecko/.

[36] Maca-Meyer, N.; Carranza, S.; Rando, J. C.; Arnold, E. N.; Cabrera, V. M. (2003-12-01). "Status and relationships of the extinct giant Canary Island lizard Gallotia goliath (Reptilia: Lacertidae), assessed using ancient mtDNA from its mummified remains". Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 80 (4): 659–670. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8312.2003.00265.x.

[37] ttps://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/hsj2000/21/1/21_1_43/_pdf ^{[bare URL PDF]}

[Keogh-38] Keogh, J. S.; Scott, I. A. W.; Hayes, C. (January 2005). "Rapid and repeated origin of insular gigantism and dwarfism in Australian tiger snakes". Evolution 59 (1): 226–233. doi:10.1111/j.0014-3820.2005.tb00909.x. PMID 15792242.

[39] Michael, D.; Clemann, N.; Robertson, P. (2018). "Notechis scutatus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2018: e.T169687A83767147. https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/169687/83767147. Retrieved 19 December 2019.

[Hocknull2009-40] 35.0 ^35.1 Hocknull, S.A.; Piper, P.J.; van den Bergh, G.D.; Due, R.A.; Morwood, M.J.; Kurniawan, I. (2009). "Dragon's Paradise Lost: Palaeobiogeography, Evolution and Extinction of the Largest-Ever Terrestrial Lizards (Varanidae)". PLOS ONE 4 (9): e7241. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0007241. PMID 19789642. Bibcode: 2009PLoSO...4.7241H.

[41] Pérez-García, A., Vlachos, E., & Arribas, A. (2017). The last giant continental tortoise of Europe: A survivor in the Spanish Pleistocene site of Fonelas P-1. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 470, 30–39.

[Hansen-42] 37.0 ^37.1 Hansen, D. M.; Donlan, C. J.; Griffiths, C. J.; Campbell, K. J. (April 2010). "Ecological history and latent conservation potential: large and giant tortoises as a model for taxon substitutions". Ecography 33 (2): 272–284. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0587.2010.06305.x. http://www.torreyaguardians.org/hansen-2010.pdf. Retrieved 2012-03-02.

[Cione-43] Cione, A. L.; Tonni, E. P.; Soibelzon, L. (2003). "The Broken Zig-Zag: Late Cenozoic large mammal and tortoise extinction in South America". Rev. Mus. Argentino Cienc. Nat.. N.S. 5 (1): 1–19. doi:10.22179/REVMACN.5.26. ISSN 1514-5158.

[44] Fariña, R.A., Vizcaíno, S.F. & De Iuliis, G. (2013) Megafauna: Giant Beasts of South America. Indiana University Press, 448 pages.

[THarrison-45] Harrison, T. (2011). "Tortoises (Chelonii, Testudinidae)". Paleontology and Geology of Laetoli: Human Evolution in Context, Vol. 2: Fossil Hominins and the Associated Fauna. Vertebrate Paleobiology and Paleoanthropology. Springer Science+Business Media. pp. 479–503. doi:10.1007/978-90-481-9962-4_17. ISBN 978-90-481-9961-7.

[Measey2006-46] 41.0 ^41.1 ^41.2 Measey, G.J.; Vences, M.; Drewes, R.C.; Chiari, Y.; Melo, M.; Bourles, B. (2006). "Freshwater paths across the ocean: molecular phylogeny of the frog Ptychadena newtoni gives insights into amphibian colonization of oceanic islands". Journal of Biogeography 34 (1): 7–20. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2699.2006.01589.x.

[L.palmatusAW-47] "Leptopelis palmatus". University of California, Berkeley. 2008. http://amphibiaweb.org/species/3668.

[L.rufusAW-48] "Leptopelis rufus". University of California, Berkeley. 2008. http://amphibiaweb.org/species/3673.

[Worthy2001-50] Worthy, T.H. (2001). "A New Species of Platymantis (Anura: Ranidae) from Quaternary Deposits On Viti Levu, Fiji". Palaeontology 44 (4): 665–680. doi:10.1111/1475-4983.00197. Bibcode: 2001Palgy..44..665W.

[51] Neither coconut crabs nor their relatives can swim beyond the larva stage, making the adults land animals in practice. Coconut crabs can weigh over 4 kg (9 pounds); the largest hermit crabs of the related genus Coenobita, C. brevimanus of coastal Africa and Asia, only reaches 230 grams (0.5 pounds).

[BAP2015-52] "Ascension Island Biodiversity Action Plan: Garypus titanius species action plan". Georgetown, Ascension Island: Ascension Island Government Conservation Department. 2015-02-26. http://www.ascension-island.gov.ac/wp-content/uploads/2012/12/GIANT-PSEUDOSCORPION-SAP.pdf.

[KeppelLowe2009-53] Keppel, Gunnar; Lowe, Andrew J.; Possingham, Hugh P. (2009). "Changing perspectives on the biogeography of the tropical South Pacific: influences of dispersal, vicariance and extinction". Journal of Biogeography 36 (6): 1035–1054. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2699.2009.02095.x. ISSN 0305-0270.

[BowenVuren1997-54] Bowen, Lizabeth; Vuren, Dirk Van (1997). "Insular Endemic Plants Lack Defenses Against Herbivores". Conservation Biology 11 (5): 1249–1254. doi:10.1046/j.1523-1739.1997.96368.x. ISSN 0888-8892.

[sciencelearn.org-55] 49.0 ^49.1 "Small islands breed big seeds". https://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/resources/2289-small-islands-breed-big-seeds.

[56] "Website Not Available". http://www.terrain.net.nz/friends-of-te-henui-group/table-1/corokia-macrocarpa-chatham-is-korokio.html.

[57] "T.E.R:R.A.I.N - Taranaki Educational Resource: Research, Analysis and Information Network - Corokia cotoneaster (Korokio)". http://www.terrain.net.nz/friends-of-te-henui-group/table-1/korokio.html.

[Burns2019-58] 52.0 ^52.1 Burns, K.C. (May 2019). Evolution in Isolation: The Search for an Island Syndrome in Plants. Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781108379953. ISBN 978-1108379953. OCLC 1105218367. https://books.google.com/books?id=wbOQDwAAQBAJ.

[Proctor1984-59] Proctor, J. (1984). "Vegetation of the granitic islands of the Seychelles". in Stoddart, D. R.. Biogeography and Ecology of the Seychelles Islands. W. Junk. ISBN 978-90-6193-881-1. OCLC 906429733. https://books.google.com/books?id=XAZUuAAACAAJ.

[1]

[lower-alpha 1]

[4]

[5]

[6]

[7]

[8]

[9]

[10]

[11]

[12]

[13]

[14]

[15]

[16]

[17]

[18]

[19]

[lower-alpha 2]

[21]

[22]

[23]

[24]

[25]

[26]

[27]

[lower-alpha 3]

[lower-alpha 4]

[lower-alpha 5]

[31]

[32]

[33]

[34]

[35]

[36]

[37]

[38]

[39]

[40]

[41]

[lower-alpha 6]

[44]

[45]

[46]

[47]

[48]

[49]

[50]

[51]

[52]

[53]

[2]

[3]

[20]

[28]

[29]

[30]

[42]

[43]

v t e Biological rules
Rules	Allen's rule Shorter appendages in colder climates Bateson's rule Extra limbs mirror their neighbours Bergmann's rule Larger bodies in colder climates Cope's rule Bodies get larger over time Deep-sea gigantism Larger bodies in deep-sea animals Dollo's law Loss of complex traits is irreversible Eichler's rule Parasites co-vary with their hosts Emery's rule Insect social parasites are often in same genus as their hosts Fahrenholz's rule Host and parasite phylogenies become congruent Foster's rule (Insular gigantism, Insular dwarfism) Small species get larger, large species smaller, after colonizing islands Gause's law Complete competitors cannot coexist Gloger's rule Lighter coloration in colder, drier climates Haldane's rule Hybrid sexes that are absent, rare, or sterile, are heterogamic Harrison's rule Parasites co-vary in size with their hosts Hamilton's rule Genes increase in frequency when relatedness of recipient to actor times benefit to recipient exceeds reproductive cost to actor Hennig's progression rule In cladistics, the most primitive species are found in earliest, central, part of group's area Jarman-Bell principle The correlation between the size of an animal and its diet quality; larger animals can consume lower quality diet Jordan's rule Inverse relationship between water temperature and no. of fin rays, vertebrae Lack's principle Birds lay only as many eggs as they can provide food for Rapoport's rule Latitudinal range increases with latitude Rensch's rule Sexual size dimorphism increases with size when males are larger, decreases with size when females are larger Rosa's rule Groups evolve from character variation in primitive species to a fixed character state in advanced ones Schmalhausen's law A population at limit of tolerance in one aspect is vulnerable to small differences in any other aspect Thorson's rule No. of eggs of benthic marine invertebrates decreases with latitude Van Valen's law Probability of extinction of a group is constant over time von Baer's laws Embryos start from a common form and develop into increasingly specialised forms Williston's law Parts in an organism become reduced in number and specialized in function
Related	Countergradient variation Where genetics opposes environment as a factor Gigantothermy Large ectothermic animals more easily maintain constant body temperature

Anonymous

Search