Biology:Island gigantism

From HandWiki
Short description: Biological phenomenon
Size comparison of the giant gymnure/moonrat (a type of insectivore closely related to hedgehogs) Deinogalerix from the Late Miocene of Gargano, Italy, next to the related European hedgehog (Erinaceus europaeus)

Island gigantism, or insular gigantism, is a biological phenomenon in which the size of an animal species isolated on an island increases dramatically in comparison to its mainland relatives. Island gigantism is one aspect of the more general "island effect" or "Foster's rule", which posits that when mainland animals colonize islands, small species tend to evolve larger bodies, and large species tend to evolve smaller bodies (insular dwarfism). This is itself one aspect of the more general phenomenon of island syndrome which describes the differences in morphology, ecology, physiology and behaviour of insular (island) species compared to their continental counterparts. Following the arrival of humans and associated introduced predators (dogs, cats, rats, pigs), many giant as well as other island endemics have become extinct (e.g. the dodo and Rodrigues solitaire, giant flightless pigeons related to the Nicobar pigeon). A similar size increase, as well as increased woodiness, has been observed in some insular plants such as the Mapou tree (Cyphostemma mappia) in Mauritius which is also known as the "Mauritian baobab" although it is member of the grape family (Vitaceae).

Possible causes

Diagram displaying the change in size of weta species in two ecosystems. The size and population of weta are affected by predation. Rats introduced on the mainland began to prey on weta, reducing their population; weta shrank in response. On an island isolated from predation, such as Little Barrier Island, weta have a dense population and have grown to a massive size. Insular species of giant weta are the only ones not facing extinction. As weta grow over time, bird predation declines.

Large mammalian carnivores are often absent on islands because of insufficient range or difficulties in over-water dispersal. In their absence, the ecological niches for large predators may be occupied by birds, reptiles or smaller carnivorans, which can then grow to larger-than-normal size. For example, on prehistoric Gargano Island in the Miocene-Pliocene Mediterranean, on islands in the Caribbean like Cuba, and on Madagascar and New Zealand, some or all apex predators were birds like eagles, falcons and owls, including some of the largest known examples of these groups. However, birds and reptiles generally make less efficient large predators than advanced carnivorans.

Since small size usually makes it easier for herbivores to escape or hide from predators, the decreased predation pressure on islands can allow them to grow larger.[1][lower-alpha 1] Small herbivores may also benefit from the absence of competition from missing types of large herbivores.

Benefits of large size that have been suggested for island tortoises include decreased vulnerability to scarcity of food and/or water, through ability to survive for longer intervals without them, or ability to travel longer distances to obtain them. Periods of such scarcity may be a greater threat on oceanic islands than on the mainland.[4]

Thus, island gigantism is usually an evolutionary trend resulting from the removal of constraints on the size of small animals related to predation and/or competition.[5] Such constraints can operate differently depending on the size of the animal, however; for example, while small herbivores may escape predation by hiding, large herbivores may deter predators by intimidation. As a result, the complementary phenomenon of island dwarfism can also result from the removal of constraints related to predation and/or competition on the size of large herbivores.[6] In contrast, insular dwarfism among predators more commonly results from the imposition of constraints associated with the limited prey resources available on islands.[6] As opposed to island dwarfism, island gigantism is found in most major vertebrate groups and in invertebrates.

Territorialism may favor the evolution of island gigantism. A study on Anaho Island in Nevada determined that reptile species that were territorial tended to be larger on the island compared to the mainland, particularly in the smaller species. In territorial species, larger size makes individuals better able to compete to defend their territory. This gives additional impetus to evolution toward larger size in an insular population.[7]

A further means of establishing island gigantism may be a founder effect operative when larger members of a mainland population are superior in their ability to colonize islands.[8]

Island size plays a role in determining the extent of gigantism. Smaller islands generally accelerate the rate of evolution of changes in organism size, and organisms there evolve greater extremes in size.[9]

Examples

Examples of island gigantism include the Galapagos giant tortoise, Komodo dragons, and the Flores giant rat.

Mammals

Many rodents grow larger on islands, whereas carnivorans, proboscideans and artiodactyls usually become smaller.

Eulipotyphlans

Example Binomial name Native range Current status Continental relative
Balearic shrew Nesiotites hidalgo Mallorca and Menorca Extinct (3000-2000 BC) 120px
Red-toothed shrews
Sardinian shrew Asoriculus similis Sardinia and Corsica Extinct (Holocene)
Sicilian shrew Asoriculus burgioi Sicily Extinct (Early Pleistocene)
120px
Deinogalerix		 Deinogalerix spp. Gargano Island Extinct (Late Miocene) 120px
Moon rats

Rodents

Example Binomial name Native range Current status Continental relative Insular / mainland
length or mass ratio
Blunt-toothed giant hutia Amblyrhiza inundata Anguilla and Saint Martin Extinct (Pleistocene) 120px
Neotropical spiny rats
Larger Jamaican giant hutia Clidomys osborni Jamaica Extinct (Late Pleistocene)
Plate-toothed giant hutia Elasmodontomys obliquus Puerto Rico Extinct (c. 1 AD)
Twisted-toothed mouse Quemisia gravis Hispaniola Extinct
Arboreal giant hutia[10] Tainotherium valei Puerto Rico
Lesser Jamaica giant hutia Xaymaca fulvopulvis Jamaica
Majorcan giant hamsters Apocricetus darderi Majorca Apocricetus alberti[11]
Tragomys macpheei Cricetus kormosi[12]
120px
Gargano giant hamster		 Hattomys gargantua Gargano Island
120px
St Kilda field mouse		 Apodemus sylvaticus hirtensis St Kilda Least Concern 120px
Wood mouse		 MR ≈ 2[13]
120px
Hensel's field mouse		 Rhagamys orthodon Corsica and Sardinia Extinct (After 1300 BC)
120px
Tenerife giant rat		 Canariomys bravoi Tenerife Extinct (Late Pleistocene) African rufous-nosed rats
120px
Gran Canaria giant rat		 Canariomys tamarani Gran Canaria Extinct (before AD 1500)
Formentera black-tailed garden dormouse Eliomys quercinus ophiusae Formentera Rare (Introduced by humans)[14] 120px
Garden dormouse and other Leithiinae dormice
120px
Balearic giant dormice		 Hypnomys spp. Mallorca & Menorca Extinct (Holocene)
Leithia melitensis
Leithia melitensis
Sicilian-Maltese giant dormice		 Leithia cartei Sicily and Malta Extinct
Leithia melitensis
120px
Orkney vole		 Microtus arvalis orcadensis Orkney Islands Vulnerable 120px
Common vole and other meadow voles
120px
Gargano giant voles		 Mikrotia magna Gargano Island Extinct (Early Pliocene)
M. maiuscula
M. parva
120px
St Kilda house mouse		 Mus musculus muralis St Kilda Extinct (c. AD 1930) 120px
House mouse
Flores giant rat Papagomys armandvillei Flores Near Threatened 120px
North African black rat and other true rats
Sulawesi giant rat Paruromys dominator Sulawesi Least Concern
Admiralty giant rat Rattus detentus Manus Island Unknown / Likely threatened[15]
Congreso black rat population[16] Rattus rattus Isla del Congreso Least Concern
Channel Islands deer mice Peromyscus anyapahensis Northern Channel Islands of California Extinct (c. 6000 BC) 120px
North American deer mouse
P. nesodytes
120px
Gargano giant dormouse		 Stertomys laticrestatus[17] Gargano Island Extinct 120px
Glirinae dormice

Lagomorphs

Example Binomial name Native range Current status Continental relative
120px
Minorcan giant lagomorph		 Nuralagus rex Minorca Extinct (Middle Pliocene) Alilepus (?)
Trischizolagus (?)
Prolagus imperialis Gargano Island Extinct 120px
Pikas
120px
Sardinian pika		 Prolagus sardus Corsica, Sardinia and Tavolara Extinct (c. AD 1800)

Primates

Example Binomial name Native range Current status Continental relative
Hispaniola monkey Antillothrix bernensis Hispaniola Extinct (before AD 1600) 120px
Cheracebus
Haitian monkey Insulacebus toussaintiana Southwestern Haiti Extinct
120px
Cuban monkeys		 Paralouatta marianae[18] Cuba Extinct (Pleistocene)
P. varonai[18]
Jamaican monkey Xenothrix mcgregori Jamaica Extinct
120px
Gorilla lemur		 Archaeoindris fontoynontii Central Madagascar Extinct (c. 350 BC) 120px
Lorisoids
120px
Baboon lemurs		 Archaeolemur spp. Madagascar Extinct (before AD 1280)
Hadropithecus spp.
120px
Sloth lemurs		 Babakotia spp. Western and Central Madagascar Extinct (c. AD 1500)
Palaeopropithecus spp.
120px
Koala lemurs		 Megaladapis edwardsi Madagascar Extinct (AD 1280–1420)
M. grandidieri
M. madagascariensis

Carnivorans

Example Binomial name Native range Current status Continental relative
120px
Sardinian giant otter		 Megalenhydris barbaricina Sardinia Extinct (Late Pleistocene) 120px
Otters
120px
Fossa		 Cryptoprocta ferox Madagascar Vulnerable 120px
Mongooses
120px
Giant fossa		 Cryptoprocta spelaea Extinct (before AD 1400)

Gondwanatherians

Example Binomial name Native range Current status Continental relative
120px
Vintana		 Vintana sertichi Madagascar Extinct (Late Cretaceous) South American, India, African and Antarctic gondwanatheres.
120px
Adalatherium		 Adalatherium hui

Birds

Stem birds

Example Binomial name Native range Current status Continental relative
120px
Balaur		 B. bondoc Hațeg Island Extinct (Late Cretaceous) 120px
Jeholornis[19]
120px
Gargantuavis		 G. philohinos Ibero-Armorican Island 120px
Patagopteryx (?)

Ratites

Example Binomial name Native range Current status Continental relative
120px
Kiwis		 Apterygidae New Zealand Variable Proapteryx[lower-alpha 2]
120px
Greater elephant birds		 Aepyornithidae
 Madagascar Extinct (c. AD 1700)
120px
Lesser elephant birds		 Mullerornithidae Extinct (c. AD 1260)
120px
Giant moas		 Dinornithidae
 New Zealand Extinct (c. AD 1450) 120px
Tinamous
120px
Lesser moas		 Emeidae Extinct (c. AD 1460)
120px
Upland moas		 Megalapterygidae Extinct (c. AD 1300)

Waterfowl

Example Binomial name Native range Current status Continental relative
New Zealand musk duck Biziura delautouri New Zealand Extinct (after AD 1500) 120px
Australian musk duck
120px
New Zealand geese		 Cnemiornis calcitrans Extinct 120px
Cape Barren goose
C. gracilis
120px
Garganornis		 G. ballmanni Gargano and Scontrone islands Extinct (Late Miocene) 120px
Geese[21]
120px
Turtle-jawed moa-nalo		 Chelychelynechen quassus Kauai Extinct (c. AD 1000) 120px
Dabbling ducks
120px
Small-billed moa-nalo		 Ptaiochen pau Maui
120px
Large-billed moa-nalo		 Thambetochen chauliodous Maui Nui
120px
O'ahu moa-nalo		 Thambetochen xanion O'ahu
120px
Giant swan		 Cygnus falconeri Sicily and Malta Extinct (Middle Pleistocene) 120px
Mute swan
Scarlett's duck Malacorhynchus scarletti New Zealand Extinct (after AD 1500) 120px
Pink-eared duck

Pangalliformes

Example Binomial name Native range Current status Continental relative
Pile-builder megapode Megapodius molistructor New Caledonia and Tonga Extinct (c. 1500 BC) 120px
Scrubfowl
Megavitiornis Megavitiornis altirostris Fiji Extinct 120px
Galliformes
120px
Sylviornis		 Sylviornis neocaledoniae New Caledonia and Isle of Pines

Gruiformes

Example Binomial name Native range Current status Continental relative
120px
Red rail		 Aphanapteryx bonasia Mauritius Extinct (c. AD 1700) 120px
Rails
120px
Hawkins' rail		 Diaphanapteryx hawkinsi Chatham Islands Extinct (c. AD 1900)
120px
Antillean cave rail		 Nesotrochis debooyi Puerto Rico and Virgin Islands Extinct
Cuban cave rail Nesotrochis picapicensis Cuba
Haitian cave rail N. steganinos Hispaniola
120px
South Island takahē		 Porphyrio hochstetteri South Island, New Zealand Endangered
120px
North Island takahē		 Porphyrio mantelli North Island, New Zealand Extinct (before AD 1900)
120px
Adzebills		 Aptornis defossor New Zealand Extinct 120px
Madagascar flufftail[22]
A. otidiformis
120px
Chatham coot		 Fulica chathamensis Chatham Islands Extinct (after AD 1500) 120px
Red-knobbed coot
and other coots
120px
Mascarene coot		 Fulica newtonii Mauritius and Réunion Extinct (c. AD 1700)
New Zealand coot Fulica prisca New Zealand Extinct (after AD 1280)
120px
Réunion swamphen		 Porphyrio coerulescens Plaine des Cafres, Réunion Extinct (c. AD 1730) 120px
Purple swamphens

Pigeons

Example Binomial name Native range Current status Continental relative
120px
Viti Levu giant pigeon		 Natunaornis gigoura Viti Levu, Fiji Extinct 120px
Crowned pigeons
Kanaka pigeon Caloenas canacorum New Caledonia Extinct (c. 500 BC) 120px
Nicobar pigeon
120px
Rodrigues solitaire		 Pezophaps solitaria Rodrigues Extinct (before AD 1778)
120px
Dodo		 Raphus cucullatus Mauritius Extinct (c. AD 1662)

Birds of prey

Example Binomial name Native range Current status Continental relative
Liko Cave golden eagle Aquila chrysaetos simurgh Crete Extinct (Late Pleistocene) 120px
Golden eagle
Giant crab-hawk[23] Buteogallus borrasi Cuba Extinct 120px
Great black hawk
and other hawks
Giant hawk Gigantohierax sp.
Titan-hawk Titanohierax gloveralleni Cuba, Hispaniola and the Bahamas
Jamaican caracara Caracara tellustris Jamaica 120px
Caracaras
Eyles' harrier Circus eylesi New Zealand Extinct (c. AD 1000) 120px
Swamp harrier
120px
Gargano Island eagles		 Garganoaetus freudenthali Gargano Island Extinct (Late Miocene) Aquila delphinensis
G. murivorus
120px
Haast's eagle		 Hieraaetus moorei New Zealand Extinct (c. AD 1400) 120px
Little eagle
120px
Philippine eagle		 Pithecophaga jefferyi Philippines Critically endangered 120px
Bateleur[24]

Parrots

Example Binomial name Native range Current status Continental relative
120px
Hercules parrot		 Heracles inexpectatus New Zealand Extinct (Miocene) 120px
Other parrots
120px
Kākāpō		 Strigops habroptilus Critically Endangered
120px
Broad-billed parrot		 Lophopsittacus mauritianus Mauritius Extinct (c. AD 1680) 120px
Psittaculine parrots

Owls

Example Binomial name Native range Current status Continental relative
120px
Cretan owl		 Athene cretensis Crete Extinct (Pleistocene) 120px
Little owl
120px
Cuban giant owls		 Ornimegalonyx spp. Cuba 120px
Wood owls
120px
Greater Gargano giant owl		 Tyto gigantea Gargano Island Extinct (Late Miocene) 120px
Barn owls
120px
Andros Island barn owl		 Tyto pollens Andros Island, Bahamas Extinct (before AD 1600)
120px
Rivero's barn owl		 Tyto riveroi Cuba Extinct
120px
Lesser Gargano giant owl		 Tyto robusta Gargano Island Extinct (Early Pliocene)

Caprimulgiformes

Example Binomial name Native range Current status Continental relative
New Zealand owlet-nightjar Aegotheles novazelandiae New Zealand Extinct (c. AD 1200) 120px
Australian owlet-nightjar
120px
New Caledonian owlet-nightjar		 Aegotheles savesi New Caledonia Critically endangered

Passeriforms

Example Binomial name Native range Current status Continental relative
120px
Chatham raven		 Corvus moriorum Chatham Islands Extinct New Zealand raven
120px
Long-legged bunting		 Emberiza alcoveri Tenerife Extinct (after AD 1) 120px
Cabanis's bunting
Giant nukupu'u Hemignathus vorpalis Hawaii Extinct (after AD 1000) 120px
Finches
Tasmanian superb fairywren Malurus cyaneus cyaneus Tasmania Least Concern 120px
Superb fairywren
Kangaroo Island superb fairywren M. c. ashbyi Kangaroo Island
Stout-legged wren Pachyplichas yaldwyni South Island of New Zealand Extinct 120px
Other passeriforms
120px
St Kilda wren		 Troglodytes troglodytes hirtensis St Kilda, Scotland Unknown 120px
Eurasian wren
120px
Capricorn silvereye		 Zosterops lateralis chlorocephalus Capricorn and Bunker Group of the Australian Great Barrier Reef 120px
Silvereye

Reptiles

Iguanids

Example Binomial name Native range Current status Continental relative Insular / mainland
length or mass ratio
120px
Tongan giant iguana[25]		 Brachylophus gibbonsi Tonga Extinct (c. 800 BC) 120px
South American
iguanas
120px
Fijian giant iguana[26]		 Lapitiguana impensa Fiji Extinct (c. 1000 BC)
120px
Angel Island chuckwalla		 Sauromalus hispidus Isla Ángel de la Guarda, Baja California Near Threatened Peninsular chuckwalla MR ≈ 5[27]
120px
San Esteban chuckwalla		 Sauromalus varius San Esteban Island, Baja California Endangered

Geckos

Example Binomial name Native range Current status Continental relative Insular / mainland
length or mass ratio
120px
Delcourt's giant gekko		 Gigarcanum delcourti New Caledonia Extinct (c. AD 1870) 120px
Diplodactylid geckos		 LR ≈ 6.75[lower-alpha 3]
120px
New Caledonian giant gecko		 Rhacodactylus leachianus Least Concern LR ≈ 4.4[lower-alpha 4]
MR ≈ 60[lower-alpha 5]
Rodrigues giant day gecko Phelsuma gigas Rodrigues Extinct (c. AD 1850) 120px
Day geckos

Skinks

Example Binomial name Native range Current status Continental relative
120px
Vaillant's mabuya		 Chioninia vaillanti Cape Verde Endangered 120px
Mainland mabuyine skinks
120px
Cape Verde giant skink		 Chioninia coctei Extinct (after AD 1900)

Mauritius giant skink		 Leiolopisma mauritiana Mauritius Extinct (after AD 1600) 120px
Mainland eugongyline skinks
Terror skink Phoboscincus bocourti Île des Pins off New Caledonia Endangered
Kishinoue's giant skink Plestiodon kishinouyei Miyako Islands and Yaeyama Islands, Japan Vulnerable 120px
Plestiodon tamdaoensis

Wall lizards

Example Binomial name Native range Current status Continental relative
La Palma giant lizard Gallotia auaritae La Palma Critically endangered 120px
Mediterranean sandrunner lizards
120px
La Gomera giant lizard		 Gallotia bravoana Gomera
120px
Tenerife giant lizard[31]		 Gallotia goliath Tenerife Extinct (c. AD 1500)
120px
El Hierro giant lizard		 Gallotia simonyi El Hierro Critically endangered
120px
Gran Canaria giant lizard		 Gallotia stehlini Gran Canaria Least Concern

Snakes

Example Binomial name Native range Current status Continental relative
Angel de la Guarda Island speckled rattlesnake Crotalus mitchellii angelensis Isla Ángel de la Guarda off Baja California Least Concern 120px
Speckled rattlesnake
Tadanae-jima striped snake population[32] Elaphe quadrivirgata Tadanae-jima island off Tokyo Unknown 120px
Japanese striped snake
120px
Island tiger snake populations		 Notechis scutatus Islands Mount Chappell (Tasmania); Williams, Hopkins, and the Nuyts Archipelago (all South Australia)[33] Least Concern[34] 120px
Tiger snake
Isla Cerralvo long-nosed snake Rhinocheilus lecontei etheridgei Jacques Cousteau Island off Baja California Sur Unknown 120px
Long-nosed snake

Dubious examples

thumb|150px thumb|150px

  • The Komodo dragon of Flores and nearby islands, the largest extant lizard, and a similar (extinct) giant monitor lizard from Timor have been regarded as examples of giant insular carnivores. Since islands tend to offer limited food and territory, their mammalian carnivores (if present) are usually smaller than continental ones. These cases involve ectothermic carnivores on islands too small to support much mammalian competition. However, these lizards are not as large as their extinct Australian relative Megalania, and it has been proposed based on fossil evidence that the ancestors of these varanids first evolved their large size in Australia and then dispersed to Indonesia.[35] If this is true, rather than being insular giants they would be viewed as examples of phyletic gigantism. Supporting this interpretation is evidence for a lizard in Pliocene India, Varanus sivalensis, comparable in size to V. komodoensis.[35] Nevertheless, given that Australia is often described as the world's largest island and that the related Megalania, the largest terrestrial lizard known in the fossil record, was restricted to Australia, the perception of the largest Australasian/Indonesian lizards as insular giants may still have some validity.
  • Giant tortoises in the Galápagos Islands and the Seychelles, the largest extant tortoises, as well as extinct tortoises of the Mascarenes and Canary Islands, are often considered examples of island gigantism. However, during the Pleistocene, comparably sized or larger tortoises were present in Australia (Meiolania), southern Asia (Megalochelys), Europe[36] (Titanochelon), Madagascar (Aldabrachelys), North America[37] (Hesperotestudo) and South America[38] (Chelonoidis, the same genus now found in the Galápagos[39]), and on a number of other, more accessible islands of Oceania and the Caribbean.[37] In the late Pliocene they were also present in Africa ("Geochelone" laetoliensis[40]). The present situation of large tortoises being found only on remote islands appears to reflect that these islands were discovered by humans recently and have not been heavily populated, making their tortoises less subject to overexploitation.
  • Hatzegopteryx has features of island gigantism such as a more robust bodyplan and occupying niches taken by megafauna elsewhere (in this case, theropod dinosaurs).[41] However, similar sized giant pterosaurs occurred elsewhere, though nowhere near as robust.

Amphibians

Example Binomial name Native range Current status Continental relative Insular / mainland
length or mass ratio
São Tomé giant tree frog Hyperolius thomensis[42] São Tomé Island Endangered 120px
African reed frogs
Palm forest tree frog Leptopelis palmatus[42] Príncipe Island Vulnerable 120px
Red tree frog		 LR ≈ 1.2[lower-alpha 6]
Giant Fiji ground frog Platymantis megabotoniviti[45] Viti Levu, Fiji Extinct 120px
Asian platymantines
São Tomé giant grass frog Ptychadena newtoni[42] São Tomé Island Endangered 120px
Mascarene grass frog

Arthropods

Example Binomial name Native range Current status Continental relative
120px
Coconut crab		 Birgus latro Indian Ocean islands
and Polynesia[46]		 Vulnerable 120px
Coenobita hermit crabs
120px
Giant weta		 Deinacrida spp. New Zealand Variable
South African king crickets
Giant pseudoscorpion[47] Garypus titanius Boatswain Bird Island Critically Endangered 120px
Garypoids
120px
Hissing cockroaches		 Gromphadorhini spp. Madagascar Unknown 120px
Blaberids
120px
Saint Helena earwig		 Labidura herculeana Saint Helena Extinct (c. AD 1967) 120px
Shore earwig
120px
Wallace's giant bee		 Megachile pluto North Moluccas Vulnerable 120px
Callomegachile
120px
Megalara		 Megalara garuda Mekongga Mountains,
Sulawesi		 Unknown 120px
Crabronine wasps
120px
Madagascan
giant pill-millipedes		 Microsphaerotherium spp. Madagascar 120px
Indian giant pill-millipedes
(Arthrosphaera)
Sphaeromimus spp.
Zoosphaerium spp.
120px
Orsonwelles		 Orsonwelles spp. Hawaii 120px
Money spiders
120px
Conant's giant Nīhoa tree cricket		 Thaumatogryllus conanti Nīhoa 120px
Tree crickets
120px
Giant Fijian long-horned beetle[48]		 Xixuthrus heros Viti Levu, Fiji Endangered 120px
Australasian Xixuthrus
Taveuni beetle Xixuthrus terribilis Taveuni, Fiji Unknown
Tyrannomolpus Tyrannomolpus rex Three Kings Islands Pilacolaspis leaf beetles

Gastropods

Example Binomial name Native range Current status Continental relative
120px
Kauri land snails		 Paryphanta spp. New Zealand Near Threatened 120px
Other rhytidids
Powelliphanta spp.

Flora

In addition to size increase, island plants may also exhibit "insular woodiness".[49] The most notable examples are the megaherbs of New Zealand's subantarctic islands. Increased leaf and seed size was also reported in some island species regardless of growth form (herbaceous, bush, or tree).[50]

Example Binomial name Native range Current status Continental relative
120px
Campbell Island carrot		 Anisotome latifolia Campbell and Auckland Islands Unknown 120px
Apiaceae
120px
Ross lily		 Bulbinella rossii Naturally Uncommon 120px
New Zealand Maori lily
120px
Chatham Islands korokio[50][51]		 Corokia macrocarpa Chatham Islands Unknown 120px
New Zealand korokio[52]
120px
Black-eyed daisy		 Damnamenia vernicosa Auckland and Campbell Islands Naturally Uncommon 120px
Astereae
120px
Cucumber tree[53]		 Dendrosicyos socotranus Socotra Vulnerable 120px
Gourds
120px

St. Catherine's lace[54]

Eriogonum giganteum California Channel Islands Naturally Uncommon 180x180px

Eriogonum

120px
Coco de mer[55][53]		 Lodoicea maldivica Seychelles Endangered 120px
Borassoid palms
120px Pleurophyllum criniferum Antipodes, Auckland and Campbell Islands Unknown 120px
Cineraria
120px
Silver-leaf daisy		 Pleurophyllum hookeri Macquarie Island, Auckland and Campbell Islands
120px
Campbell Island daisy		 Pleurophyllum speciosum Campbell and Auckland Islands Naturally Uncommon
120px
Macquarie Island cabbage		 Stilbocarpa polaris Macquarie Island and New Zealand subantarctic islands Vulnerable 120px
Araliaceae

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ The reduction in predation on islands often also leads to tamer behavior of island prey species, a trend that has been analyzed in lizards.[2][3]
  2. ↑ The earliest known New Zealand kiwi ancestor, a presumed recent arrival from Australia.[20]
  3. ↑ Based on the estimated total length of H. delcourti, ~23.6 in,[28] and the average length of a member of Diplodactylus, the most species-rich genus of Australian diplodactylid geckos, ~3.5 in.[29]
  4. ↑ Based on the average total length of the larger subspecies, R. l. leachianus, ~15.5 in,[30] and the average length of a member of Diplodactylus, the most species-rich genus of Australian diplodactylid geckos, ~3.5 in.[29]
  5. ↑ Based on the average mass of the larger subspecies, R. l. leachianus, ~240 g,[30] with the average weight of a member of Diplodactylus, the most species-rich genus of Australian diplodactylid geckos, ~4 g.[29]
  6. ↑ Based on the average female snout to vent length (SVL) of L. palmatus, ~96 mm,[43] with the average female SVL of L. rufus, ~80 mm.[44]

References

  1. ↑ Herczeg, G. B.; Gonda, A. L.; Merilä, J. (2009-07-16). "Evolution of Gigantism in Nine-Spined Sticklebacks". Evolution 63 (12): 3190–3200. doi:10.1111/j.1558-5646.2009.00781.x. PMID 19624722. 
  2. ↑ Cooper, W. E.; Pyron, R. A.; Garland, T. (2014-01-08). "Island tameness: Living on islands reduces flight initiation distance". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 281 (1777). doi:10.1098/rspb.2013.3019. PMID 24403345. 
  3. ↑ Yong, E. (2014-01-08). "Islands make animals tamer". Nature. doi:10.1038/nature.2014.14462. 
  4. ↑ Jaffe, A. L.; Slater, G. J.; Alfaro, M. E. (2011-01-26). "The evolution of island gigantism and body size variation in tortoises and turtles". Biology Letters 7 (4): 558–561. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2010.1084. PMID 21270022. 
  5. ↑ Barahona, F.; Evans, S.E.; Mateo, J.A.; Garcia-Marquez, M.; Lopez-Jurado, L.F. (March 2000). "Endemism, Gigantism and Extinction in Island Lizards: The Genus Gallotia on the Canary Islands". Journal of Zoology 250 (3): 373–388. doi:10.1017/s0952836900003101. http://journals.cambridge.org/article_S0952836900003101. 
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 Raia, P.; Meiri, S. (August 2006). "The island rule in large mammals: paleontology meets ecology". Evolution 60 (8): 1731–1742. doi:10.1111/j.0014-3820.2006.tb00516.x. PMID 17017072. 
  7. ↑ Keehn, J. E.; Nieto, N. C.; Tracy, C. R.; Gienger, C. M.; Feldman, C. R. (2013-08-27). "Evolution on a desert island: Body size divergence between the reptiles of Nevada's Anaho Island and the mainland around Pyramid Lake". Journal of Zoology 291 (4): 269–278. doi:10.1111/jzo.12066. 
  8. ↑ Lomolino, M. V. (2005-09-05). "Body size evolution in insular vertebrates: generality of the island rule". Journal of Biogeography 32 (10): 1683–1699. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2699.2005.01314.x. Bibcode: 2005JBiog..32.1683L. 
  9. ↑ Filin, I.; Ziv, Y. (2004). "New Theory of Insular Evolution: Unifying the Loss of Dispersability and Body-mass Change.". Evolutionary Ecology Research 6: 115–124. http://lifeserv.bgu.ac.il/wb/yziv/media/Filin+Ziv-2004-Evolutionary_Ecology_Research.pdf. Retrieved 2014-11-18. 
  10. ↑ Turvey, S. T. (2006). "A new genus and species of giant hutia (Tainotherium valei) from the Quaternary of Puerto Rico: an extinct arboreal quadruped?". Journal of Zoology 270 (4): 585–594. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7998.2006.00170.x. 
  11. ↑ Torres-Roig, E.; Agustí, J.; Bover, P.; Alcover, J.A. (2017). "A new giant cricetine from the basal Pliocene of Mallorca (Balearic Islands, western Mediterranean): biostratigraphic nexus with continental mammal zones". Historical Biology 31 (5): 559–573. doi:10.1080/08912963.2017.1377194. 
  12. ↑ Freudenthal, M. (1985). Cricetidae (Rodentia) from the Neogene of Gargano (Prov. of Foggia, Italy). Rijksmuseum van Geologie en Mineralogie.
  13. ↑ "St Kilda's 'super-sized' field mice studied". BBC. 2010-09-03. https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-highlands-islands-11168757. 
  14. ↑ "Error". http://www.mapama.gob.es/es/biodiversidad/temas/conservacion-de-especies-amenazadas/LIRON_tcm7-20977.pdf. 
  15. ↑ Timm, R. M.; Weijola, V.; Aplin, K. P.; Donnellan, S. C.; Flannery, T. F.; Thomson, V.; Pine, R. H. (2016-04-12). "A new species of Rattus (Rodentia: Muridae) from Manus Island, Papua New Guinea". Journal of Mammalogy 97 (3): 861–878. doi:10.1093/jmammal/gyw034. 
  16. ↑ Jacint Ventura; María José López-Fuster (May 2000). "Morphometric analysis of the black rat, Rattus rattus, from Congreso Island (Chafarinas Archipelago, Spain)". Orsis 15: 91–102. https://raco.cat/index.php/Orsis/article/view/24434/24268. 
  17. ↑ Daams, R.; Freudenthal, M. (1985). "Stertomys laticrestatus, a new glirid (dormice, Rodentia) from the insular fauna of Gargano (Prov. of Foggia, Italy)". Scripta Geologica 77: 21–27. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/241887510. 
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 MacPhee, R.D.E., Iturralde-Vinent, M.A., and Gaffney, E.S. (February 2003). "Domo de Zaza, an Early Miocene Vertebrate Locality in South-Central Cuba, with Notes on the Tectonic Evolution of Puerto Rico and the Mona Passage". American Museum Novitates (3394): 1–42. doi:10.1206/0003-0082(2003)394<0001:DDZAEM>2.0.CO;2. https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/178184. 
  19. ↑ "Late Cretaceous Animals of Romania's Haţeg Island--a More Complex View". https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/tetrapod-zoology/late-cretaceous-animals-of-romania-s-hateg-island-a-more-complex-view/. 
  20. ↑ Worthy, Trevor H. (2013). Miocene fossils show that kiwi (Apteryx, Apterygidae) are probably not phyletic dwarves. Paleornithological Research 2013, Proceedings of the 8th International Meeting of the Society of Avian Paleontology and Evolution. https://dinosaurs.group.uq.edu.au/files/2272/Worthy_et_al_2013.pdf. Retrieved 16 September 2017. 
  21. ↑ Pavia, M.; Meijer, H. J. M.; Rossi, M. A.; Göhlich, U. B. (2017-01-11). "The extreme insular adaptation of Garganornis ballmanni Meijer, 2014: a giant Anseriformes of the Neogene of the Mediterranean Basin". Royal Society Open Science 4 (1). doi:10.1098/rsos.160722. PMID 28280574. Bibcode: 2017RSOS....460722P. 
  22. ↑ "African Origins for the Enigmatic Adzebill". https://www.canterburymuseum.com/about-us/media-releases/african-origins-for-the-enigmatic-adzebill/. 
  23. ↑ "Titan-hawks and other super-raptors". Tetrapod Zoology blog. ScienceBlogs LLC. 2008-01-28. http://scienceblogs.com/tetrapodzoology/2008/01/28/titan-hawks-super-raptors/. 
  24. ↑ Lerner, Heather R.L.; Mindell, David P. (2005). "Phylogeny of eagles, Old World vultures, and other Accipitridae based on nuclear and mitochondrial DNA". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 37 (2): 327–346. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2005.04.010. PMID 15925523. Bibcode: 2005MolPE..37..327L. 
  25. ↑ Pregill, G. K.; Steadman, D. W. (March 2004). "South Pacific Iguanas: Human Impacts and a New Species". Journal of Herpetology 38 (1): 15–21. doi:10.1670/73-03A. 
  26. ↑ Pregill, G. K.; Worthy, T. H. (March 2003). "A New Iguanid Lizard (Squamata, Iguanidae) from the Lare Quaternary of Fiji, Southwest Pacific". Herpetologica 59 (1): 57–67. doi:10.1655/0018-0831(2003)059[0057:ANILSI2.0.CO;2]. ISSN 0018-0831. 
  27. ↑ Petren, K.; Case, T.J. (1997). "A Phylogenetic Analysis of Body Size Evolution and Biogeography in Chuckwallas (Sauromalus) and Other Iguanines". Evolution 51 (1): 206–219. doi:10.1111/j.1558-5646.1997.tb02402.x. PMID 28568786. 
  28. ↑ Wilson, K.-J. (2004). Flight of the Huia: Ecology and Conservation of New Zealand's Frogs, Reptiles, Birds and Mammals. Canterbury University Press. ISBN 0-908812-52-3. OCLC 937349394. https://books.google.com/books?id=BXbwAAAAMAAJ. 
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 29.2 Stewart, C. (9 May 2014). "Diplodactylus Geckos of Australia". http://www.reptilesmagazine.com/Lizard-Species/Diplodactylus-Geckos-of-Australia/. 
  30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 Bergman, J.; Hamper, R. (2016). "New Caledonian Giant Gecko Care Sheet". http://www.reptilesmagazine.com/Care-Sheets/Lizards/New-Caledonian-Giant-Gecko/. 
  31. ↑ Maca-Meyer, N.; Carranza, S.; Rando, J. C.; Arnold, E. N.; Cabrera, V. M. (2003-12-01). "Status and relationships of the extinct giant Canary Island lizard Gallotia goliath (Reptilia: Lacertidae), assessed using ancient mtDNA from its mummified remains". Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 80 (4): 659–670. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8312.2003.00265.x. 
  32. ↑ Akira Mori; Masami Hasegawa (June 2002). "Early Growth of Elaphe quadrivirgata from an Insular Gigantic Population". Current Herpetology (The Herpetological Society of Japan) 21 (1): 43–50. doi:10.5358/hsj.21.43. https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/hsj2000/21/1/21_1_43/_pdf. 
  33. ↑ Keogh, J. S.; Scott, I. A. W.; Hayes, C. (January 2005). "Rapid and repeated origin of insular gigantism and dwarfism in Australian tiger snakes". Evolution 59 (1): 226–233. doi:10.1111/j.0014-3820.2005.tb00909.x. PMID 15792242. 
  34. ↑ Michael, D.; Clemann, N.; Robertson, P. (2018). "Notechis scutatus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2018. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-1.RLTS.T169687A83767147.en. https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/169687/83767147. Retrieved 19 December 2019. 
  35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 Hocknull, S.A.; Piper, P.J.; van den Bergh, G.D.; Due, R.A.; Morwood, M.J.; Kurniawan, I. (2009). "Dragon's Paradise Lost: Palaeobiogeography, Evolution and Extinction of the Largest-Ever Terrestrial Lizards (Varanidae)". PLOS ONE 4 (9). doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0007241. PMID 19789642. Bibcode: 2009PLoSO...4.7241H. 
  36. ↑ Pérez-García, A.; Vlachos, E.; Arribas, A. (2017). "The last giant continental tortoise of Europe: A survivor in the Spanish Pleistocene site of Fonelas P-1". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 470: 30–39. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2017.01.011. Bibcode: 2017PPP...470...30P. 
  37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 Hansen, D. M.; Donlan, C. J.; Griffiths, C. J.; Campbell, K. J. (April 2010). "Ecological history and latent conservation potential: large and giant tortoises as a model for taxon substitutions". Ecography 33 (2): 272–284. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0587.2010.06305.x. Bibcode: 2010Ecogr..33..272H. http://www.torreyaguardians.org/hansen-2010.pdf. Retrieved 2012-03-02. 
  38. ↑ Cione, A. L.; Tonni, E. P.; Soibelzon, L. (2003). "The Broken Zig-Zag: Late Cenozoic large mammal and tortoise extinction in South America". Rev. Mus. Argentino Cienc. Nat.. N.S. 5 (1): 1–19. doi:10.22179/REVMACN.5.26. ISSN 1514-5158. 
  39. ↑ Fariña, R.A., Vizcaíno, S.F. & De Iuliis, G. (2013) Megafauna: Giant Beasts of South America. Indiana University Press, 448 pages.
  40. ↑ Harrison, T. (2011). "Tortoises (Chelonii, Testudinidae)". Paleontology and Geology of Laetoli: Human Evolution in Context, Vol. 2: Fossil Hominins and the Associated Fauna. Vertebrate Paleobiology and Paleoanthropology. Springer Science+Business Media. pp. 479–503. doi:10.1007/978-90-481-9962-4_17. ISBN 978-90-481-9961-7. 
  41. ↑ Naish, D.; Witton, M.P. (2017). "Neck biomechanics indicate that giant Transylvanian azhdarchid pterosaurs were short-necked arch predators". PeerJ. 5: e2908. doi:10.7717/peerj.2908. PMC 5248582. PMID 28133577.
  42. ↑ 42.0 42.1 42.2 Measey, G.J.; Vences, M.; Drewes, R.C.; Chiari, Y.; Melo, M.; Bourles, B. (2006). "Freshwater paths across the ocean: molecular phylogeny of the frog Ptychadena newtoni gives insights into amphibian colonization of oceanic islands". Journal of Biogeography 34 (1): 7–20. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2699.2006.01589.x. 
  43. ↑ "Leptopelis palmatus". University of California, Berkeley. 2008. http://amphibiaweb.org/species/3668. 
  44. ↑ "Leptopelis rufus". University of California, Berkeley. 2008. http://amphibiaweb.org/species/3673. 
  45. ↑ Worthy, T.H. (2001). "A New Species of Platymantis (Anura: Ranidae) from Quaternary Deposits On Viti Levu, Fiji". Palaeontology 44 (4): 665–680. doi:10.1111/1475-4983.00197. Bibcode: 2001Palgy..44..665W. 
  46. ↑ Neither coconut crabs nor their relatives can swim beyond the larva stage, making the adults land animals in practice. Coconut crabs can weigh over 4 kg (9 pounds); the largest hermit crabs of the related genus Coenobita, C. brevimanus of coastal Africa and Asia, only reaches 230 grams (0.5 pounds).
  47. ↑ "Ascension Island Biodiversity Action Plan: Garypus titanius species action plan". Georgetown, Ascension Island: Ascension Island Government Conservation Department. 2015-02-26. http://www.ascension-island.gov.ac/wp-content/uploads/2012/12/GIANT-PSEUDOSCORPION-SAP.pdf. 
  48. ↑ Keppel, Gunnar; Lowe, Andrew J.; Possingham, Hugh P. (2009). "Changing perspectives on the biogeography of the tropical South Pacific: influences of dispersal, vicariance and extinction". Journal of Biogeography 36 (6): 1035–1054. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2699.2009.02095.x. ISSN 0305-0270. Bibcode: 2009JBiog..36.1035K. 
  49. ↑ Bowen, Lizabeth; Vuren, Dirk Van (1997). "Insular Endemic Plants Lack Defenses Against Herbivores". Conservation Biology 11 (5): 1249–1254. doi:10.1046/j.1523-1739.1997.96368.x. ISSN 0888-8892. Bibcode: 1997ConBi..11.1249B. 
  50. ↑ 50.0 50.1 "Small islands breed big seeds". https://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/resources/2289-small-islands-breed-big-seeds. 
  51. ↑ "Website Not Available". http://www.terrain.net.nz/friends-of-te-henui-group/table-1/corokia-macrocarpa-chatham-is-korokio.html. 
  52. ↑ "T.E.R:R.A.I.N - Taranaki Educational Resource: Research, Analysis and Information Network - Corokia cotoneaster (Korokio)". http://www.terrain.net.nz/friends-of-te-henui-group/table-1/korokio.html. 
  53. ↑ 53.0 53.1 Burns, K.C. (May 2019). Evolution in Isolation: The Search for an Island Syndrome in Plants. Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781108379953. ISBN 978-1-108-37995-3. OCLC 1105218367. https://books.google.com/books?id=wbOQDwAAQBAJ. 
  54. ↑ Rundel, Philip; Gustafson, Robert (2005). Introduction to the Plant Life of Southern California. Oakland, California: University of California Press. pp. 246-249. ISBN 978-0-520-24199-2. 
  55. ↑ Proctor, J. (1984). "Vegetation of the granitic islands of the Seychelles". in Stoddart, D. R.. Biogeography and Ecology of the Seychelles Islands. W. Junk. ISBN 978-90-6193-881-1. OCLC 906429733. https://books.google.com/books?id=XAZUuAAACAAJ. 



Retrieved from "https://handwiki.org/wiki/index.php?title=Biology:Island_gigantism&oldid=4251112"