Chemistry:Prices of chemical elements

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See also: Chemistry:Diamonds as an investment, Scandium § Price, Rhodium § Mining and price, Palladium as an investment, Silver as an investment, Tin § Price and exchanges, Iridium § Production, Platinum as an investment, Gold as an investment, Bismuth § Price, and Uranium market

This is a list of prices of chemical elements. Listed here are mainly average market prices for bulk trade of commodities. Data on elements' abundance in Earth's crust is added for comparison.

As of 2025, the most expensive non-synthetic element by mass is rhodium, and by volume, iridium. It is followed by rhodium, caesium, iridium and palladium by mass and iridium, gold and platinum by volume. Carbon in the form of diamond can be more expensive than rhodium. Per-kilogram prices of some synthetic radioisotopes range to trillions of dollars. While the difficulty of obtaining macroscopic samples of synthetic elements in part explains their high value, there has been interest in converting base metals to gold (chrysopoeia) since ancient times, but only deeper understanding of nuclear physics has allowed the actual production of a tiny amount of gold from other elements for research purposes as demonstrated by Glenn Seaborg.[1][2] However, both this and other routes of synthesis of precious metals via nuclear reactions is orders of magnitude removed from economic viability.

Chlorine, sulfur and carbon (as coal) are cheapest by mass. Hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen and chlorine are cheapest by volume at atmospheric pressure.

When there is no public data on the element in its pure form, price of a compound is used, per mass of element contained. This implicitly puts the value of compounds' other constituents, and the cost of extraction of the element, at zero. For elements whose radiological properties are important, individual isotopes and isomers are listed. The price listing for radioisotopes is not exhaustive.

Chart

A pink background means a radioactive element.[3]
Bismuth is considered stable here as it's barely radioactive so it's used for producing cosmetics.[4]

Z Symbol Name Density[lower-alpha 1] (⁠kg/L⁠) Abundance and total mass in Earth's crust[lower-alpha 2] (⁠mg/kg⁠) Price[9] Year Source Notes
USD/kg USD/L[lower-alpha 3]
1 H Hydrogen 0.00008988 1400 (3.878×1019 kg) 1.39 0.000125 2012 DOE Hydrogen[10] [lower-alpha 4]
1 2H (D) Deuterium 0.0001667[12] 13400 2.23 2020 CIL[13] [lower-alpha 5]
2 He Helium 0.0001785 0.008 (2.216×1014 kg) 24.0 0.00429 2018 USGS MCS[16] [lower-alpha 6]
3 Li Lithium 0.534 20 (5.54×1017 kg) 81.4–85.6 43.4–45.7 2020 SMM[18][lower-alpha 7] [lower-alpha 8]
4 Be Beryllium 1.85 2.8 (7.756×1016 kg) 857 1590 2020 ISE 2020[19][lower-alpha 9] [lower-alpha 10]
5 B Boron 2.34 10 (2.77×1017 kg) 3.68 8.62 2019 CEIC Data[20][lower-alpha 11] [lower-alpha 12]
6 C Carbon 2.267 200 (5.54×1018 kg) 0.122 0.28 2018 EIA Coal[21] [lower-alpha 13]
7 N Nitrogen 0.0012506 19 (5.263×1017 kg) 0.140 0.000175 2001 Hypertextbook[26] [lower-alpha 14]
8 O Oxygen 0.001429 461000 (1.277×1022 kg) 0.154 0.000220 2001 Hypertextbook[26] [lower-alpha 15]
9 F Fluorine 0.001696 585 (1.62×1019 kg) 1.84–2.16 0.00311 – 0.00365 2017 Echemi[27] [lower-alpha 16]
10 Ne Neon 0.0008999 0.005 (1.385×1014 kg) 240 0.21 1999 Ullmann[28] [lower-alpha 17]
11 Na Sodium 0.971 23600 (6.537×1020 kg) 2.57–3.43 2.49–3.33 2020 SMM[29][lower-alpha 7] [lower-alpha 18]
12 Mg Magnesium 1.738 23300 (6.454×1020 kg) 2.32 4.03 2019 Preismonitor[22][lower-alpha 19] [lower-alpha 20]
13 Al Aluminium 2.698 82300 (2.28×1021 kg) 1.79 4.84 2019 Preismonitor[22][lower-alpha 19] [lower-alpha 21]
14 Si Silicon 2.3296 282000 (7.811×1021 kg) 1.70 3.97 2019 Preismonitor[22][lower-alpha 19] [lower-alpha 22]
15 P Phosphorus 1.82 1050 (2.909×1019 kg) 2.69 4.90 2019 CEIC Data[20][lower-alpha 11] [lower-alpha 23]
16 S Sulfur 2.067 350 (9.695×1018 kg) 0.0926 0.191 2019 CEIC Data[20][lower-alpha 11]
17 Cl Chlorine 0.003214 145 (4.075×1018 kg) 0.082 0.00026 2013 CnAgri[31] [lower-alpha 24]
18 Ar Argon 0.0017837 3.5 (9.695×1016 kg) 0.931 0.00166 2019 UNLV[33] [lower-alpha 25]
19 K Potassium 0.862 20900 (5.789×1020 kg) 12.1–13.6 10.5–11.7 2020 SMM[34][lower-alpha 7] [lower-alpha 26]
20 Ca Calcium 1.54 41500 (1.15×1021 kg) 2.21–2.35 3.41–3.63 2020 SMM[35][lower-alpha 7] [lower-alpha 27]
21 Sc Scandium 2.989 22 (6.094×1017 kg) 3460 10300 2020 ISE 2020[36][lower-alpha 28] [lower-alpha 29]
22 Ti Titanium 4.54 5650 (1.565×1020 kg) 11.1–11.7 50.5–53.1 2020 SMM[37][lower-alpha 7] [lower-alpha 30]
23 V Vanadium 6.11 120 (3.324×1018 kg) 357–385 2180–2350 2020 SMM[38][lower-alpha 7] [lower-alpha 31]
24 Cr Chromium 7.15 102 (2.825×1018 kg) 9.40 67.2 2019 Preismonitor[22][lower-alpha 19] [lower-alpha 32]
25 Mn Manganese 7.44 950 (2.632×1019 kg) 1.82 13.6 2019 Preismonitor[22][lower-alpha 19] [lower-alpha 33]
26 Fe Iron 7.874 56300 (1.565×1021 kg) 0.424 3.34 2020 SMM[39][lower-alpha 7] [lower-alpha 34]
27 Co Cobalt 8.86 25 (6.925×1017 kg) 32.8 291 2019 Preismonitor[22][lower-alpha 19] [lower-alpha 35]
28 Ni Nickel 8.912 84 (2.327×1018 kg) 13.9 124 2019 Preismonitor[22][lower-alpha 19] [lower-alpha 36]
29 Cu Copper 8.96 60 (1.662×1018 kg) 6.00 53.8 2019 Preismonitor[22][lower-alpha 19] [lower-alpha 37]
30 Zn Zinc 7.134 70 (1.939×1018 kg) 2.55 18.2 2019 Preismonitor[22][lower-alpha 19] [lower-alpha 38]
31 Ga Gallium 5.907 19 (5.263×1017 kg) 148 872 2019 Preismonitor[22][lower-alpha 19] [lower-alpha 39]
32 Ge Germanium 5.323 1.5 (4.155×1016 kg) 914–1010 4860–5390 2020 SMM[41][lower-alpha 7] [lower-alpha 40]
33 As Arsenic 5.776 1.8 (4.986×1016 kg) 0.999–1.31 5.77–7.58 2020 SMM[42][lower-alpha 7] [lower-alpha 41]
34 Se Selenium 4.809 0.05 (1.385×1015 kg) 21.4 103 2019 Preismonitor[22][lower-alpha 19] [lower-alpha 42]
35 Br Bromine 3.122 2.4 (6.648×1016 kg) 4.39 13.7 2019 CEIC Data[20][lower-alpha 11]
36 Kr Krypton 0.003733 .0001 1×10−4 
(2.77×1012 kg) || 290 || 1.1 || 1999 || Ullmann[28] || [lower-alpha 43]
37 Rb Rubidium 1.532 90 (2.493×1018 kg) 15500 23700 2018 USGS MCS[16] [lower-alpha 44]
38 Sr Strontium 2.64 370 (1.025×1019 kg) 6.53–6.68 17.2–17.6 2019 ISE 2019[43] [lower-alpha 45]
39 Y Yttrium 4.469 33 (9.141×1017 kg) 31.0 139 2019 Preismonitor[22][lower-alpha 19] [lower-alpha 46]
40 Zr Zirconium 6.506 165 (4.571×1018 kg) 35.7–37.1 232–241 2020 SMM[44][lower-alpha 7] [lower-alpha 47]
41 Nb Niobium 8.57 20 (5.54×1017 kg) 61.4–85.6 526–734 2020 SMM[45][lower-alpha 7] [lower-alpha 48]
42 Mo Molybdenum 10.22 1.2 (3.324×1016 kg) 40.1 410 2019 Preismonitor[22][lower-alpha 19] [lower-alpha 49]
43 Tc Technetium 11.5 .000000003 ~ 3×10−9

[lower-alpha 50] (8.31×107 kg) || 100000 || 1200000 || 2004[lower-alpha 51] || CRC Handbook[lower-alpha 52] ||

43 99mTc Technetium-99m 11.5 1.9×1012 22×1012 2008 NRC[48] [lower-alpha 53]
44 Ru Ruthenium 12.37 0.001 (2.77×1013 kg) 10400 – 10600 129000 – 131000 2020 SMM[49][lower-alpha 7] [lower-alpha 54]
45 Rh Rhodium 12.41 0.001 (2.77×1013 kg) 147000 1820000 2019 Preismonitor[22][lower-alpha 19] [lower-alpha 55]
46 Pd Palladium 12.02 0.015 (4.155×1014 kg) 49500 595000 2019 Preismonitor[22][lower-alpha 19] [lower-alpha 56]
47 Ag Silver 10.501 0.075 (2.0775×1015 kg) 521 5470 2019 Preismonitor[22][lower-alpha 19] [lower-alpha 57]
48 Cd Cadmium 8.69 0.159 (4.4043×1015 kg) 2.73 23.8 2019 Preismonitor[22][lower-alpha 19] [lower-alpha 58]
49 In Indium 7.31 0.25 (6.925×1015 kg) 167 1220 2019 Preismonitor[22][lower-alpha 19] [lower-alpha 59]
50 Sn Tin 7.287 2.3 (6.371×1016 kg) 18.7 136 2019 Preismonitor[22][lower-alpha 19] [lower-alpha 60]
51 Sb Antimony 6.685 0.2 (5.54×1015 kg) 5.79 38.7 2019 Preismonitor[22][lower-alpha 19] [lower-alpha 61]
52 Te Tellurium 6.232 0.001 (2.77×1013 kg) 63.5 396 2019 Preismonitor[22][lower-alpha 19] [lower-alpha 62]
53 I Iodine 4.93 0.45 (1.2465×1016 kg) 35 173 2019 Industrial Minerals[50] [lower-alpha 63]
54 Xe Xenon 0.005887 .00003 3×10−5 
(8.31×1011 kg) || 1800 || 11 || 1999 || Ullmann[28] || [lower-alpha 64]
55 Cs Caesium 1.873 3 (8.31×1016 kg) 61800 116000 2018 USGS MCS[16] [lower-alpha 65]
56 Ba Barium 3.594 425 (1.177×1019 kg) 0.246–0.275 0.886–0.990 2016 USGS MYB 2016[51] [lower-alpha 66]
57 La Lanthanum 6.145 39 (1.08×1018 kg) 4.78–4.92 29.4–30.3 2020 SMM[53][lower-alpha 7] [lower-alpha 67]
58 Ce Cerium 6.77 66.5 (1.84205×1018 kg) 4.57–4.71 30.9–31.9 2020 SMM[54][lower-alpha 7] [lower-alpha 68]
59 Pr Praseodymium 6.773 9.2 (2.5484×1017 kg) 103 695 2019 Preismonitor[22][lower-alpha 19] [lower-alpha 69]
60 Nd Neodymium 7.007 41.5 (1.14955×1018 kg) 57.5 403 2019 Preismonitor[22][lower-alpha 19] [lower-alpha 70]
61 147Pm Promethium-147 7.26 460000 3400000 2003 Radiochemistry Society[55] [lower-alpha 71]
62 Sm Samarium 7.52 7.05 (1.95285×1017 kg) 13.9 104 2019 Preismonitor[22][lower-alpha 19] [lower-alpha 72]
63 Eu Europium 5.243 2 (5.54×1016 kg) 31.4 165 2020 ISE 2020[36][lower-alpha 28] [lower-alpha 73]
64 Gd Gadolinium 7.895 6.2 (1.7174×1017 kg) 28.6 226 2020 ISE 2020[36][lower-alpha 28] [lower-alpha 74]
65 Tb Terbium 8.229 1.2 (3.324×1016 kg) 658 5410 2019 Preismonitor[22][lower-alpha 19] [lower-alpha 75]
66 Dy Dysprosium 8.55 5.2 (1.4404×1017 kg) 307 2630 2019 Preismonitor[22][lower-alpha 19] [lower-alpha 76]
67 Ho Holmium 8.795 1.3 (3.601×1016 kg) 57.1 503 2020 ISE 2020[36][lower-alpha 28] [lower-alpha 77]
68 Er Erbium 9.066 3.5 (9.695×1016 kg) 26.4 240 2020 ISE 2020[36][lower-alpha 28] [lower-alpha 78]
69 Tm Thulium 9.321 0.52 (1.4404×1016 kg) 3000 28000 2003 IMAR[56][lower-alpha 79] [lower-alpha 80]
70 Yb Ytterbium 6.965 3.2 (8.864×1016 kg) 17.1 119 2020 ISE 2020[36][lower-alpha 28] [lower-alpha 81]
71 Lu Lutetium 9.84 0.8 (2.216×1016 kg) 643 6330 2020 ISE 2020[36][lower-alpha 28] [lower-alpha 82]
72 Hf Hafnium 13.31 3 (8.31×1016 kg) 900 12000 2017 USGS MCS[16] [lower-alpha 83]
73 Ta Tantalum 16.654 2 (5.54×1016 kg) 298–312 4960–5200 2019 ISE 2019[43] [lower-alpha 84]
74 W Tungsten 19.25 1.3 (3.601×1016 kg) 35.3 679 2019 Preismonitor[22][lower-alpha 19] [lower-alpha 85]
75 Re Rhenium 21.02 .0007 7×10−4 
(1.939×1013 kg) || 3010–4150 || 63300 – 87300 || 2020 || SMM[57][lower-alpha 7] || [lower-alpha 86]
76 Os Osmium 22.61 0.002 (5.54×1013 kg) 30000 678000 2025 elementsales.com[58]
77 Ir Iridium 22.56 0.001 (2.77×1013 kg) 144000 3276000 2025 Umicore[59]
78 Pt Platinum 21.46 0.005 (1.385×1014 kg) 27800 596000 2019 Preismonitor[22][lower-alpha 19] [lower-alpha 87]
79 Au Gold 19.282 0.004 (1.108×1014 kg) 75430 1454441 2024 London gold fix [lower-alpha 88]
80 Hg Mercury 13.5336 0.085 (2.3545×1015 kg) 30.2 409 2017 USGS MCS[16] [lower-alpha 89]
81 Tl Thallium 11.85 0.85 (2.3545×1016 kg) 4200 49800 2017 USGS MCS[16]
82 Pb Lead 11.342 14 (3.878×1017 kg) 2.00 22.6 2019 Preismonitor[22][lower-alpha 19] [lower-alpha 90]
83 Bi Bismuth 9.807 0.009 (2.493×1014 kg) 6.36 62.4 2019 Preismonitor[22][lower-alpha 19] [lower-alpha 91]
84 209Po Polonium-209 9.32 49.2×1012 458×1012 2004[lower-alpha 51] CRC Handbook (ORNL)[lower-alpha 92]
85 At Astatine 7 0.000000000000000000003 3×10−20

[lower-alpha 50] (8.31×10−4 kg) || colspan="4" align="center" data-sort-value="" | Not traded. || [lower-alpha 93]

86 Rn Radon 0.00973 .0000000000004 4×10−13

[lower-alpha 50] (1.108×104 kg) || colspan="4" align="center" data-sort-value="" | Not traded. || [lower-alpha 94]

87 Fr Francium 1.87 0.000000000000000001 ~ 1×10−18

[lower-alpha 50] (2.77×10−2 kg) || colspan="4" align="center" data-sort-value="" | Not traded. || [lower-alpha 95]

88 Ra Radium 5.5 .0000009 9×10−7

[lower-alpha 50] (2.493×1010 kg) || colspan="4" align="center" data-sort-value="" | Negative price. || [lower-alpha 96]

89 225Ac Actinium-225 10.07 29×1012 290×1012 2004[lower-alpha 51] CRC Handbook (ORNL)[lower-alpha 92]
90 Th Thorium 11.72 9.6 (2.6592×1017 kg) 287 3360 2010 USGS MYB 2012[64] [lower-alpha 97]
91 Pa Protactinium 15.37 .0000014 1.4×10−6

[lower-alpha 50] (3.878×1010 kg) || colspan="4" align="center" data-sort-value="" | No reliable price available. || [lower-alpha 98]

92 U Uranium 18.95 2.7 (7.479×1016 kg) 101 1910 2018 EIA Uranium Marketing[66] [lower-alpha 99]
93 Np Neptunium 20.45 0.000000000003 ≤ 3×10−12

[lower-alpha 50] (8.31×104 kg) || 660000 || 13500000 || 2003[lower-alpha 51] || Pomona[67] || [lower-alpha 100]

94 239Pu Plutonium-239 19.84 6490000 129000000 2019 DOE OSTI[68] [lower-alpha 101]
95 241Am Americium-241 13.69 0 0 728000 9970000 1998 NWA[69][lower-alpha 102] [lower-alpha 103]
95 243Am Americium-243 13.69 0 0 750000 10300000 2004[lower-alpha 51] CRC Handbook (ORNL)[lower-alpha 92]
96 244Cm Curium-244 13.51 0 0 185000000 2.50×109 2004[lower-alpha 51] CRC Handbook (ORNL)[lower-alpha 92]
96 248Cm Curium-248 13.51 0 0 160×109 2.16×1012 2004[lower-alpha 51] CRC Handbook (ORNL)[lower-alpha 92]
97 249Bk Berkelium-249 14.79 0 0 185×109 2.74×1012 2004[lower-alpha 51] CRC Handbook (ORNL)[lower-alpha 92]
98 249Cf Californium-249 15.1 0 0 185×109 2.79×1012 2004[lower-alpha 51] CRC Handbook (ORNL)[lower-alpha 92]
98 252Cf Californium-252 15.1 0 0 60.0×109 906×109 2004[lower-alpha 51] CRC Handbook (ORNL)[lower-alpha 92]
99 Es Einsteinium 8.84 0 0 colspan="4" align="center" data-sort-value="" | Not traded. [lower-alpha 104]
100 Fm Fermium 9.7 (9.7) 0 0 colspan="4" align="center" data-sort-value="" | Not traded. [lower-alpha 105]
101 Md Mendelevium 10.3 (10.3) 0 0 colspan="4" align="center" data-sort-value="" | Not traded. [lower-alpha 106]
102 No Nobelium 9.9 (9.9) 0 0 colspan="4" align="center" data-sort-value="" | Not traded. [lower-alpha 107]
103 Lr Lawrencium 15.6 (15.6) 0 0 colspan="4" align="center" data-sort-value="" | Not traded. [lower-alpha 108]
104 Rf Rutherfordium 23.2 (23.2) 0 0 colspan="4" align="center" data-sort-value="" | Not traded. [lower-alpha 109]
105 Db Dubnium 29.3 (29.3) 0 0 colspan="4" align="center" data-sort-value="" | Not traded. [lower-alpha 110]
106 Sg Seaborgium 35.0 (35.0) 0 0 colspan="4" align="center" data-sort-value="" | Not traded. [lower-alpha 111]
107 Bh Bohrium 37.1 (37.1) 0 0 colspan="4" align="center" data-sort-value="" | Not traded. [lower-alpha 112]
108 Hs Hassium 40.7 (40.7) 0 0 colspan="4" align="center" data-sort-value="" | Not traded. [lower-alpha 113]
109 Mt Meitnerium 37.4 (37.4) 0 0 colspan="4" align="center" data-sort-value="" | Not traded. [lower-alpha 114]
110 Ds Darmstadtium 34.8 (34.8) 0 0 colspan="4" align="center" data-sort-value="" | Not traded. [lower-alpha 115]
111 Rg Roentgenium 28.7 (28.7) 0 0 colspan="4" align="center" data-sort-value="" | Not traded. [lower-alpha 116]
112 Cn Copernicium 14.0 (14.0) 0 0 colspan="4" align="center" data-sort-value="" | Not traded. [lower-alpha 117]
113 Nh Nihonium 16 (16) 0 0 colspan="4" align="center" data-sort-value="" | Not traded. [lower-alpha 118]
114 Fl Flerovium 9.928 (9.928) 0 0 colspan="4" align="center" data-sort-value="" | Not traded. [lower-alpha 119]
115 Mc Moscovium 13.5 (13.5) 0 0 colspan="4" align="center" data-sort-value="" | Not traded. [lower-alpha 120]
116 Lv Livermorium 12.9 (12.9) 0 0 colspan="4" align="center" data-sort-value="" | Not traded. [lower-alpha 121]
117 Ts Tennessine 7.2 (7.2) 0 0 colspan="4" align="center" data-sort-value="" | Not traded. [lower-alpha 122]
118 Og Oganesson 7 (7) 0 0 colspan="4" align="center" data-sort-value="" | Not traded. [lower-alpha 123]

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ Density for 0 °C, 101.325 kPa.[5] For individual isotopes except deuterium, density of base element is used. Values in parentheses are theoretical predictions.
  2. ↑ Unless otherwise indicated, elements are primordial – they occur naturally, and not through decay.
  3. ↑ Price per volume for 0 °C, 101.325 kPa, pure element. For individual isotopes except deuterium, density of base element is used.
  4. ↑ Prices of hydrogen produced by distributed steam methane reforming, as predicted by H2A Production Model from United States Department of Energy,[11] assuming price of natural gas of US$3/MMBtu (US$10/MWh; US$0.10/m3). Does not include cost of storage and distribution.
  5. ↑ 99.8% pure compressed deuterium gas, in lot size of 850 L (142 g). Also sold by same supplier in the form of heavy water at price of 3940 USD per kg deuterium.[14] In 2016, Iran sold 32 tons of heavy water to United States for 1336 USD per kg deuterium.[15]
  6. ↑ Crude helium sold to non-government users in United States in 2018. In the same year, stockpiles of US government helium were sold on auctions for average price of US$0.00989/L.[17]
  7. ↑ 7.00 7.01 7.02 7.03 7.04 7.05 7.06 7.07 7.08 7.09 7.10 7.11 7.12 7.13 7.14 Spot market price range on 3 February 2020.
  8. ↑ Min. 99% pure.
  9. ↑ Market price on 5 February 2020
  10. ↑ Min. 99% pure.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 11.3 Average price in November 2019. Data from China Petroleum and Chemical Industry Federation.
  12. ↑ In the form of boric acid, price per boron contained. Min. 99% pure.
  13. ↑ In the form of anthracite, price per carbon contained, assuming 90% carbon content. There is a wide variation of price of carbon depending on its form. Lower ranks of coal can be less expensive, for example sub-bituminous coal can cost around US$0.038/kg carbon.[21] Graphite flakes can cost around US$0.9/kg carbon.[22] Price of synthetic industrial diamond for grinding and polishing can range from 1200 to 13300 USD/kg, while cost per weight of large synthetic diamonds for industrial applications can be on the order of million dollars per kilogram.[23]
  14. ↑ As liquid nitrogen.
  15. ↑ As liquid oxygen.
  16. ↑ In the form of anhydrous hydrofluoric acid, price per fluorine contained. Range of prices on Chinese market, week of 1–7 December 2017.
  17. ↑ Approximate European price for buying small quantities.
  18. ↑ Min 99.7% pure industrial grade sodium.
  19. ↑ 19.00 19.01 19.02 19.03 19.04 19.05 19.06 19.07 19.08 19.09 19.10 19.11 19.12 19.13 19.14 19.15 19.16 19.17 19.18 19.19 19.20 19.21 19.22 19.23 19.24 19.25 19.26 19.27 19.28 19.29 Price average for entire year 2019.
  20. ↑ Min 99.9% pure.
  21. ↑ High-grade primary aluminium, at London Metal Exchange warehouse.
  22. ↑ Min. 99.1% pure, max. 0.4% iron, 0.4% aluminium, 0.1% calcium.[30] 10–100 mm.
  23. ↑ Min. 99.9% pure yellow phosphorus.
  24. ↑ As chlorine is manufactured together with sodium hydroxide in chloralkali process, relative demand for one product changes the price for the other. When demand for sodium hydroxide is relatively high, chlorine price can fall to arbitrarily low levels, even to zero.[32]
  25. ↑ Liquid argon supply contract for University of Nevada, Las Vegas.
  26. ↑ Min 98.5% pure industrial grade potassium.
  27. ↑ Blocks of 98.5% pure calcium obtained by reduction process.
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 28.2 28.3 28.4 28.5 28.6 Market price on 4 February 2020
  29. ↑ Min. 99.99% pure.
  30. ↑ Min. 99.6% pure titanium sponge.
  31. ↑ Min. 99.5% pure.
  32. ↑ Min. 99.2% pure.
  33. ↑ Electrolytic manganese, min. 99.7% pure.
  34. ↑ L8-10 pig iron. At Tangshan, China.
  35. ↑ Spot price. Min. 99.8% pure. At London Metal Exchange warehouse.
  36. ↑ Primary nickel. Spot price. Min. 99.8% pure. At London Metal Exchange warehouse.
  37. ↑ Spot price. Grade A.[40] At London Metal Exchange warehouse.
  38. ↑ Min. 99.995% pure special high grade zinc metal. Spot price. At London Metal Exchange warehouse.
  39. ↑ Min. 99.99% pure. Free on Board China.
  40. ↑ Ingot. 50 Ω/cm.
  41. ↑ Min. 99.5% pure.
  42. ↑ Selenium powder, min. 99.9% pure.
  43. ↑ Approximate European price for buying small quantities.
  44. ↑ 100 g ampoules of 99.75% pure rubidium metal.
  45. ↑ Min. 99% pure, Ex Works China.
  46. ↑ Min. 99% pure, Free on Board China.
  47. ↑ Zirconium sponge, min. 99% pure.
  48. ↑ Min. 99.9% pure.
  49. ↑ Min. 99.95% pure.
  50. ↑ 50.0 50.1 50.2 50.3 50.4 50.5 50.6 This element is transient – it occurs only through decay (and in the case of plutonium, also in traces deposited from supernovae onto Earth).
  51. ↑ 51.00 51.01 51.02 51.03 51.04 51.05 51.06 51.07 51.08 51.09 or earlier
  52. ↑ The values reported are present in 85th edition of CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics[46] (and possibly earlier) and remain unchanged to at least 97th edition.[47]
  53. ↑ In the form of medical doses of sodium pertechnetate made on-site in technetium-99m generators. Price per technetium contained. Range of prices for medical doses available in the United States. Technetium-99m has half-life of 6 hours, which limits its ability to be directly traded.
  54. ↑ 99.95% pure.
  55. ↑ 99.95% pure.
  56. ↑ 99.95% pure. London bullion market afternoon fix. In warehouse.
  57. ↑ 99.5% pure. Spot price. At London Metal Exchange warehouse.
  58. ↑ Ingot, min. 99.99% pure.
  59. ↑ Min. 99.99% pure.
  60. ↑ Min. 99.85% pure. Spot price. At London Metal Exchange warehouse.
  61. ↑ Ingot, min. 99.65% pure.
  62. ↑ Min. 99.99% pure. Europe.
  63. ↑ Min 99.5% pure. Spot market price on 2 August 2019.
  64. ↑ Approximate European price for buying small quantities.
  65. ↑ 1 g ampoules of 99.8% pure caesium.
  66. ↑ In the form of chemical-grade barite (barium sulfate) exported from China to United States. Price per barium contained, includes cost, insurance, and freight. Barium sulfate is the primary feedstock for production of barium chemicals.[52]
  67. ↑ Min. 99% pure.
  68. ↑ Min. 99% pure.
  69. ↑ Min. 99% pure, Free on Board China.
  70. ↑ Min. 99% pure, Free on Board China.
  71. ↑ From Periodic Table of the Elements published on website of Radiochemistry Society. There is no further information as to source or specifics of this price.
  72. ↑ Min. 99% pure, Free on Board China.
  73. ↑ Min. 99.999% pure.
  74. ↑ Min. 99.5% pure.
  75. ↑ Min. 99% pure, Free on Board China.
  76. ↑ Min. 99% pure, Free on Board China.
  77. ↑ Min. 99.5% pure.
  78. ↑ Min. 99.5% pure.
  79. ↑ Source lists prices of other rare earth elements (some of which are significantly different than the ones presented in table above):
    • lanthanum – 25 USD/kg
    • cerium – 30 USD/kg
    • praseodymium – 70 USD/kg
    • neodymium – 30 USD/kg
    • samarium – 80 USD/kg
    • europium – 1600 USD/kg
    • gadolinium – 78 USD/kg
    • terbium – 630 USD/kg
    • dysprosium – 120 USD/kg
    • holmium – 350 USD/kg
    • erbium – 180 USD/kg
    • thulium – 3000 USD/kg
    • ytterbium – 484 USD/kg
    • lutetium – 4000 USD/kg
    • yttrium – 96 USD/kg
  80. ↑ Price quotes from Canadian producer, for 1 kg order. 99.5–99.99% purity, Free on Board Vancouver, Canada.
  81. ↑ Min. 99.99% pure.
  82. ↑ Min. 99.99% pure.
  83. ↑ Unwrought hafnium.
  84. ↑ Min. 99.95% pure. Ex Works China.
  85. ↑ Powder, particle size 2–10 μm, 99.7% pure. Free on Board China.
  86. ↑ 99.99% pure.
  87. ↑ 99.95% pure. London bullion market morning fix. In warehouse.
  88. ↑ 99.9% pure. Afternoon London gold fix.
  89. ↑ Average European Union price of 99.99% pure mercury.
  90. ↑ Min. 99.97% pure. Spot price. At London Metal Exchange warehouse.
  91. ↑ Refined bismuth, min. 99.99% pure.
  92. ↑ 92.0 92.1 92.2 92.3 92.4 92.5 92.6 92.7 Available from Oak Ridge National Laboratory as reported in CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics. Price does not include packing costs. The values reported are present in Handbook's 85th edition[46] (and possibly earlier) and remain unchanged to at least 97th edition.[47]
  93. ↑ Only under a tenth of microgram of astatine has ever been produced.[46] Most stable isotope has half-life of 8.1 hours.
  94. ↑ Used in brachytherapy until 1960s,[60] currently radon is not used commercially.[61]
  95. ↑ Only quantities of the order of millions of atoms have been obtained for research.[62] Most stable isotope, 223Fr, has half-life of 22 minutes. Francium has no commercial or medical uses.[61]
  96. ↑ Radium was historically used in the treatment of cancer, but stopped being used when more effective treatments were introduced. As medical facilities had to pay for its disposal, its price can be considered negative.[63]
  97. ↑ As 99.9% pure thorium oxide, price per thorium contained. Free on Board port of entry, duty paid.
  98. ↑ In 1959–1961 Great Britain Atomic Energy Authority produced 125 g of 99.9% pure protactinium at a cost of $500000, giving the cost of 4000000 USD per kg.[46] Periodic Table of Elements at Los Alamos National Laboratory website at one point listed protactinium-231 as available from Oak Ridge National Laboratory at a price of 280000 USD/kg.[65]
  99. ↑ Mainly as triuranium octoxide, price per uranium contained.
  100. ↑ Periodic Table published by Pomona College Chemistry Department lists neptunium-237 as available from Oak Ridge National Laboratory at 660 USD/g plus packing costs.
  101. ↑ Certified reference material sample in the form of plutonium(IV) oxide, price per plutonium-239 contained.
  102. ↑ This source also lists price of Americium-243 as 180 USD/mg, which is much higher than reported in CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics and used in this table.
  103. ↑ Available from Oak Ridge National Laboratory as reported in Nuclear Weapons FAQ.
  104. ↑ Only microgram quantities have ever been produced.[46] Most stable known isotope has half-life of 471.7 days.
  105. ↑ Only tracer amounts have ever been produced.[46][70]: 13.2.6.  Most stable known isotope has half-life of 100.5 days.
  106. ↑ Only around 106 atoms have been produced in experiments.[70]: 13.3.6.  Most stable known isotope has half-life of 51 days.
  107. ↑ Only around 105 atoms have been produced in experiments.[70]: 13.4.6.  Most stable known isotope has half-life of 58 minutes.
  108. ↑ Only around 1000 atoms have been produced in experiments.[70]: 13.5.6.  Most stable known isotope has half-life of 11 hours.
  109. ↑ Only a few thousand atoms have been produced in experiments.[46] Most stable known isotope has half-life of 2.5 hours.
  110. ↑ Atoms of dubnium have been prepared experimentally at a rate of at most one per minute.[71] Most stable known isotope has half-life of 29 hours.
  111. ↑ Only tens of atoms have been produced in experiments.[72] The most stable known isotope has half-life of 14 minutes.
  112. ↑ Only tens of atoms have been produced in experiments.[73] Most stable known isotope has half-life of 1 minute.
  113. ↑ Only tens of atoms have been produced in experiments.[73] Most stable known isotope has half-life of 16 seconds.
  114. ↑ Only produced in experiments on a per-atom basis.[74] Most stable known isotope has half-life of 8 seconds.
  115. ↑ Only produced in experiments on a per-atom basis.[74] Most stable known isotope has half-life of 9.6 seconds.
  116. ↑ Only produced in experiments on a per-atom basis.[74] Most stable known isotope has half-life of 2.1 minutes.
  117. ↑ Only tens of atoms have been produced in experiments.[73] Most stable known isotope has half-life of 29 seconds.
  118. ↑ As of 2015, less than 100 atoms have been produced in experiments.[75] Most stable known isotope has half-life of 8 seconds.
  119. ↑ As of 2015, less than 100 atoms have been produced in experiments.[75] Most stable known isotope has half-life of 1.9 seconds.
  120. ↑ As of 2015, less than 100 atoms have been produced in experiments.[75] Most stable known isotope has half-life of 0.65 seconds.
  121. ↑ As of 2015, less than 100 atoms have been produced in experiments.[75] Most stable known isotope has half-life of 53 ms.
  122. ↑ As of 2015, less than 100 atoms have been produced in experiments.[75] Most stable known isotope has half-life of 51 ms.
  123. ↑ As of 2015, less than ten atoms have been produced in experiments.[75] Most stable known isotope has half-life of 0.7 ms.

References

  1. ↑ Aleklett, K.; Morrissey, D.; Loveland, W.; McGaughey, P.; Seaborg, G. (1981). "Energy dependence of 209Bi fragmentation in relativistic nuclear collisions". Physical Review C 23 (3): 1044. doi:10.1103/PhysRevC.23.1044. Bibcode: 1981PhRvC..23.1044A. 
  2. ↑ Matthews, Robert (December 2, 2001). "The Philosopher's Stone". The Daily Telegraph. https://www.telegraph.co.uk/education/4791069/The-Philosophers-Stone.html. 
  3. ↑ https://www.thoughtco.com/list-of-radioactive-elements-608644
  4. ↑ https://allradioactive.com/bismuth-an-element-you-didnt-know-was-radioactive/
  5. ↑ See: Densities of the elements (data page)
  6. ↑ Antweiler, Werner. "Foreign Currency Units per 1 European Euro, 1999-2018". University of British Columbia. https://fx.sauder.ubc.ca/etc/EURpages.pdf. 
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 Antweiler, Werner. "Database Retrieval System". University of British Columbia. https://fx.sauder.ubc.ca/data.html. 
  8. ↑ "USD / RMB". Shanghai Metals Market. 3 February 2020. https://price.metal.com/spots/Other-Rates/201102250100. 
  9. ↑ Values used for currency conversion:
    • Euro: 1999 – 1.0654 USD/EUR[6]
    • Renminbi: September 2013 – 0.16340 USD/CNY,[7] December 2017 – 0.15159 USD/CNY,[7] November 2019 – 0.14241 USD/CNY,[7] 3 February 2019 – 0.14273 USD/CNY[8]
  10. ↑ Dillich, Sara; Ramsden, Todd; Melaina, Marc (19 September 2012). Satyapal, Sunita. ed. DOE Hydrogen and Fuel Cells Program Record #12024: Hydrogen Production Cost Using Low-Cost Natural Gas (Report). United States Department of Energy. p. 5. https://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/12024_h2_production_cost_natural_gas.pdf. 
  11. ↑ "DOE Hydrogen and Fuel Cells Program: DOE H2A Production Analysis". United States Department of Energy. https://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/h2a_production.html. 
  12. ↑ "Physical Properties for Deuterium". Air Products & Chemicals. https://www.airproducts.com/products/Gases/gas-facts/physical-properties/physical-properties-deuterium.aspx. 
  13. ↑ "DEUTERIUM (D, 99.8%) (D2,99.6%+HD,0.4%)". Cambridge Isotope Laboratories. https://shop.isotope.com/productdetails.aspx?itemno=DLM-408-PK. 
  14. ↑ "DEUTERIUM OXIDE (D, 99%)". Cambridge Isotope Laboratories. https://shop.isotope.com/productdetails.aspx?itemno=DLM-4-99-PK. 
  15. ↑ Stone, Richard (2016-04-22). "U.S. goes shopping in Iran's nuclear bazaar, will buy heavy water for science". Science. doi:10.1126/science.aaf9962. ISSN 0036-8075. https://www.science.org/content/article/us-goes-shopping-iran-s-nuclear-bazaar-will-buy-heavy-water-science. 
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 16.3 16.4 16.5 Mineral Commodity Summaries (Report). United States Geological Survey. 2019. doi:10.3133/70202434. ISBN 978-1-4113-4283-5. 
  17. ↑ Kornbluth, Phil (31 August 2018). "BLM reaps surprising windfall from FY 2019 Crude Helium Auction". https://www.gasworld.com/blm-reaps-windfall-from-fy-2019-helium-auction/2015344.article. 
  18. ↑ "Lithium Metal". Shanghai Metals Market. 3 February 2020. https://price.metal.com/spots/Cobalt-Lithium/201102250219. 
  19. ↑ "Strategic metals prices in February 2020". Institute of Rare Earths and Metals. 5 February 2020. https://en.institut-seltene-erden.de/prices-for-strategic-metals-in-february-2020/. 
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 20.2 20.3 "China Petroleum & Chemical Industry Association: Petrochemical Price: Inorganic Chemical Material". https://www.ceicdata.com/en/china/china-petroleum--chemical-industry-association-petrochemical-price-inorganic-chemical-material. 
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 "Coal prices and outlook". U.S. Energy Information Administration. 12 November 2019. https://www.eia.gov/energyexplained/coal/prices-and-outlook.php. 
  22. ↑ 22.00 22.01 22.02 22.03 22.04 22.05 22.06 22.07 22.08 22.09 22.10 22.11 22.12 22.13 22.14 22.15 22.16 22.17 22.18 22.19 22.20 22.21 22.22 22.23 22.24 22.25 22.26 22.27 22.28 22.29 22.30 (in de) Preismonitor (Report). Federal Institute for Geosciences and Natural Resources. 22 January 2020. https://www.bgr.bund.de/DE/Themen/Min_rohstoffe/Produkte/Preisliste/pm_19_12.pdf. 
  23. ↑ Olson, Donald W. (January 2020). "Diamond, Industrial". Minerals Yearbook 2016 (United States Geological Survey) I: 21.3. doi:10.3133/mybvi. https://www.usgs.gov/centers/nmic/industrial-diamond-statistics-and-information. 
  24. ↑ Salerno, Louis J.; Gaby, J.; Johnson, R.; Kittel, Peter; Marquardt, Eric D. (2002). "Terrestrial Applications of Zero-Boil-Off Cryogen Storage". in Ross, R. G. (in en). Cryocoolers 11. Kluwer Academic Publishers. pp. 810. doi:10.1007/0-306-47112-4_98. ISBN 978-0-306-46567-3. https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007%2F0-306-47112-4_98. 
  25. ↑ Fan, Karen (2007). "Price of Liquid Nitrogen". in Elert, Glenn. The Physics Factbook. https://hypertextbook.com/facts/2007/KarenFan.shtml. 
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 In Cryocoolers 11,[24] cited in Hypertextbook[25]
  27. ↑ "Hydrofluoric Acid Market Remained Largely Stable This Week (Dec 1-7, 2017)". 7 December 2017. https://www.echemi.com/cms/9883.html. 
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 28.2 Häussinger, Peter; Glatthaar, Reinhard; Rhode, Wilhelm; Kick, Helmut; Benkmann, Christian; Weber, Josef; Wunschel, Hans-Jörg; Stenke, Viktor et al. (15 March 2001). Elvers, Barbara. ed (in en). Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. 24 (7th ed.). Wiley-VCH. sec. 9.. doi:10.1002/14356007.a17_485. ISBN 978-3-527-32943-4. 
  29. ↑ "Sodium". Shanghai Metals Market. 3 February 2020. https://price.metal.com/spots/Other-Minor-Metals/201102250465. 
  30. ↑ "Silicon Metal Yunnan (441#)". Shanghai Metals Market. 6 February 2020. https://price.metal.com/spots/Silicon/201102250629. 
  31. ↑ "Liquid Chlorine Demands Goes Up with Substantial Price Hike". Beijing Orient Agribusiness Consultant. 15 October 2013. http://en.cnagri.com/news/insight/20131015/297722.html. 
  32. ↑ Schmittinger, Peter; Florkiewicz, Thomas; Curlin, L. Calvert; Lüke, Benno; Scannell, Robert; Navin, Thomas; Zelfel, Erich; Bartsch, Rüdiger (15 January 2006). Elvers, Barbara. ed (in en). Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry (release 2008, 7th ed.). Wiley-VCH. 2008. sec. 15.. doi:10.1002/14356007.a06_399.pub2. ISBN 978-3-527-31965-7. 
  33. ↑ "Agreement Information 6238". University of Nevada, Las Vegas. 12 August 2011. https://www.unlv.edu/purchasing/agreements6238. 
  34. ↑ "Potassium". Shanghai Metals Market. 3 February 2020. https://price.metal.com/spots/Other-Minor-Metals/201102250280. 
  35. ↑ "Calcium 98.5%". Shanghai Metals Market. 3 February 2020. https://price.metal.com/spots/Other-Minor-Metals/201102250322. 
  36. ↑ 36.0 36.1 36.2 36.3 36.4 36.5 36.6 "Rare earth prices in February 2020". Institute of Rare Earths and Metals. 4 February 2020. https://en.institut-seltene-erden.de/rare-earth-prices-in-february-2020/. 
  37. ↑ "Titanium Sponge". Shanghai Metals Market. 3 February 2020. https://price.metal.com/spots/Other-Minor-Metals/201211080001. 
  38. ↑ "Vanadium". Shanghai Metals Market. 3 February 2020. https://price.metal.com/spots/Other-Minor-Metals/201102250299. 
  39. ↑ "Tang Shan(Pig Iron)". Shanghai Metals Market. 3 February 2020. https://price.metal.com/spots/Pig-Iron/201808140002. 
  40. ↑ "LME Copper Physical". https://www.lme.com/en-GB/Metals/Non-ferrous/Copper/Physical. 
  41. ↑ "Germanium Ingot". Shanghai Metals Market. 3 February 2020. https://price.metal.com/spots/Indium-Germanium-Gallium/201102250090. 
  42. ↑ "Arsenic Metal". Shanghai Metals Market. 3 February 2020. https://price.metal.com/spots/Other-Minor-Metals/201102250593. 
  43. ↑ 43.0 43.1 "Current prices of strategic metals". Institute of Rare Earths and Metals. July 2019. https://en.institut-seltene-erden.de/current-prices-of-strategic-metals/. 
  44. ↑ "Zirconium Sponge". Shanghai Metals Market. 3 February 2020. https://price.metal.com/spots/Other-Minor-Metals/201102250232. 
  45. ↑ "Niobium". Shanghai Metals Market. 3 February 2020. https://price.metal.com/spots/Other-Minor-Metals/201102250606. 
  46. ↑ 46.0 46.1 46.2 46.3 46.4 46.5 46.6 Hammond, C. R. (2004). "The Elements". in Lide, David R.. Properties of the Elements and Inorganic Compounds (85th ed.). CRC Press. pp. 4-3–4-36. ISBN 978-0849304859. 
  47. ↑ 47.0 47.1 Hammond, C. R. (2016). "The Elements". in Haynes, W. M.. Properties of the Elements and Inorganic Compounds (97th ed.). CRC Press. pp. 4-3–4-42. ISBN 978-1498754286. 
  48. ↑ National Research Council (2009). "6. Molybdenum-99/Technetium-99m Production Costs". Medical Isotope Production without Highly Enriched Uranium. Washington, D.C.: The National Academies Press. doi:10.17226/12569. ISBN 978-0-309-13039-4. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK215132/. 
  49. ↑ "Ruthenium". Shanghai Metals Market. 3 February 2020. https://price.metal.com/spots/Precious-Metals/201102250083. 
  50. ↑ Greenfield, Michael (2 August 2019). "Iodine prices hold firm although sellers' report higher deal values". https://www.indmin.com/Article/3887037/Iodine/Iodine-prices-hold-firm-although-sellers-report-higher-deal-values.html. 
  51. ↑ McRae, Michele E. (December 2019). "Barite". Minerals Yearbook 2016 (United States Geological Survey) I: 9.3. doi:10.3133/mybvi. https://www.usgs.gov/centers/nmic/barite-statistics-and-information. 
  52. ↑ Kresse, Robert; Baudis, Ulrich; Jäger, Paul; Riechers, H. Hermann; Wagner, Heinz; Winkler, Jochen; Wolf, Hans Uwe (15 July 2007). Elvers, Barbara. ed (in en). Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. 4 (7th ed.). Wiley-VCH. 2011. sec. 1.7.. doi:10.1002/14356007.a03_325.pub2. ISBN 978-3-527-32943-4. 
  53. ↑ "Lanthanum". Shanghai Metals Market. 3 February 2020. https://price.metal.com/spots/Rare-Earth/201102250302. 
  54. ↑ "Cerium". Shanghai Metals Market. 3 February 2020. https://price.metal.com/spots/Rare-Earth/201102250153. 
  55. ↑ "Promethium". 2003. https://www.radiochemistry.org/periodictable/elements/61.html. 
  56. ↑ Castor, Stephen B.; Hedrick, James B. (2006). "Rare Earth Elements". in Kogel, Jessica Elzea. Industrial Minerals & Rocks: Commodities, Markets, and Uses (7th ed.). Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration. p. 785. ISBN 978-0-87335-233-8. OCLC 62805047. 
  57. ↑ "Rhenium". Shanghai Metals Market. 3 February 2020. https://price.metal.com/spots/Other-Minor-Metals/201102250036. 
  58. ↑ "Element Sales" (in EN). https://www.elementsales.com/pl_element.htm. 
  59. ↑ "Iridium price | Umicore Precious Metals Management" (in en). https://pmm.umicore.com/en/prices/iridium/. 
  60. ↑ "Seeds (ca. 1940s - 1960s)". Oak Ridge Associated Universities. 2021. https://www.orau.org/health-physics-museum/collection/brachytherapy/seeds.html. 
  61. ↑ 61.0 61.1 Keller, Cornelius; Wolf, Walter; Shani, Jashovam (15 October 2011). Elvers, Barbara. ed (in en). Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. 31 (7th ed.). Wiley-VCH. sec. 1.5.. doi:10.1002/14356007.o22_o15. ISBN 978-3-527-32943-4. 
  62. ↑ Orozco, Luis A. (2014-09-30). Project Closeout Report Francium trapping facility at TRIUMF (Report). United States Department of Energy. doi:10.2172/1214938. 
  63. ↑ Lubenau, J. O.; Mould, R. F. (2009). "The roller coaster price of radium". IAEA. https://inis.iaea.org/search/searchsinglerecord.aspx?recordsFor=SingleRecord&RN=40106016. 
  64. ↑ Gambogi, Joseph (August 2016). "Thorium". Minerals Yearbook 2012 (United States Geological Survey) I: 76.3. doi:10.3133/mybvi. https://www.usgs.gov/centers/nmic/thorium-statistics-and-information. 
  65. ↑ "Periodic Table of Elements: Protactinium". Los Alamos National Laboratory. https://periodic.lanl.gov/91.shtml. 
  66. ↑ 2018 Uranium Marketing Annual Report (Report). U.S. Energy Information Administration. May 2019. p. 1. https://www.eia.gov/uranium/marketing/. 
  67. ↑ "Neptunium: The Facts". Chemistry Department of Pomona College. https://www.chemistry.pomona.edu/chemistry/periodic_table/elements/neptunium/the%20facts.htm. 
  68. ↑ "Plutonium Certified Reference Materials Price Lists" (in en-US). U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Scientific and Technical Information. 20 June 2019. https://science.osti.gov/nbl/Certified-Reference-Materials/Prices-and-Certificates/Plutonium-CRMs. 
  69. ↑ Sublette, Carey (20 February 1999). "Nuclear Weapons Frequently Asked Questions: Section 6.0 Nuclear Materials". https://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Nwfaq/Nfaq6.html. 
  70. ↑ 70.0 70.1 70.2 70.3 Silva, Robert J. (2006). "Fermium, Mendelevium, Nobelium, and Lawrencium". in Morss, Lester R.; Edelstein, Norman M.; Fuger, Jean et al. (in en). The Chemistry of the Actinide and Transactinide Elements (3 ed.). Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands. pp. 1621–1651. doi:10.1007/1-4020-3598-5_13. ISBN 978-1-4020-3555-5. OCLC 262685616. 
  71. ↑ Öhrström, Lars (October 2016). "Brief encounters with dubnium". Nature Chemistry 8 (10): 986. doi:10.1038/nchem.2610. ISSN 1755-4330. PMID 27657876. Bibcode: 2016NatCh...8..986O. 
  72. ↑ Even, J.; Yakushev, A.; Düllmann, C. E.; Haba, H.; Asai, M.; Sato, T. K.; Brand, H.; Di Nitto, A. et al. (19 September 2014). "Synthesis and detection of a seaborgium carbonyl complex" (in en). Science 345 (6203): 1493. doi:10.1126/science.1255720. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 25237098. Bibcode: 2014Sci...345.1491E. 
  73. ↑ 73.0 73.1 73.2 Gäggeler, H. W. (2005). "Chemical properties of transactinides". The European Physical Journal A 25 (S1): 583–587. doi:10.1140/epjad/i2005-06-202-2. ISSN 1434-6001. Bibcode: 2005EPJAS..25..583G. https://boris.unibe.ch/117633/1/10050_2005_Article_506202.pdf. 
  74. ↑ 74.0 74.1 74.2 Le Naour, Claire; Hoffman, Darleane C.; Trubert, Didier (2014). Schädel, Matthias; Shaughnessy, Dawn. eds (in en). Fundamental and Experimental Aspects of Single Atom-at-a-Time Chemistry. Springer-Verlag. p. 241. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-37466-1. ISBN 978-3-642-37465-4. https://www.springer.com/gp/book/9783642374654. 
  75. ↑ 75.0 75.1 75.2 75.3 75.4 75.5 Roberto, J. B.; Alexander, Charles W.; Boll, Rose Ann; Burns, J. D.; Ezold, Julie G.; Felker, Leslie Kevin; Hogle, Susan L.; Rykaczewski, Krzysztof Piotr (December 2015). "Actinide targets for the synthesis of super-heavy elements" (in en). Nuclear Physics A 944: Table 1. doi:10.1016/j.nuclphysa.2015.06.009. Bibcode: 2015NuPhA.944...99R. https://www.osti.gov/pages/biblio/1240523. 



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