Physics:Quantum dark matter problem

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Short description: Open problem concerning the unknown physical nature of dark matter

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The quantum dark matter problem is the open problem of identifying the physical nature of dark matter and explaining how it fits into quantum physics, particle physics, and cosmology. Dark matter is inferred from gravitational effects that cannot be explained by visible matter alone, including galaxy rotation curves, gravitational lensing, galaxy-cluster dynamics, the cosmic microwave background, and the formation of large-scale cosmic structure.

In the standard cosmological model, ordinary matter accounts for only a small fraction of the total mass-energy content of the universe, while dark matter forms most of the matter component. The Planck mission results support a universe made of approximately ordinary matter, dark matter, and dark energy, with dark matter making up about five-sixths of all matter.[1][2]

The problem is quantum-relevant because most leading dark-matter candidates are hypothetical particles or quantum fields beyond the Standard Model. Examples include weakly interacting massive particles, axions, sterile neutrinos, ultralight bosons, and hidden-sector particles. Another possibility is that dark matter is made of primordial black holes, which would connect the problem to early-universe quantum fluctuations and gravitational collapse.[3][4]

The dark matter problem asks what invisible quantum matter or compact objects produce the gravitational effects seen in galaxies and the cosmic web.

Basic idea

Dark matter is called "dark" because it does not emit, absorb, or reflect enough electromagnetic radiation to be observed directly with light. It is called "matter" because it behaves gravitationally like a matter component: its density dilutes as the universe expands, unlike radiation or dark energy.

The central question is not whether there is missing gravitational mass. Many independent observations indicate that there is. The harder question is what the missing component is made of, how it was produced in the early universe, and why it has not yet been detected directly in laboratory experiments.

In most modern models, dark matter is non-baryonic. This means it is not mainly made of ordinary protons, neutrons, atoms, planets, faint stars, or gas clouds. Big Bang nucleosynthesis, cosmic microwave background data, and microlensing searches strongly constrain how much ordinary baryonic matter can be hidden in compact objects.[5][6]

Observational evidence

The evidence for dark matter is not based on one observation. It comes from several independent gravitational phenomena.

Galaxy rotation curves

Spiral galaxies rotate differently from what would be expected if their visible stars and gas contained nearly all their mass. If most of the mass were concentrated in the luminous central region, orbital velocities should decrease with distance from the galactic center. Instead, many galaxy rotation curves remain approximately flat at large radii.

This behavior suggests that galaxies are embedded in extended halos of unseen matter. Vera Rubin, Kent Ford, and other observers helped establish galaxy rotation curves as one of the major lines of evidence for dark matter.[7][8][9]

Galaxy clusters

Galaxy clusters provide another major line of evidence. Their masses can be estimated from galaxy velocities, hot X-ray gas, and gravitational lensing. These methods generally indicate more mass than is visible in stars and gas.[10]

The Bullet Cluster is a particularly important example. It is a collision of two galaxy clusters in which the hot gas, seen in X-rays, is separated from the main gravitational mass inferred from lensing. This separation is difficult to explain using ordinary visible matter alone and is often cited as direct empirical evidence for dark matter.[11]

Gravitational lensing

Gravitational lensing measures mass by the bending of light. It does not require the mass to shine. Maps of weak and strong lensing around galaxies and clusters often reveal mass distributions that exceed or differ from the distribution of visible matter.

Lensing is especially important because it measures gravity directly. It can therefore test whether the missing mass follows visible matter or forms a separate dark component.[12]

Cosmic microwave background

The cosmic microwave background contains small temperature anisotropies that encode the composition of the early universe. Ordinary matter and dark matter affect the acoustic peaks in different ways because ordinary matter interacts with radiation, while dark matter mainly contributes gravitationally.

The observed pattern of CMB anisotropies is well fitted by the Lambda-CDM model, which includes cold dark matter.[13][2]

Structure formation

Dark matter helps explain how galaxies and clusters formed. Ordinary matter in the early universe was coupled to radiation and could not collapse efficiently before recombination. Dark matter, which did not interact electromagnetically, could begin forming gravitational potential wells earlier.

These potential wells helped ordinary matter fall in later, allowing large-scale structure to form within the age of the universe. This is one reason cold dark matter is a central part of the standard cosmological model.

Candidate particles

The identity of dark matter is unknown. If dark matter is made of particles, those particles must be stable or extremely long-lived, mostly invisible to electromagnetic radiation, and abundant enough to explain cosmological observations.

Weakly interacting massive particles

Weakly interacting massive particles, or WIMPs, were long among the most studied candidates. A WIMP is usually understood as a heavy particle that interacts through gravity and possibly through weak-scale interactions. Many WIMP models produce the right relic abundance through thermal freeze-out in the early universe.[14]

Direct detection experiments have searched for nuclear recoils produced by WIMP scattering. Experiments such as LUX, XENON, PandaX, and LZ have placed increasingly strong limits but have not produced a confirmed WIMP detection.[15][16]

Axions

Axions are light hypothetical particles originally proposed to solve the strong CP problem in quantum chromodynamics. They are also natural dark-matter candidates because coherent oscillations of the axion field can behave like cold dark matter.[17][18][19]

Axion searches often use strong magnetic fields to convert axions into photons. The Axion Dark Matter Experiment has reached sensitivity to important axion-model parameter ranges.[20]

Sterile neutrinos and light dark matter

Sterile neutrinos are hypothetical neutral fermions that would not interact through the ordinary weak interaction. Depending on their mass and production mechanism, they could behave as warm dark matter.

Other possibilities include light dark-sector particles, fuzzy dark matter, dark photons, and self-interacting dark matter. These models are motivated partly by the lack of confirmed WIMP detections and partly by small-scale structure questions in galaxies.[21]

Primordial black holes

Primordial black holes are hypothetical black holes formed in the early universe rather than from stellar collapse. They could have formed from unusually dense regions produced by early-universe fluctuations. Because they would have formed before ordinary stars, they are not ordinary baryonic objects in the usual stellar sense and can be considered dark-matter candidates.[4][22]

Primordial black holes are constrained by microlensing, cosmic microwave background data, gravitational waves, wide binaries, and other observations. Some mass windows are strongly constrained, but the possibility that primordial black holes contribute to some or all dark matter remains actively studied.[23][24]

Detection strategies

Dark matter searches use several complementary methods.

Direct detection experiments look for rare collisions between dark matter particles and atomic nuclei or electrons in a detector. These experiments are usually placed deep underground to reduce cosmic-ray backgrounds.

Indirect detection searches look for products of dark matter annihilation or decay, such as gamma rays, positrons, antiprotons, or neutrinos. The Galactic Center, dwarf galaxies, and galaxy clusters are common targets.[25]

Collider searches attempt to produce dark matter particles in high-energy collisions. At the Large Hadron Collider, dark matter would usually appear indirectly as missing energy and momentum, often accompanied by visible particles or jets.[26]

Astrophysical probes use stars, black holes, gravitational waves, and lensing maps to constrain dark matter. For example, ultralight bosons may be constrained by black-hole superradiance, while axions may be constrained by stellar cooling.[27][28]

Modified gravity

A minority view is that the observations attributed to dark matter may instead indicate that gravity itself must be modified on galactic or cosmological scales. Modified Newtonian dynamics, relativistic MOND-like theories, entropic gravity, and other approaches attempt to explain some dark-matter phenomena without new particles.

Modified gravity models can reproduce some observations, especially aspects of galaxy rotation curves. However, it is difficult for such models to explain all the evidence at once, including the cosmic microwave background, gravitational lensing, galaxy clusters, and large-scale structure.[29][30]

Why it remains unsolved

The dark matter problem remains unsolved because the gravitational evidence is strong, but the underlying substance has not been directly identified. The most conservative explanation is some form of non-baryonic matter, probably involving particles or fields beyond the Standard Model. Yet decades of experimental searches have not produced a confirmed detection.

The problem therefore sits at the boundary between cosmology, quantum field theory, particle physics, astrophysics, and gravity. A solution would reveal either a new particle or field, a new compact-object population, a modification of gravity, or some combination of these.

Status

Dark matter remains one of the central open problems in modern physics. The Lambda-CDM model successfully describes a wide range of cosmological observations, but the microscopic identity of dark matter is still unknown.

The main current possibilities include WIMPs, axions, sterile neutrinos, ultralight bosons, hidden-sector particles, self-interacting dark matter, and primordial black holes. No candidate has yet been confirmed.

See also

Table of contents (184 articles)

Index

Full contents

1. Foundations (11)↑
  1. Physics:Quantum basics
  2. Physics:Quantum Postulates
  3. Physics:Quantum Hilbert space
  4. Physics:Quantum Observables and operators
  5. Physics:Quantum mechanics
  6. Physics:Quantum mechanics measurements
  7. Physics:Quantum state
  8. Physics:Quantum system
  9. Physics:Quantum superposition
  10. Physics:Quantum probability
  11. Physics:Quantum Mathematical Foundations of Quantum Theory
2. Conceptual and interpretations (13)↑
  1. Physics:Quantum Interpretations of quantum mechanics
  2. Physics:Quantum Wave–particle duality
  3. Physics:Quantum Complementarity principle
  4. Physics:Quantum Uncertainty principle
  5. Physics:Quantum Measurement problem
  6. Physics:Quantum Bell's theorem
  7. Physics:Quantum Hidden variable theory
  8. Physics:Quantum nonlocality
  9. Physics:Quantum contextuality
  10. Physics:Quantum Darwinism
  11. Physics:Quantum A Spooky Action at a Distance
  12. Physics:Quantum A Walk Through the Universe
  13. Physics:Quantum The Secret of Cohesion and How Waves Hold Matter Together
  14. Physics:Quantum measurement problem
3. Mathematical structure and systems (13)↑
  1. Physics:Quantum Density matrix
  2. Physics:Quantum Exactly solvable quantum systems
  3. Physics:Quantum Formulas Collection
  4. Physics:Quantum A Matter Of Size
  5. Physics:Quantum Symmetry in quantum mechanics
  6. Physics:Quantum Angular momentum operator
  7. Physics:Quantum Runge–Lenz vector
  8. Physics:Quantum Approximation Methods
  9. Physics:Quantum Matter Elements and Particles
  10. Physics:Quantum Dirac equation
  11. Physics:Quantum Klein–Gordon equation
  12. Physics:Quantum pendulum
  13. Physics:Quantum configuration space
4. Atomic and spectroscopy (14)↑
    Quantum atomic structure and spectroscopy: orbitals, energy levels, and emission and absorption spectra.
  1. Physics:Quantum Atomic structure and spectroscopy
  2. Physics:Quantum Hydrogen atom
  3. Physics:Quantum number
  4. Physics:Quantum Multi-electron atoms
  5. Physics:Quantum Fine structure
  6. Physics:Quantum Hyperfine structure
  7. Physics:Quantum Isotopic shift
  8. Physics:Quantum defect
  9. Physics:Quantum Zeeman effect
  10. Physics:Quantum Stark effect
  11. Physics:Quantum Spectral lines and series
  12. Physics:Quantum Selection rules
  13. Physics:Quantum Fermi's golden rule
  14. Physics:Quantum beats
5. Wavefunctions and modes (9)↑
    A quantum wavefunction showing probability amplitude in space; the square of its magnitude gives the probability density.
  1. Physics:Quantum Wavefunction
  2. Physics:Quantum Superposition principle
  3. Physics:Quantum Eigenstates and eigenvalues
  4. Physics:Quantum Boundary conditions and quantization
  5. Physics:Quantum Standing waves and modes
  6. Physics:Quantum Normal modes and field quantization
  7. Physics:Number of independent spatial modes in a spherical volume
  8. Physics:Quantum Density of states
  9. Physics:Quantum carpet
6. Quantum dynamics and evolution (17)↑
  1. Physics:Quantum Time evolution
  2. Physics:Quantum Schrödinger equation
  3. Physics:Quantum Time-dependent Schrödinger equation
  4. Physics:Quantum Stationary states
  5. Physics:Quantum Perturbation theory
  6. Physics:Quantum Time-dependent perturbation theory
  7. Physics:Quantum Adiabatic theorem
  8. Physics:Quantum Scattering theory
  9. Physics:Quantum S-matrix
  10. Physics:Quantum tunnelling
  11. Physics:Quantum speed limit
  12. Physics:Quantum revival
  13. Physics:Quantum reflection
  14. Physics:Quantum oscillations
  15. Physics:Quantum jump
  16. Physics:Quantum boomerang effect
  17. Physics:Quantum chaos
7. Measurement and information (9)↑
  1. Physics:Quantum Measurement theory
  2. Physics:Quantum Measurement operators
  3. Physics:Quantum Projective measurement
  4. Physics:Quantum POVM
  5. Physics:Quantum Weak measurement
  6. Physics:Quantum Measurement collapse
  7. Physics:Quantum entanglement
  8. Physics:Quantum Zeno effect
  9. Physics:Quantum limit
8. Quantum information and computing (10)↑
  1. Physics:Quantum information theory
  2. Physics:Quantum Qubit
  3. Physics:Quantum Entanglement
  4. Physics:Quantum Gates and circuits
  5. Physics:Quantum Computing Algorithms in the NISQ Era
  6. Physics:Quantum Noisy Qubits
  7. Physics:Quantum random access code
  8. Physics:Quantum pseudo-telepathy
  9. Physics:Quantum network
  10. Physics:Quantum money
9. Quantum optics and experiments (5)↑
    Experimental quantum physics: qubits, dilution refrigerators, quantum communication, and laboratory systems.
  1. Physics:Quantum Nonlinear King plot anomaly in calcium isotope spectroscopy
  2. Physics:Quantum optics beam splitter experiments
  3. Physics:Quantum Ultra fast lasers
  4. Physics:Quantum Experimental quantum physics
  5. Physics:Quantum optics
    6. Template:Quantum optics operators
10. Open quantum systems (9)↑
  1. Physics:Quantum Open systems
  2. Physics:Quantum Master equation
  3. Physics:Quantum Lindblad equation
  4. Physics:Quantum Decoherence
  5. Physics:Quantum dissipation
  6. Physics:Quantum Markov semigroup
  7. Physics:Quantum Markovian dynamics
  8. Physics:Quantum Non-Markovian dynamics
  9. Physics:Quantum Trajectories
11. Quantum field theory (20)↑
    Structural dependency map of quantum field theory.
  1. Physics:Quantum field theory (QFT) basics
  2. Physics:Quantum field theory (QFT) core
  3. Physics:Quantum Fields and Particles
  4. Physics:Quantum Second quantization
  5. Physics:Quantum Harmonic Oscillator field modes
  6. Physics:Quantum Creation and annihilation operators
  7. Physics:Quantum vacuum fluctuations
  8. Physics:Quantum Propagators in quantum field theory
  9. Physics:Quantum Feynman diagrams
  10. Physics:Quantum Path integral formulation
  11. Physics:Quantum Renormalization in field theory
  12. Physics:Quantum Renormalization group
  13. Physics:Quantum Field Theory Gauge symmetry
  14. Physics:Quantum Non-Abelian gauge theory
  15. Physics:Quantum Electrodynamics (QED)
  16. Physics:Quantum chromodynamics (QCD)
  17. Physics:Quantum Electroweak theory
  18. Physics:Quantum Standard Model
  19. Physics:Quantum triviality
  20. Physics:Quantum confinement problem
12. Statistical mechanics and kinetic theory (9)↑
  1. Physics:Quantum Statistical mechanics
  2. Physics:Quantum Partition function
  3. Physics:Quantum Distribution functions
  4. Physics:Quantum Liouville equation
  5. Physics:Quantum Kinetic theory
  6. Physics:Quantum Boltzmann equation
  7. Physics:Quantum BBGKY hierarchy
  8. Physics:Quantum Relaxation and thermalization
  9. Physics:Quantum Thermodynamics
13. Condensed matter and solid-state physics (13)↑
  1. Physics:Quantum Band structure
  2. Physics:Quantum Fermi surfaces
  3. Physics:Quantum Semiconductor physics
  4. Physics:Quantum Phonons
  5. Physics:Quantum Electron-phonon interaction
  6. Physics:Quantum Superconductivity
  7. Physics:Quantum Topological phases of matter
  8. Physics:Quantum well
  9. Physics:Quantum spin liquid
  10. Physics:Quantum spin Hall effect
  11. Physics:Quantum phase transition
  12. Physics:Quantum critical point
  13. Physics:Quantum dot
14. Plasma and fusion physics (8)↑
    Conceptual illustration of plasma physics in a fusion context, showing magnetically confined ionized gas in a tokamak and the collective behavior governed by electromagnetic fields and transport processes.
  1. Physics:Quantum Fusion reactions and Lawson criterion
  2. Physics:Quantum Plasma (fusion context)
  3. Physics:Quantum Magnetic confinement fusion
  4. Physics:Quantum Inertial confinement fusion
  5. Physics:Quantum Plasma instabilities and turbulence
  6. Physics:Quantum Tokamak core plasma
  7. Physics:Quantum Tokamak edge physics and recycling asymmetries
  8. Physics:Quantum Stellarator
15. Timeline (8)↑
  1. Physics:Quantum mechanics/Timeline
  2. Physics:Quantum mechanics/Timeline/Pre-quantum era
  3. Physics:Quantum mechanics/Timeline/Old quantum theory
  4. Physics:Quantum mechanics/Timeline/Modern quantum mechanics
  5. Physics:Quantum mechanics/Timeline/Quantum field theory era
  6. Physics:Quantum mechanics/Timeline/Quantum information era
  7. Physics:Quantum mechanics/Timeline/Quantum technology era
  8. Physics:Quantum mechanics/Timeline/Quiz
16. Advanced and frontier topics (16)↑
  1. Physics:Quantum topology
  2. Physics:Quantum battery
  3. Physics:Quantum Supersymmetry
  4. Physics:Quantum Black hole thermodynamics
  5. Physics:Quantum Holographic principle
  6. Physics:Quantum gravity
  7. Physics:Quantum De Sitter invariant special relativity
  8. Physics:Quantum Doubly special relativity
  9. Physics:Quantum arithmetic geometry
  10. Physics:Quantum unsolved problems
  11. Physics:Quantum Yang-Mills mass gap
  12. Physics:Quantum gravity problem
  13. Physics:Quantum black hole information paradox
  14. Physics:Quantum dark matter problem
  15. Physics:Quantum neutrino mass problem
  16. Physics:Quantum matter-antimatter asymmetry problem

References

  1. ↑ "Planck Mission Brings Universe into Sharp Focus". 21 March 2013. http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/planck/news/planck20130321.html. 
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Ade, P. A. R. (2016). "Planck 2015 results. XIII. Cosmological parameters". Astronomy & Astrophysics 594 (13): A13. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201525830. Bibcode: 2016A&A...594A..13P. 
  3. ↑ Bertone, Gianfranco; Hooper, Dan; Silk, Joseph (2005). "Particle dark matter: Evidence, candidates, and constraints". Physics Reports 405 (5–6): 279–390. doi:10.1016/j.physrep.2004.08.031. Bibcode: 2005PhR...405..279B. 
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Carr, B. J.; Clesse, S.; García-Bellido, J.; Hawkins, M. R. S.; Kühnel, F. (26 February 2024). "Observational evidence for primordial black holes: A positivist perspective". Physics Reports 1054: 1–68. doi:10.1016/j.physrep.2023.11.005. ISSN 0370-1573. Bibcode: 2024PhR..1054....1C. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0370157323003976. 
  5. ↑ Copi, C. J.; Schramm, D. N.; Turner, M. S. (1995). "Big-Bang nucleosynthesis and the baryon density of the universe". Science 267 (5195): 192–199. doi:10.1126/science.7809624. PMID 7809624. Bibcode: 1995Sci...267..192C. https://cds.cern.ch/record/265576. 
  6. ↑ Tisserand, P. (2007). "Limits on the Macho content of the Galactic Halo from the EROS-2 Survey of the Magellanic Clouds". Astronomy and Astrophysics 469 (2): 387–404. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20066017. Bibcode: 2007A&A...469..387T. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/41714676. 
  7. ↑ Rubin, V. C.; Ford, W. K. Jr. (February 1970). "Rotation of the Andromeda nebula from a spectroscopic survey of emission regions". The Astrophysical Journal 159: 379–403. doi:10.1086/150317. Bibcode: 1970ApJ...159..379R. 
  8. ↑ Roberts, Morton S.; Whitehurst, Robert N. (October 1975). "The rotation curve and geometry of M31 at large galactocentric distances". The Astrophysical Journal 201: 327–346. doi:10.1086/153889. Bibcode: 1975ApJ...201..327R. 
  9. ↑ Salucci, P. (2019). "The distribution of dark matter in galaxies". The Astronomy and Astrophysics Review 27 (1). doi:10.1007/s00159-018-0113-1. Bibcode: 2019A&ARv..27....2S. 
  10. ↑ Allen, Steven W.; Evrard, August E.; Mantz, Adam B. (2011). "Cosmological Parameters from Clusters of Galaxies". Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics 49 (1): 409–470. doi:10.1146/annurev-astro-081710-102514. Bibcode: 2011ARA&A..49..409A. 
  11. ↑ Clowe, Douglas (2006). "A Direct Empirical Proof of the Existence of Dark Matter". The Astrophysical Journal Letters 648 (2): L109–L113. doi:10.1086/508162. Bibcode: 2006ApJ...648L.109C. 
  12. ↑ Refregier, A. (2003). "Weak gravitational lensing by large-scale structure". Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics 41 (1): 645–668. doi:10.1146/annurev.astro.41.111302.102207. Bibcode: 2003ARA&A..41..645R. 
  13. ↑ Hinshaw, G. (2009). "Five-year Wilkinson microwave anisotropy probe observations: Data processing, sky maps, and basic results". The Astrophysical Journal Supplement 180 (2): 225–245. doi:10.1088/0067-0049/180/2/225. Bibcode: 2009ApJS..180..225H. 
  14. ↑ Jungman, Gerard; Kamionkowski, Marc; Griest, Kim (1996). "Supersymmetric dark matter". Physics Reports 267 (5–6): 195–373. doi:10.1016/0370-1573(95)00058-5. Bibcode: 1996PhR...267..195J. 
  15. ↑ Akerib, D. S. (2017). "Results from a Search for Dark Matter in the Complete LUX Exposure". Physical Review Letters 118 (2). doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.118.021303. PMID 28128598. Bibcode: 2017PhRvL.118b1303A. 
  16. ↑ Aprile, E. (2018). "Dark Matter Search Results from a One Ton-Year Exposure of XENON1T". Physical Review Letters 121 (11). doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.121.111302. PMID 30265108. Bibcode: 2018PhRvL.121k1302A. 
  17. ↑ Peccei, R. D. (2008). "The Strong CP Problem and Axions". in Kuster, Markus; Raffelt, Georg; Beltrán, Berta. Axions: Theory, Cosmology, and Experimental Searches. Lecture Notes in Physics. 741. pp. 3–17. doi:10.1007/978-3-540-73518-2_1. ISBN 978-3-540-73517-5. 
  18. ↑ Preskill, J.; Wise, M.; Wilczek, F. (6 January 1983). "Cosmology of the invisible axion". Physics Letters B 120 (1–3): 127–132. doi:10.1016/0370-2693(83)90637-8. Bibcode: 1983PhLB..120..127P. http://www.theory.caltech.edu/~preskill/pubs/preskill-1983-axion.pdf. 
  19. ↑ Abbott, L.; Sikivie, P. (1983). "A cosmological bound on the invisible axion". Physics Letters B 120 (1–3): 133–136. doi:10.1016/0370-2693(83)90638-X. Bibcode: 1983PhLB..120..133A. 
  20. ↑ Braine, T. (2020). "Extended Search for the Invisible Axion with the Axion Dark Matter Experiment". Physical Review Letters 124 (10). doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.124.101303. PMID 32216421. Bibcode: 2020PhRvL.124j1303B. 
  21. ↑ Bergstrom, L. (2000). "Non-baryonic dark matter: Observational evidence and detection methods". Reports on Progress in Physics 63 (5): 793–841. doi:10.1088/0034-4885/63/5/2r3. Bibcode: 2000RPPh...63..793B. 
  22. ↑ Bird, Simeon; Albert, Andrea; Dawson, Will; Ali-Haïmoud, Yacine; Coogan, Adam (1 August 2023). "Primordial black hole dark matter". Physics of the Dark Universe 41. doi:10.1016/j.dark.2023.101231. Bibcode: 2023PDU....4101231B. 
  23. ↑ Carr, Bernard; Kühnel, Florian (2 May 2022). "Primordial black holes as dark matter candidates". SciPost Physics Lecture Notes. doi:10.21468/SciPostPhysLectNotes.48. https://scipost.org/SciPostPhysLectNotes.48/pdf. 
  24. ↑ Green, Anne M.; Kavanagh, Bradley J. (2021). "Primordial Black Holes as a Dark Matter Candidate". Journal of Physics G: Nuclear and Particle Physics 48 (4): 043001. doi:10.1088/1361-6471/abc534. Bibcode: 2021JPhG...48d3001G. 
  25. ↑ Bertone, G.; Merritt, D. (2005). "Dark Matter Dynamics and Indirect Detection". Modern Physics Letters A 20 (14): 1021–1036. doi:10.1142/S0217732305017391. Bibcode: 2005MPLA...20.1021B. 
  26. ↑ Kane, G.; Watson, S. (2008). "Dark Matter and LHC: what is the Connection?". Modern Physics Letters A 23 (26): 2103–2123. doi:10.1142/S0217732308028314. Bibcode: 2008MPLA...23.2103K. 
  27. ↑ Raffelt, Georg G. (1996). Stars as laboratories for fundamental physics: the astrophysics of neutrinos, axions, and other weakly interacting particles. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-70272-8. https://wwwth.mpp.mpg.de/members/raffelt/mypapers/Stars.pdf. 
  28. ↑ Cardoso, Vitor; Dias, Óscar J. C.; Hartnett, Gavin S.; Middleton, Matthew; Pani, Paolo; Santos, Nuno M. (2018). "Constraining the mass of dark photons and axion-like particles through black-hole superradiance". Journal of Cosmology and Astroparticle Physics 2018 (3): 043. doi:10.1088/1475-7516/2018/03/043. Bibcode: 2018JCAP...03..043C. 
  29. ↑ Hossenfelder, Sabine; McGaugh, Stacy S. (August 2018). "Is dark matter real?". Scientific American 319 (2): 36–43. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0818-36. PMID 30020902. Bibcode: 2018SciAm.319b..36H. https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/is-dark-matter-real/. 
  30. ↑ Carroll, Sean (9 May 2012). "Dark matter vs. modified gravity: A trialogue". http://www.preposterousuniverse.com/blog/2012/05/09/dark-matter-vs-modified-gravity-a-trialogue/. 

Further reading


Author: Harold Foppele





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