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[[File:In Thought ... (3020466221).jpg|thumb|A thinking chimpanzee]]
The following [[Outline (list)|outline]] is provided as an overview of and topical guide to thought (thinking):

'''[[Philosophy:Thought|Thought]]''' (also called '''thinking''') &ndash; [[Mental process|mental process]] in which beings form psychological associations and models of the world.  Thinking is manipulating [[Information|information]], as when we form [[Philosophy:Concept|concept]]s, engage in [[Problem solving|problem solving]], [[Philosophy:Reason|reason]] and make [[Choice|decision]]s.  Thought, the act of thinking, produces more thoughts.  A thought may be an idea, an image, a sound or even control an emotional feeling.


== Nature of thought ==
Thought (or thinking) can be described as all of the following:

* An activity taking place in a:
** [[Biology:Brain|brain]] &ndash; organ that serves as the center of the nervous system in all vertebrate and most invertebrate animals (only a few invertebrates such as sponges, jellyfish, adult sea squirts and starfish do not have a brain). It is the physical structure associated with the mind.
*** [[Philosophy:Mind|mind]] &ndash; abstract entity with the [[Cognition|cognitive]] faculties of [[Philosophy:Consciousness|consciousness]], [[Perception|perception]], [[Philosophy:Thought|thinking]], [[Philosophy:Judgement|judgement]], and [[Memory|memory]]. Having a mind is a characteristic of living creatures.<ref name="dict">Dictionary.com, "mind": "1. (in a human or other <u>conscious being</u>) the element, part, substance, or process that reasons, thinks, feels, wills, perceives, judges, etc.: <u>the processes of the mind</u>. 2. Psychology. the totality of <u>conscious and unconscious mental processes</u> and activities. 3. intellect or understanding, as distinguished from the faculties of feeling and willing; <u>intelligence</u>."</ref><ref>Google definition, "mind": "The <u>element</u> of a person that enables them to be aware of the world and their experiences, to think, and to feel; the faculty of consciousness." [https://www.google.com/search?q=Mind#hl=en&sclient=psy-ab&q=definition+of+mind&oq=definition+of+mind]</ref> Activities taking place in a mind are called [[Mental process|mental process]]es or cognitive functions.
** [[Computer|computer]] (see {{section link||Machine thought}} below) &ndash; general purpose device that can be programmed to carry out a set of arithmetic or logical operations automatically. Since a sequence of operations (an [[Algorithm|algorithm]]) can be readily changed, the computer can solve more than one kind of problem.
* An activity of [[Philosophy:Intelligence|intelligence]] &ndash; intelligence is the [[Philosophy:Intellect|intellect]]ual process of  which is marked by [[Cognition|cognition]], [[Philosophy:Motivation|motivation]], and [[Philosophy:Self-awareness|self-awareness]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Tirri, Nokelainen|title=Measuring Multiple Intelligences and Moral Sensitivities in Education|date=January 2012|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-94-6091-758-5|url=https://www.springer.com/gp/book/9789460917585}}</ref> Through intelligence, living creatures possess the cognitive abilities to learn, form concepts, understand, apply logic, and reason, including the capacities to recognize patterns, comprehend ideas, plan, problem solve, make decisions, retaining, and use language to communicate. Intelligence enables living creatures to experience and think.
** A type of [[Mental process|mental process]] &ndash; something that individuals can do with their minds. Mental processes include perception, memory, thinking, volition, and emotion. Sometimes the term ''cognitive function'' is used instead.
* A biological adaptation mechanism<ref name=Nikolic2014>{{cite web|url=http://www.danko-nikolic.com/?smd_process_download=1&download_id=724|title=Practopoiesis: Or how life fosters a mind. arXiv:1402.5332 [q-bio.NC].|author=Danko Nikolić|date=2014}}</ref>
** Neural Network explanation: Thoughts are created by the summation of neural outputs and connections of which vectors form. These vectors describe the magnitude and direction of the connections and action between neurons. The graphs of these vectors can represent a network of neurons whose connections fire in different ways over time as synapses fire.  These large thought vectors in the brain cause other vectors of activity.  For example: An input from the environment is received by the neural network.  The network changes the magnitude and outputs of individual neurons.  The altered network outputs the symbols needed to make sense of the input.

== Types of thoughts ==

{{columns-list|

* {{annotated link|Philosophy:Concept}}
** {{annotated link|Philosophy:Abstract and concrete|Abstract concept}}
** {{annotated link|Philosophy:Abstract and concrete|Concrete concept}}

* {{annotated link|Conjecture}}

* Decision (''see [[Decision-making]]'')
* {{annotated link|Philosophy:Definition}}
* {{annotated link|Philosophy:Explanation}}
* {{annotated link|Hypothesis}}
* {{annotated link|Philosophy:Idea}}
* {{annotated link|Logical assertion}}
* {{annotated link|Mental image}}
* Percept / [[Perception]]
* {{annotated link|Premise}}
* {{annotated link|Proposition}}
* {{annotated link|Philosophy:Syllogism}}
* {{annotated link|Theory}}
* {{annotated link|Thought experiment}}
}}

=== Content of thoughts ===
{{columns-list|
* {{annotated link|Philosophy:Argument}}
* {{annotated link|Philosophy:Belief}}
* {{annotated link|Biology:Communication}}
* {{annotated link|Conceptual model}}
* {{annotated link|Data}}
* {{annotated link|Information}}
* {{annotated link|Philosophy:Knowledge}}
* {{annotated link|Mental model}}
* {{annotated link|Philosophy:Schema (psychology)|Schema}}
* {{annotated link|Philosophy:Self-concept}}
}}

== Types of thought (thinking) ==
Listed below are types of thought, also known as thinking processes.

=== Animal thought ===

=== Human thought ===
 

{{columns-list|

* {{annotated link|Philosophy:Analysis}}
* {{annotated link|Philosophy:Awareness}}
** {{annotated link|Estimation}}
* {{annotated link|Categorization}}
* {{annotated link|Medicine:Cognitive restructuring}}
* {{annotated link|Computational thinking}}
* {{annotated link|Convergent thinking}}
* {{annotated link|Philosophy:Counterfactual thinking}}
* {{annotated link|Critical thinking}}
* {{annotated link|Data thinking}}
* {{annotated link|Evaluation}}
* {{annotated link|Philosophy:Habit}}
* {{annotated link|Integrative thinking}}
* {{annotated link|Philosophy:Introspection}}
* {{annotated link|Learning}} and [[Memory|memory]]
* {{annotated link|Parallel thinking}}
* {{annotated link|Prediction}}
* {{annotated link|Social:Strategic thinking}}
* {{annotated link|Philosophy:Visual thinking}}
}}

==== Classifications of thought ====
* {{annotated link|Bloom's taxonomy}}
* {{annotated link|Philosophy:Dual process theory}}
* {{annotated link|Philosophy:Fluid and crystallized intelligence}}
* {{annotated link|Philosophy:Higher-order thinking}}
* {{annotated link|Philosophy:Theory of multiple intelligences}}
* {{annotated link|Philosophy:Three-stratum theory}}

==== Creative processes ====
{{columns-list|
* {{annotated link|Social:Brainstorming}}
* {{annotated link|Cognitive module}}
* {{annotated link|Philosophy:Creativity}}
* {{annotated link|Creativity techniques}}
* {{annotated link|Design thinking}}

* {{annotated link|Divergent thinking}}
* {{annotated link|Imagination}}
* {{annotated link|Lateral thinking}}
* {{annotated link|Philosophy:Noogony}}
* {{annotated link|Social:Six Thinking Hats}}
* {{annotated link|Philosophy:Speech act}}
* {{annotated link|Philosophy:Stream of consciousness (psychology)|Stream of consciousness}}
* {{annotated link|Thinking outside the box}}
}}

==== Decision-making ====
{{Main|Decision-making}}
{{columns-list|
* {{annotated link|Choice}}
* {{annotated link|Cybernetics}}
* {{annotated link|Decision theory}}
* {{annotated link|Philosophy:Executive functions}}
* {{annotated link|Philosophy:Judgement}}
* {{annotated link|Engineering:Planning}}
* {{annotated link|Finance:Rational choice theory}}
* {{annotated link|Philosophy:Speech act}}
* {{annotated link|Philosophy:Value judgment}}
}}

==== Erroneous thinking ====
{{columns-list|
* {{annotated link|Philosophy:Cognitive bias}}
* {{annotated link|Cognitive distortion}}s
* {{annotated link|Philosophy:Dysrationalia}}
* {{annotated link|Philosophy:Emotional reasoning}}
* {{annotated link|Philosophy:Exaggeration}}
* {{annotated link|Philosophy:Foolishness}}
* {{annotated link|Fallacy|Fallacies}} (see also List of fallacies)
** {{annotated link|Philosophy:Fallacies of definition}}
** {{annotated link|Informal fallacy|Logical fallacy}}
* {{annotated link|Groupthink}}
* {{annotated link|Irrationality}}
* {{annotated link|Philosophy:Magical thinking}}
* {{annotated link|Philosophy:Minimisation (psychology)}}
* {{annotated link|Motivated reasoning}}
* {{annotated link|Philosophy:Rationalization (psychology)}}
* {{annotated link|Philosophy:Rhetoric}}
* {{annotated link|Philosophy:Straight and Crooked Thinking}} (book)
* {{annotated link|Philosophy:Target fixation}}
* {{annotated link|Philosophy:Wishful thinking}}
}}

==== Emotional intelligence (emotionally based thinking) ====
 
{{columns-list|
* {{annotated link|Medicine:Affect logic}}
* {{annotated link|Curiosity}}
* {{annotated link|Finance:Elaboration likelihood model}}
* {{annotated link|Philosophy:Emotion}}s and [[Philosophy:Feeling|feeling]]s
* {{annotated link|Biology:Emotion and memory}}
* {{annotated link|Social:Emotional contagion}}
* {{annotated link|Philosophy:Empathy}}
* {{annotated link|Epiphany (feeling)}}
* {{annotated link|Philosophy:Motivation}}
* {{annotated link|Philosophy:Propositional attitude}}
* {{annotated link|Philosophy:Rhetoric}}
* {{annotated link|Philosophy:Self-esteem}}
* {{annotated link|Philosophy:Self-determination theory}}
* {{annotated link|Philosophy:Social cognition}}
* {{annotated link|Philosophy:Will}}
* {{annotated link|Philosophy:Volition (psychology)}}
}}

==== Problem solving ====
{{annotated link|Problem solving}}
{{columns-list|
* Problem solving steps
** {{annotated link|Problem finding}}
** {{annotated link|Problem shaping}}
* {{annotated link|Philosophy:Process of elimination}}
* {{annotated link|Systems thinking}}
** {{annotated link|Critical systems thinking}}
* Problem-solving strategy &ndash; steps one would use to find the problem(s) that are in the way to getting to one’s own goal. Some would refer to this as the ‘problem-solving cycle’ (Bransford & Stein, 1993). In this cycle one will recognize the problem, define the problem, develop a strategy to fix the problem, organize the knowledge of the problem cycle, figure-out the resources at the user's disposal, monitor one's progress, and evaluate the solution for accuracy.
** {{annotated link|Philosophy:Abstraction}} &ndash;  solving the problem in a model of the system before applying it to the real system
** {{annotated link|Analogy}} &ndash;  using a solution that solves an analogous problem
** {{annotated link|Social:Brainstorming}} &ndash;  (especially among groups of people) suggesting a large number of solutions or ideas and combining and developing them until an optimum solution is found
** {{annotated link|Philosophy:Analysis|Divide and conquer}} &ndash;  breaking down a large, complex problem into smaller, solvable problems
** {{annotated link|Lateral thinking}} &ndash;  approaching solutions indirectly and creatively
*** {{annotated link|Parallel thinking}}
*** {{annotated link|Social:Six Thinking Hats}}
** {{annotated link|Means-ends analysis}} &ndash;  choosing an action at each step to move closer to the goal
** {{annotated link|Morphological analysis (problem-solving)|Morphological analysis}} &ndash;  assessing the output and interactions of an entire system
** {{annotated link|Proof (truth)|Proof}} &ndash;  try to prove that the problem cannot be solved. The point where the proof fails will be the starting point for solving it
** {{annotated link|Reduction (complexity)|Reduction}} &ndash;  transforming the problem into another problem for which solutions exist
** {{annotated link|Research}} &ndash;  employing existing ideas or adapting existing solutions to similar problems
** {{annotated link|Root cause analysis}} &ndash;  identifying the cause of a problem
** {{annotated link|Thinking outside the box}}
** {{annotated link|Troubleshooting}} &ndash;
* Problem-solving methodology
** {{annotated link|5 Whys}}
** {{annotated link|Decision cycle}}
** {{annotated link|How to Solve It}}
** {{annotated link|Philosophy:Learning cycle}}
** {{annotated link|OODA loop}} (observe, orient, decide, and act)
** {{annotated link|PDCA}} (plan–do–check–act)
** {{annotated link|Problem structuring methods}}
** {{annotated link|TRIZ}} (in [[Social:Russian language|Russian]]: ''Teoriya Resheniya Izobretatelskikh Zadatch'', "theory of solving inventor's problems")
** {{annotated link|Philosophy:Vertical thinking}}
}}

==== Reasoning ====
 
{{columns-list|
* {{annotated link|Philosophy:Abstraction|Abstract thinking}}
* {{annotated link|Adaptive reasoning}}
* {{annotated link|Analogy|Analogical reasoning}}
* {{annotated link|Philosophy:Analytic reasoning}}
* {{annotated link|Case-based reasoning}}
* {{annotated link|Critical thinking}}
* {{annotated link|Defeasible reasoning}} &ndash; from authority: if ''p'' then (defeasibly) ''q''
* {{annotated link|Diagrammatic reasoning}} &ndash; reasoning by means of visual representations. Visualizing concepts and ideas with of diagrams and imagery instead of by linguistic or algebraic means
* {{annotated link|Philosophy:Emotional reasoning}} (erroneous) &ndash; a cognitive distortion in which emotion overpowers reason, to the point the subject is unwilling or unable to accept the reality of a situation because of it.
* {{annotated link|Heuristic}}s
* {{annotated link|History:Historical thinking}}
* {{annotated link|Lateral thinking}}
* {{annotated link|Logic}} / [[Philosophy:Logical reasoning|Logical reasoning]]
** {{annotated link|Abductive reasoning}} &ndash; from data and theory:  ''p'' and ''q'' are correlated, and ''q'' is sufficient for ''p''; hence, if ''p'' then (abducibly) ''q'' as cause
** {{annotated link|Deductive reasoning}} &ndash; from meaning postulate, axiom, or contingent assertion: if ''p'' then ''q'' (i.e., ''q'' or ''not-p'')
** {{annotated link|Philosophy:Inductive reasoning}} &ndash; theory formation; from data, coherence, simplicity, and confirmation: (inducibly) "if ''p'' then ''q''"; hence, if ''p'' then (deducibly-but-revisably) ''q''
** {{annotated link|Philosophy:Inference}}
* {{annotated link|Philosophy:Moral reasoning}} &ndash; process in which an individual tries to determine the difference between what is right and what is wrong in a personal situation by using logic.<ref>{{cite web|title=Definition of: Moral Reasoning|url=http://www.alleydog.com/glossary/definition.php?term=Moral%20Reasoning|access-date=21 July 2011}}</ref>  This is an important and often daily process that people use in an attempt to do the right thing.  Every day for instance, people are faced with the dilemma of whether or not to lie in a given situation.  People make this decision by reasoning the morality of the action and weighing that against its consequences.
* {{annotated link|Proportional reasoning}} &ndash; using "the concept of proportions when analyzing and solving a mathematical situation."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://quizlet.com/dictionary/proportional-reasoning/|title=Dictionary Search › proportional reasoning - Quizlet}}</ref>
* {{annotated link|Social:Strategic thinking}}
* {{annotated link|Philosophy:Verbal reasoning}} &ndash; understanding and reasoning using concepts framed in words
* {{annotated link|Philosophy:Visual reasoning}} &ndash; process of manipulating one's mental image of an object in order to reach a certain conclusion – for example, mentally constructing a piece of machinery to experiment with different mechanisms
}}

=== Machine thought ===
{{columns-list|colwidth=30em|
* [[Computational creativity|Artificial creativity]]
* [[Automated reasoning]]
** [[Commonsense reasoning]]
** [[Model-based reasoning]]
** [[Philosophy:Opportunistic reasoning|Opportunistic reasoning]]
** [[Philosophy:Qualitative reasoning|Qualitative reasoning]] &ndash; automated reasoning about continuous aspects of the physical world, such as space, time, and quantity, for the purpose of problem solving and planning using qualitative rather than quantitative information
** [[Spatial–temporal reasoning]]
** Textual case based reasoning
* [[Computer program]] (recorded machine thought instructions)
* Human-based computation
}}

=== Organizational thought ===
Organizational thought (thinking by organizations)

* {{annotated link|Management information system}}
* {{annotated link|Organization:Organizational communication}}
* Organizational planning
** {{annotated link|Social:Strategic planning}}
* {{annotated link|Social:Strategic thinking}}
* {{annotated link|Systems theory}}

== Aspects of the thinker ==
Aspects of the thinker which may affect (help or hamper) his or her thinking:

{{columns-list|
* {{annotated link|Philosophy:Power (social and political)|Ability}}
* {{annotated link|Social:Aptitude}}
* {{annotated link|Philosophy:Cognitive style}}
* {{annotated link|Philosophy:Common sense}}
* {{annotated link|Philosophy:Experience}}
* {{annotated link|Biology:Instinct}}
* {{annotated link|Philosophy:Intelligence}}
* {{annotated link|Philosophy:Metacognition}}
* {{annotated link|Mental image}}
* {{annotated link|Philosophy:Mindset}}
* {{annotated link|Preference}}
* {{annotated link|Philosophy:Rationality}}
* {{annotated link|Philosophy:Skill}}
* {{annotated link|Philosophy:Wisdom}}
}}

== Properties of thought ==
{{columns-list|
* {{annotated link|Accuracy and precision}}
* {{annotated link|Philosophy:Dogma}}
* {{annotated link|Physics:Effectiveness}}
* {{annotated link|Chemistry:Efficacy}}
* {{annotated link|Physics:Efficiency}}
* {{annotated link|Philosophy:Freethought}}
* {{annotated link|Philosophy:Frugality}}
* {{annotated link|Philosophy:Meaning (linguistics)|Meaning}}
* {{annotated link|Philosophy:Prudence}}
* {{annotated link|Philosophy:Rights}}
* {{annotated link|Skepticism}}
* {{annotated link|Soundness}}
* {{annotated link|Philosophy:Validity (logic)|Validity}}
* {{annotated link|Philosophy:Value theory}}
* {{annotated link|Philosophy:Wrongdoing}}
}}

== Fields that study thought ==
{{columns-list|
* {{annotated link|Social:Linguistics}}
* {{annotated link|Philosophy:Philosophy}}
** {{annotated link|Logic}}
** {{annotated link|Philosophy:Philosophy of mind}}
* {{annotated link|Biology:Neuroscience}}
** {{annotated link|Cognitive science}}
** {{annotated link|Social:Psychology}}
*** {{annotated link|Philosophy:Cognitive psychology}}
*** {{annotated link|Social:Social psychology}}
** {{annotated link|Biology:Psychiatry}}
* {{annotated link|Mathematics}}
* {{annotated link|Operations research}}
}}

== Thought tools and thought research ==
* {{annotated link|Cognitive model}}
* {{annotated link|Engineering:Design tool}}
* {{annotated link|Diagram}}
** {{annotated link|Argument map}}
** {{annotated link|Concept map}}
** {{annotated link|Mind map}}
* {{annotated link|DSRP}}
* {{annotated link|Intelligence amplification}}
* {{annotated link|Social:Language}}
* {{annotated link|Philosophy:Meditation}}
* {{annotated link|Social:Six Thinking Hats}}
* {{annotated link|Synectics}}

== History of thinking ==
 
* {{annotated link|History of artificial intelligence}}
* {{annotated link|Philosophy:History of the concept of creativity}}
* {{annotated link|Philosophy:History of ideas}}
* {{annotated link|Philosophy:History of logic}}

== Nootropics (cognitive enhancers and smart drugs) ==
{{annotated link|Chemistry:Nootropic}}

Substances that improve mental performance:

{{columns-list|
* {{annotated link|Chemistry:5-Hydroxytryptophan|aka=5-HTP}}
* {{annotated link|Chemistry:Adrafinil}} (Olmifon)
* {{annotated link|Chemistry:Aniracetam}}
* {{annotated link|Biology:Withania somnifera|aka=Ashwagandha}}
* {{annotated link|Biology:Bacopa monnieri}} (Brahmi)
* {{annotated link|Biology:Caffeine}}
* {{annotated link|Chemistry:Acetylcarnitine|aka=Acetyl-<small>L</small>-carnitine}} (ALCAR)
* {{annotated link|Chemistry:Meclofenoxate|aka=Centrophenoxine}}
* {{annotated link|Chemistry:Choline}}
* {{annotated link|Biology:Cholinergic}}
* {{annotated link|Chemistry:Chromium}}
* {{annotated link|Chemistry:Coenzyme Q10}}
* {{annotated link|Chemistry:Creatine}}
* {{annotated link|Chemistry:Dimethylethanolamine|abbreviation=DMAE}}
* {{annotated link|Chemistry:Ergoloid|Ergoloid mesylates}} (Hydergine)
* {{annotated link|Chemistry:Huperzine A}}
* {{annotated link|Chemistry:Idebenone}}
* {{annotated link|Chemistry:Inositol}}
* {{annotated link|Chemistry:L-DOPA}}
* {{annotated link|Biology:Lecithin}}
* {{annotated link|Biology:Lemon balm}} (Melissa Officinalis)
* {{annotated link|Chemistry:Lipoic acid}}
* {{annotated link|Chemistry:Methylphenidate}} (Ritalin)
* {{annotated link|Chemistry:Modafinil}} (Provigil)
* {{annotated link|Chemistry:Oxiracetam}}
* {{annotated link|Chemistry:Phenibut}}
* {{annotated link|Chemistry:Phenylalanine}}
* {{annotated link|Chemistry:Piracetam}} (Nootropil)
* {{annotated link|Chemistry:Pramiracetam}}
* {{annotated link|Chemistry:Pyritinol}} (Enerbol)
* {{annotated link|Biology:Rhodiola rosea}}
* {{annotated link|Biology:Selegiline|Selegiline (Deprenyl)}}
* {{annotated link|Biology:Eleutherococcus senticosus|aka=Siberian ginseng}} 
* {{annotated link|Biology:Hypericum perforatum|aka=St John's Wort}}
* {{annotated link|Biology:Sutherlandia frutescens}}
* {{annotated link|Chemistry:Theanine}}
* {{annotated link|Biology:Theophylline}}
* {{annotated link|Chemistry:Tryptophan}}
* {{annotated link|Chemistry:Tyrosine}}
* {{annotated link|Biology:Vasopressin}}
* {{annotated link|Chemistry:Vinpocetine}}
* {{annotated link|Chemistry:Vitamin B3|Vitamin B<sub>3</sub>|aka=Nicotinic acid}}
* {{annotated link|Chemistry:Pantothenic acid|aka=|Vitamin B<sub>5</sub>}}
* {{annotated link|Biology:Vitamin B6|Vitamin B<sub>6</sub>}}
* {{annotated link|Biology:Vitamin B12|Vitamin B<sub>12</sub>}}
* {{annotated link|Biology:Vitamin C}}
* {{annotated link|Biology:Pausinystalia johimbe|aka=Yohimbe}}
}}

=== Organizational thinking concepts ===

{{columns-list|
* {{annotated link|Biology:Communication}}
* {{annotated link|Finance:Concept testing}}
* {{annotated link|Evaporating Cloud}}
* {{annotated link|Finance:The Fifth Discipline|Fifth discipline}}
* {{annotated link|Groupthink}}
* {{annotated link|Social:Collective intelligence|aka=Group synergy}}
* {{annotated link|Social:Ideas bank}}
* {{annotated link|Learning organization}}
* {{annotated link|Operations research}}
* {{annotated link|Organization:Organization development}}
* {{annotated link|Organization:Organizational communication}}
* {{annotated link|Organization:Organizational culture}}
* {{annotated link|Philosophy:Organizational ethics}}
* {{annotated link|Organization:Organizational learning}}
* {{annotated link|Philosophy:Rhetoric}}
* {{annotated link|Biology:Smart mob}}
* {{annotated link|Theory of constraints}}
}}

== Teaching methods and skills ==

{{columns-list|
* {{annotated link|Social:Active learning}}
* {{annotated link|Philosophy:Classical conditioning}}
* {{annotated link|Philosophy:Discipline}}
* {{annotated link|Philosophy:Learning theory (education)}}
* {{annotated link|Social:Mentorship}}
* {{annotated link|Philosophy:Operant conditioning}}
* {{annotated link|Social:Problem-based learning}}
* {{annotated link|Philosophy:Punishment}}
* {{annotated link|Philosophy:Reinforcement}}
}}

== Awards related to thinking ==
=== Awards for acts of genius ===

== Organizations ==
* Associations pertaining to thought
** {{annotated link|Organization:Association for Automated Reasoning}}
** {{annotated link|Philosophy:Association for Informal Logic and Critical Thinking}}

== Media ==
=== Publications ===
==== Books ====
* ''[[Handbook of Automated Reasoning]]''

==== Periodicals ====
* ''[[Journal of Automated Reasoning]]''
* ''[[Journal of Formalized Reasoning]]''
* ''Positive Thinking Magazine''

=== Television programs ===
* Thinkabout (U.S. TV series)

== Persons associated with thinking ==
=== People notable for their extraordinary ability to think ===
* [[Philosophy:Genius|Genius]]es
** List of Nobel laureates ''(see also Nobel Prize)''
* [[History:Polymath|Polymath]]s

=== Scientists in fields that study thought ===
* [[Biography:List of cognitive scientists|List of cognitive scientists]]

=== Scholars of thinking ===
* Aaron T. Beck
* Barry K. Beyer [https://www.goodreads.com/author/list/266659.Barry_K_Beyer]
* Edward de Bono
* David D. Burns &ndash; author of ''Feeling Good: The New Mood Therapy'' and ''The Feeling Good Handbook''. Burns popularized Aaron T. Beck's [[Medicine:Cognitive behavioral therapy|cognitive behavioral therapy]] (CBT) when his book became a best seller during the 1980s.<ref name=nacbt>{{cite web|title=History of Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy|url=http://www.nacbt.org/historyofcbt.htm|publisher=National Association of Cognitive-Behavioral Therapists|access-date=March 8, 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101126050512/http://www.nacbt.org/historyofcbt.htm|archive-date=November 26, 2010}}</ref>
* Tony Buzan
* [[Biography:Noam Chomsky|Noam Chomsky]]
* Albert Ellis
* [[Biography:Howard Gardner|Howard Gardner]]
* [[Biography:Eliyahu M. Goldratt|Eliyahu M. Goldratt]]
* [[Biography:Douglas Hofstadter|Douglas Hofstadter]]
* [[Biography:Ray Kurzweil|Ray Kurzweil]]
* [[Biography:Marvin Minsky|Marvin Minsky]]
* Richard W. Paul [https://www.goodreads.com/author/list/223972.Richard_Paul]
* [[Biography:Steven Pinker|Steven Pinker]]
* [[Biography:Baruch Spinoza|Baruch Spinoza]]
* [[Biography:Robert Sternberg|Robert Sternberg]]

== Related concepts ==
* [[Cognition]]
* [[Philosophy:Knowledge|Knowledge]]
* Multiple intelligences
* Strategy
* [[Structure]]
* [[Philosophy:System|System]]

=== Awareness and perception ===
{{Main|Philosophy:Awareness|Perception}}

{{columns-list|colwidth=30em|
* [[Philosophy:Attention|Attention]]
* [[Cognition]]
* [[Philosophy:Cognitive dissonance|Cognitive dissonance]]
* [[Cognitive map]]
* [[Philosophy:Concept|Concept]]
* [[Concept map]]
* [[Conceptual framework]]
* [[Conceptual model]]
* [[Philosophy:Consciousness|Consciousness]]
* [[Philosophy:Domain knowledge|Domain knowledge]]
* Heuristics in judgment and decision making
* [[Information]]
* [[Philosophy:Intelligence|Intelligence]]
* Intuition
* [[Philosophy:Knowledge|Knowledge]]
* Memory suppression
* [[Mental model]]
* [[Philosophy:Metaknowledge|Metaknowledge]] (knowledge about knowledge)
* [[Mind map]]
* Mindfulness (psychology)
* Percept
* [[Perception]]
* [[Philosophy:Self-awareness|Self-awareness]]
* [[Philosophy:Self-concept|Self-concept]]
* [[Philosophy:Self-consciousness|Self-consciousness]]
* [[Philosophy:Self-knowledge (psychology)|Self-knowledge]]
* [[Philosophy:Self-realization|Self-realization]]
* [[Philosophy:Sentience|Sentience]]
* Situational awareness
* [[Philosophy:Understanding|Understanding]]
}}
=== Learning and memory ===


{{columns-list|colwidth=30em|
* [[Social:Autodidacticism|Autodidacticism]]
* [[Biology:Biofeedback|Biofeedback]]
* [[Philosophy:Cognitive dissonance|Cognitive dissonance]]
* [[Dual-coding theory]]
* [[Philosophy:Eidetic memory|Eidetic memory]] (total recall)
* [[Biology:Emotion and memory|Emotion and memory]]
* [[Philosophy:Empiricism|Empiricism]]
* [[Feedback]]
* Feedback loop
* Free association
* [[Heuristic]]s
* [[Medicine:Hyperthymesia|Hyperthymesia]]
* [[Unsolved:Hypnosis|Hypnosis]]
* [[Hypothesis]]
* [[Philosophy:Imitation|Imitation]]
* [[Inquiry]]
* [[Knowledge management]]
* [[Social:Language acquisition|Language acquisition]]
* Memorization
* [[Biology:Memory and aging|Memory and aging]]
* [[Philosophy:Memory inhibition|Memory inhibition]]
* [[Memory-prediction framework]]
* Method of loci
* [[Biology:Mnemonic|Mnemonic]]s
* [[Philosophy:Neurofeedback|Neurofeedback]]
* [[Unsolved:Neuro-linguistic programming|Neuro-linguistic programming]] (NLP)
* [[Observation]]
* [[Pattern recognition]]
* Question
* Reading
* Recall
* [[Biology:Recall (memory)|Recognition]]
* Recollection (recall)
* [[Scientific method]]
* [[Philosophy:Self-perception theory|Self-perception theory]]
* Speed reading
* Study Skills
* [[Biology:Subvocalization|Subvocalization]]
* [[Social:Transfer of learning|Transfer of learning]]
* [[Social:Transfer of training|Transfer of training]]
* [[Visual learning]]
}}

== See also ==

* [[Artificial intelligence]]
** [[Outline of artificial intelligence]]
* [[Philosophy:Human intelligence|Human intelligence]]
** [[Philosophy:Outline of human intelligence|Outline of human intelligence]]
* [[Biology:Neuroscience|Neuroscience]]
** [[Biology:Outline of neuroscience|Outline of neuroscience]]
* [[Social:Psychology|Psychology]]
** [[Philosophy:Gestalt psychology|Gestalt psychology]] (theory of mind)
** [[Biology:Outline of psychology|Outline of psychology]]

'''Miscellaneous'''

{{columns-list|colwidth=15em|
* [[Biology:Adaptation|Adaptation]]
* Association of Ideas
* [[Philosophy:Attacking Faulty Reasoning|Attacking Faulty Reasoning]]
* Autistic thinking (see [[Medicine:Glossary of psychiatry|Glossary of psychiatry]])
* [[Backcasting]]
* [[Causality]]
* [[Philosophy:Chunking (psychology)|Chunking (psychology)]]
* [[Cognition]]
* [[Philosophy:Cognitive biology|Cognitive biology]]
* [[Cognitive computing]]
* [[Medicine:Cognitive deficit|Cognitive deficit]]
* [[Philosophy:Cognitive dissonance|Cognitive dissonance]]
* [[Philosophy:Cognitive linguistics|Cognitive linguistics]]
* [[Cognitive module]]
* [[Philosophy:Cognitive psychology|Cognitive psychology]]
* [[Cognitive science]]
* Cognitive space
* [[Philosophy:Cognitive style|Cognitive style]]
* Communicating
* [[Philosophy:Comparative cognition|Comparative cognition]]
* Concept-formation
* [[Conceptual metaphor]]
* Conceptual thinking
* [[Philosophy:Conscience|Conscience]]
* [[Philosophy:Consciousness|Consciousness]]
* Constructive criticism
* Conversation
* [[Philosophy:Criticism|Criticism]]
* Dereistic thinking (see [[Medicine:Glossary of psychiatry|Glossary of psychiatry]])
* [[Design]] (and re-design)
* [[Philosophy:Dialectic|Dialectic]]
* [[Philosophy:Discovery (observation)|Discovery (observation)]]
* [[Philosophy:Distinction|Distinction]]
* [[Distributed cognition]]
* [[Distributed multi-agent reasoning system]]
* [[Educational assessment]]
* [[Philosophy:Emotion|Emotion]]
* [[Philosophy:Empirical knowledge|Empirical knowledge]]
* [[Philosophy:Empiricism|Empiricism]]
* [[Philosophy:Epistemology|Epistemology]]
* Evidential reasoning (disambiguation)
* [[Evidential reasoning approach]]
* [[Philosophy:Expectation (epistemic)|Expectation (epistemic)]]
* Experimentation
* [[Philosophy:Explanation|Explanation]]
* [[Extension (semantics)]]
* [[Finance:Facilitation (business)|Facilitation (business)]]
* Fantasy
* [[Philosophy:Fideism|Fideism]]
* Figure Reasoning Test
* [[Fuzzy logic]]
* [[Fuzzy-trace theory]]
* Generalizing
* [[Philosophy:Gestalt psychology|Gestalt psychology]]
* [[Social:Group cognition|Group cognition]]
* Heuristics in judgment and decision making
* [[Holism]]
* [[Medicine:Human multitasking|Human multitasking]]
* Human self-reflection
* [[Medicine:Hypervigilance|Hypervigilance]]
* [[Identification (information)]]
* [[Inductive reasoning aptitude]]
* [[Philosophy:Intellect|Intellect]]
* Intelligence (trait)
* [[Philosophy:Intentionality|Intentionality]]
* Inventing
* Judging
* [[Social:Kinesthetic learning|Kinesthetic learning]]
* [[Knowledge management]]
* [[Knowledge representation and reasoning]]
* [[Social:Language|Language]]
* [[Social:Linguistics|Linguistics]]
* [[Biography:List of cognitive scientists|List of cognitive scientists]]
* List of creative thought processes
* List of emotional intelligence topics
* List of emotions
* List of organizational thought processes
* List of perception-related topics
* Mathematics Mechanization and Automated Reasoning Platform
* Mental function
* [[Philosophy:Mental model theory of reasoning|Mental model theory of reasoning]]
* Meta-analytic thinking
* Meta-ethical
* Methodic doubt
* [[Philosophy:Mimesis|Mimesis]]
* [[Philosophy:Mind|Mind]]
* [[Models of scientific inquiry]]
* [[Morphological analysis (problem-solving)]]
* [[Natural language processing]]
* Nonduality
* [[Philosophy:Nous|Nous]]
* [[Pattern matching]]
* [[Social:Personality psychology|Personality psychology]]
* [[Philosophy:Persuasion|Persuasion]]
* Philomath
* [[Philosophical analysis]]
* Philosophical method
* [[Engineering:Planning|Planning]]
* Po (term)
* [[Philosophy:Practical reason|Practical reason]]
* [[Philosophy:Preconscious|Preconscious]]
* [[Prediction]]
* [[Procedural reasoning system]]
* [[Unsolved:Pseudoscience|Pseudoscience]]
* [[Pseudoskepticism]]
* [[Philosophy:Psychological projection|Psychological projection]]
* [[Philosophy:Psychology of reasoning|Psychology of reasoning]]
* [[Philosophy:Qualitative Reasoning Group|Qualitative Reasoning Group]]
* Rationality and Power
* Reasoning Mind
* [[Reasoning system]]
* [[Recognition-primed decision]]
* [[Philosophy:Reflective disclosure|Reflective disclosure]]
* [[Scientific method]]
* [[Self-deception]]
* [[Semantic network]]
* [[Philosophy:Semantics|Semantics]]
* [[Philosophy:Semiotics|Semiotics]]
* [[Sensemaking]]
* [[Situated cognition]]
* Situational awareness
* [[Skepticism]]
* [[Source criticism]]
* Spatial Cognition
* [[Philosophy:Speculative reason|Speculative reason]]
* Spiral: The Bonds of Reasoning
* [[Social:Storytelling|Storytelling]]
* [[Philosophy:Stream of consciousness (psychology)|Stream of consciousness (psychology)]]
* [[Philosophy:Subconscious|Subconscious]]
* [[Philosophy:Substitution (logic)|Substitution (logic)]]
* Suspicion (emotion)
* Theories
* [[Thinking processes (theory of constraints)]]
* [[Medicine:Thought disorder|Thought disorder]]
* Thought sonorization (see [[Medicine:Glossary of psychiatry|Glossary of psychiatry]])
* [[Philosophy:Translation|Translation]]
* [[Truth]]
* [[Biology:Unconscious mind|Unconscious mind]]
* [[Philosophy:Understanding|Understanding]]
* [[Finance:VPEC-T|VPEC-T]]
* wikt:entrained thinking
* wikt:synthesis
* [[Working memory]]
* [[Philosophy:World disclosure|World disclosure]]
}}

'''Thinking''' <!-- Remove irrelevant links. Place the rest. -->

{{columns-list|colwidth=22em|
* ''Buckminster Fuller: Thinking Out Loud'' (documentary)
* [[Philosophy:Critical-Creative Thinking and Behavioral Research Laboratory|Critical-Creative Thinking and Behavioral Research Laboratory]]
* History of political thinking
* [[Philosophy:Inquiry: Critical Thinking Across the Disciplines|Inquiry]]
* [[Partial concurrent thinking aloud]]
* [[Philosophy:Po (lateral thinking)|Po (lateral thinking)]]
* [[Social:Six Thinking Hats|Six Thinking Hats]]
* [[Company:SolidThinking|SolidThinking]]
* [[Philosophy:Straight and Crooked Thinking|Straight and Crooked Thinking]]
* Systematic Inventive Thinking
* The Art of Negative Thinking
* The Lake of Thinking
* The Magic of Thinking Big
* The Year of Magical Thinking
* [[Philosophy:Thinking about Consciousness|Thinking about Consciousness]]
* Thinking about the immortality of the crab
* Thinking Allowed
* Thinking processes (Theory of Constraints)
* Thinking Skills Assessment
* [[Thinking, Fast and Slow]]
* [[Social:Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking|Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking]]
* [[Unified structured inventive thinking]]
* When You're Through Thinking, Say Yes
* World Thinking Day
}}

'''Lists'''

{{columns-list|colwidth=22em|
* List of neurobiology topics
* List of cognitive science topics
* List of philosophical theories
* List of psychology topics
* [[Biography:List of cognitive scientists|List of cognitive scientists]]
* Glossary of philosophical isms
* [[Philosophy:List of cognitive biases|List of cognitive biases]]
* List of emotions
* [[Philosophy:List of memory biases|List of memory biases]]
* List of mnemonics
* List of neurobiology topics
* List of psychometric topics
* List of thought processes
}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* [http://cnx.org/content/m14358/latest/ The Psychology of Emotions, Feelings and Thoughts, Free Online Book]


{{DEFAULTSORT:Thought}}
[[Category:Thought|.]]
[[Category:Outlines of philosophy topics|Thought]]
[[Category:Outlines|Thought]]

{{Sourceattribution|Outline of thought}}