Astronomy:List of galaxies

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This is a general list of galaxies. For more specific lists, see Lists of galaxies.
This is a dynamic list and may never be able to satisfy particular standards for completeness. You can help by expanding it with reliably sourced entries.
Size (left) and distance (right) of a few well-known galaxies put to scale

The following is a list of notable galaxies.

There are about 51 galaxies in the Local Group (see list of nearest galaxies for a complete list), on the order of 100,000 in the Local Supercluster, and an estimated 100 billion in all of the observable universe.[1]

The discovery of the nature of galaxies as distinct from other nebulae (interstellar clouds) was made in the 1920s. The first attempts at systematic catalogues of galaxies were made in the 1960s, with the Catalogue of Galaxies and Clusters of Galaxies listing 29,418 galaxies and galaxy clusters, and with the Morphological Catalogue of Galaxies, a putatively complete list of galaxies with photographic magnitude above 15, listing 30,642. In the 1980s, the Lyons Groups of Galaxies listed 485 galaxy groups with 3,933 member galaxies. Galaxy Zoo is a project aiming at a more comprehensive list: launched in July 2007, it has classified over one million galaxy images from The Sloan Digital Sky Survey, The Hubble Space Telescope and the Cosmic Assembly Near-Infrared Deep Extragalactic Legacy Survey.[2]

There is no universal naming convention for galaxies, as they are mostly catalogued before it is established whether the object is or isn't a galaxy. Mostly they are identified by their celestial coordinates together with the name of the observing project (HUDF, SDSS, 3C, CFHQS, NGC/IC, etc.)

Named galaxies

This is a list of galaxies that are well known by something other than an entry in a catalog or list, or a set of coordinates, or a systematic designation.

Image Galaxy Constellation Origin of name Notes
Andromeda Galaxy (with h-alpha).jpg Andromeda Galaxy Andromeda Andromeda, which is shortened from "Andromeda Galaxy", gets its name from the area of the sky in which it appears, the constellation of Andromeda. Andromeda is the closest big galaxy to the Milky Way and is expected to collide with the Milky Way around 4.5 billion years from now. The two will eventually merge into a single new galaxy called Milkdromeda.
Antennae Galaxies reloaded.jpg Antennae Galaxies Corvus Appearance is similar to an insect's antennae. Two colliding galaxies
NGC 4622HSTFull.jpg Backward Galaxy Centaurus It appears to rotate backwards, as the tips of the spiral arms point in the direction of rotation.
NGC2537 - SDSS DR14.jpg Bear Paw Galaxy Lynx It resembles the appearance of a bear's claw. Also known as "Bear Claw Galaxy."
Blackeyegalaxy.jpg Black Eye Galaxy Coma Berenices It has a spectacular dark band of absorbing dust in front of the galaxy's bright nucleus, giving rise to its nicknames of the "Black Eye" or "Evil Eye" galaxy. Also known as "Sleeping Beauty Galaxy."
Messier 81 HST.jpg Bode's Galaxy Ursa Major Named for Johann Elert Bode who discovered this galaxy in 1774. Also known as Messier 81. The largest galaxy in the M81 Group. It harbors a supermassive black hole 70 million times the mass of the Sun.
NGC 4567 & 4568.png Butterfly Galaxies Virgo Looks are similar to a butterfly.
Cartwheel Galaxy.jpg Cartwheel Galaxy Sculptor Its visual appearance is similar to that of a spoked cartwheel. The largest in the Cartwheel Galaxy group, made up of four spiral galaxies
M82 HST ACS 2006-14-a-large web.jpg Cigar Galaxy Ursa Major Appears similar in shape to a cigar. Also known as Messier 82 or M82
Circinus Galaxy.png Circinus Galaxy Circinus Named after the constellation it is located in (Circinus).
Messier99 - SDSS DR14.jpg Coma Pinwheel Galaxy Coma Benerices Named after its resemblance to the Pinwheel Galaxy and its location in the Coma Benerices constellation. Also known as Messier 99 or M99
CometGalaxy.jpg Comet Galaxy Sculptor This galaxy is named after its unusual appearance, looking like a comet. The comet effect is caused by tidal stripping by its galaxy cluster, Abell 2667.
NGC 6872 and IC 4970 by ESO VLT.jpg Condor Galaxy Pavo Named after a condor, a type of vulture that is one of the largest flying birds. The largest known spiral galaxy, it has a diameter of over 665,300 light-years (204.0 kiloparsecs).[3] It is tidally disturbed by the smaller lenticular galaxy IC 4970.[4]
Eso1524aArtist’s impression of CR7 the brightest galaxy in the early Universe.jpg Cosmos Redshift 7 Sextans The name of this galaxy is based on a Redshift (z) measurement of nearly 7 (actually, z = 6.604).[5] Galaxy Cosmos Redshift 7 is reported to be the brightest of distant galaxies (z > 6) and to contain some of the earliest first stars (first generation; Population III) that produced the chemical elements needed for the later formation of planets and life as we know it.[5]
NGC 1232.jpg Eye of God Eridanus Name after its structural appearance A prototype for multi-arm spiral galaxies
NGC4151 Galaxy from the Mount Lemmon SkyCenter Schulman Telescope courtesy Adam Block.jpg Eye of Sauron Canes Venatici Due to its resemblance to the Eye of Sauron from The Lord of the Rings.
NGC 6946.jpg Fireworks Galaxy Cygnus and Cepheus Due to its bright and spotty appearance Active starburst galaxy
Hubble Interacting Galaxy UGC 4881 (2008-04-24).jpg Grasshopper Lynx Named after its appearance to a grasshopper Two colliding galaxies
NGC4656 - SDSS DR14 (panorama).jpg Hockey Stick Galaxies Canes Venatici Its elongated and curved appearance resembles a hockey stick. Also known as Crowbar Galaxy
Hoag's object.jpg Hoag's Object Serpens Caput This is named after Art Hoag, who discovered this ring galaxy. It is of the subtype Hoag-type galaxy, and may in fact be a polar-ring galaxy with the ring in the plane of rotation of the central object.
Large.mc.arp.750pix.jpg Large Magellanic Cloud Dorado/Mensa Named after Ferdinand Magellan This is the fourth-largest galaxy in the Local Group, and forms a pair with the SMC, and from recent research, may not be part of the Milky Way system of satellites at all.[6]
AM 0644-741.jpg Lindsay-Shapley Ring Volans Named after its discoverer, Eric Lindsay, his professor Harlow Shapley, and its nature as a ring galaxy. The ring is the result of collision with another galaxy
N7814s.jpg Little Sombrero Galaxy Pegasus Named after its similarity to the Sombrero Galaxy.
Malin1-HLA (cropped).jpg Malin 1 Coma Berenices Discovered and named by David Malin. Also known as Messier 99 or M99
Snakes and Stones NGC 4194.jpg Medusa Merger Ursa Major Ejected dust from the merging galaxies is said to look like the snakes that the Gorgon Medusa from Greek mythology had on her head.
Sculptor Dwarf Galaxy ESO.jpg Sculptor Dwarf Galaxy Sculptor Similar to the Sculpture Galaxies Also known as Sculptor Dwarf Elliptical Galaxy, Sculptor Dwarf Spheroidal Galaxy, and formerly as the Sculptor System
Merging galaxies NGC 4676 (captured by the Hubble Space Telescope).jpg Mice Galaxies Coma Berenices Appearance is similar to a mouse.
Small Magellanic Cloud (Digitized Sky Survey 2).jpg Small Magellanic Cloud Tucana Named after Ferdinand Magellan This forms a pair with the LMC, and from recent research, may not be part of the Milky Way system of satellites at all.
Hubble Interacting Galaxy Arp 148 (2008-04-24).jpg Mayall's Object Ursa Major This is named after Nicholas Mayall, of the Lick Observatory, who discovered it.[7][8][9] Also called VV 32 and Arp 148, this is a very peculiar looking object, and is likely to be not one galaxy, but two galaxies undergoing a collision. Event in images is a spindle shape and a ring shape.
ESO-VLT-Laser-phot-33a-07.jpg Milky Way Sagittarius (centre) The appearance from Earth of the galaxy—a band of light The galaxy containing the Sun and its Solar System, and therefore Earth.
Needle Galaxy 4565.jpeg Needle Galaxy Coma Berenices Named due to its slender appearance. Also known as Caldwell 38
The WLM galaxy on the edge of the Local Group.jpg Wolf-Lundmark-Melotte Cetus Named for the three astronomers instrumental in its discovery and identification.
NGC7448 - SDSS DR14.jpg Paramecium Galaxy Pegasus Named after its appearance to the organism Paramecium It is included in the Atlas of Peculiar Galaxies in the category galaxies with detached segments.
NASA-PeekabooGalaxy-20221206.png Peekaboo Galaxy Hydra Galaxy (aka HIPASS J1131-31) was hidden behind a relatively fast-moving foreground star (TYC 7215-199-1) and became observable when the star moved aside. Galaxy, relatively nearby, is considered one of the most metal-poor ("extremely metal-poor" (XMP)), least chemically enriched, and seemingly primordial, galaxies known.[10][11]
M101 hires STScI-PRC2006-10a.jpg Pinwheel Galaxy Ursa Major Similar in appearance to a pinwheel (toy). Also known as Messier 101 or M101
Sculptor Galaxy up Close.jpg Sculptor Galaxy Sculptor Named after its location in the Sculptor Constellation. Also called the Silver Dollar or Silver Coin Galaxy, because of its light and circular appearance. Also known as the Silver Coin, Silver Dollar Galaxy or Caldwell 65
M104 ngc4594 sombrero galaxy hi-res.jpg Sombrero Galaxy Virgo Similar in appearance to a sombrero. Also known as Messier Object 104 or M104
Messier 83 (captured by ESO's 1.5-metre Danish telescope).jpg Southern Pinwheel Galaxy Hydra Named after its resemblance to the Pinwheel Galaxy and its location in the southern celestial hemisphere.
NGC5829 - SDSS DR14.jpg Spider Galaxy Boötes Name after its appearance of a spider
Messier 63 GALEX WikiSky.jpg Sunflower Galaxy Canes Venatici Similar in appearance to a sunflower.
UGC 10214HST.jpg Tadpole Galaxy Draco The name comes from the resemblance of the galaxy to a tadpole. This shape resulted from tidal interaction that drew out a long tidal tail.
TriangulumGalaxy-HighRez-Hubble-20190111.png Triangulum Galaxy Triangulum Named after its location within the Triangulum constellation.
Messier51 sRGB.jpg Whirlpool Galaxy Canes Venatici From the whirlpool appearance this gravitationally disturbed galaxy exhibits.

Naked-eye galaxies

This is a list of galaxies that are visible to the naked eye, for at the very least, keen-eyed observers in a very dark-sky environment that is high in altitude, during clear and stable weather.

Naked-eye galaxies
Galaxy Apparent
Magnitude 		Distance Constellation Notes
Milky Way −6.5[lower-alpha 1] 0 Sagittarius (centre) This is the galaxy containing the Sun and its Solar System, and therefore Earth. Most things visible to the naked eye in the sky are part of it, including the Milky Way composing the Zone of Avoidance.[12]
Large Magellanic Cloud 0.9 160 kly (49 kpc) Dorado/Mensa Visible only from the southern hemisphere. It is also the brightest patch of nebulosity in the sky.[12][13][14]
Small Magellanic Cloud (NGC 292) 2.7 200 kly (61 kpc) Tucana Visible only from the southern hemisphere.[12][15]
Andromeda Galaxy (M31, NGC 224) 3.4 2.5 Mly (770 kpc) Andromeda Once called the Great Andromeda Nebula, it is situated in the Andromeda constellation.[12][16]
Triangulum Galaxy (M33, NGC 598) 5.7 2.9 Mly (890 kpc) Triangulum Being a diffuse object, its visibility is strongly affected by even small amounts of light pollution, ranging from easily visible in direct vision in truly dark skies to a difficult averted vision object in rural/suburban skies.[17]
Centaurus A (NGC 5128) 6.84 13.7 Mly (4.2 Mpc) Centaurus Centaurus A has been spotted with the naked eye by Stephen James O'Meara.[18]
Bode's Galaxy (M81, NGC 3031) 6.94 12 Mly (3.7 Mpc) Ursa Major Highly experienced amateur astronomers may be able to see Messier 81 under exceptional observing conditions.[19][20][21]
Sculptor Galaxy (NGC 253) 7.2 12 Mly (3.7 Mpc) Sculptor NGC 253 has been observed with the naked eye by Timo Karhula.[22]

Observational firsts

First Galaxy Constellation Year Notes
First spiral galaxy Whirlpool galaxy Canes Venatici 1845 Lord William Parsons, Earl of Rosse discovered the first spiral nebula from observing M51 (recognition of the spiral shape without the recognition of the object as outside the Milky Way).[23]
Notion of galaxy Milky Way Galaxy
& Andromeda galaxy 		Sagittarius (centre)
& Andromeda 		1923 Recognition of the Milky Way and the Andromeda nebula as two separate galaxies by Edwin Hubble.
First Seyfert galaxy NGC 1068 (M77) Cetus 1943
(1908) 		The characteristics of Seyfert galaxies were first observed in M77 in 1908; however, Seyferts were defined as a class in 1943.[24]
First radio galaxy Cygnus A Cygnus 1951 Of several items, then called radio stars, Cygnus A was identified with a distant galaxy, being the first of many radio stars to become a radio galaxy.[25][26]
First quasar 3C273 Virgo 1962 3C273 was the first quasar with its redshift determined, and by some considered the first quasar.
3C48 Triangulum 1960 3C48 was the first "radio-star" with an unreadable spectrum, and by others considered the first quasar.
First superluminal galactic jet 3C279 Virgo 1971 The jet is emitted by a quasar
First low-surface-brightness galaxy Malin 1 Coma Berenices 1986 Malin 1 was the first verified LSB galaxy. LSB galaxies had been first theorized in 1976.[27]
First superluminal jet from a Seyfert III Zw 2 Pisces[28] 2000 [29]

Prototypes

This is a list of galaxies that became prototypes for a class of galaxies.

Prototype Galaxies
Class Galaxy Constellation Date Notes
BL Lac object BL Lacertae (BL Lac) Lacerta This AGN was originally catalogued as a variable star, and "stars" of its type are considered BL Lac objects.
Hoag-type Galaxy Hoag's Object Serpens Caput This is the prototype Hoag-type ring galaxy
Giant LSB galaxy Malin 1 Coma Berenices 1986 [30]
FR II radio galaxy
(double-lobed radio galaxy) 		Cygnus A Cygnus 1951 [31]
Starburst galaxy Cigar Galaxy Ursa Major
Flocculent spiral galaxy NGC 2841 Ursa Major

Closest and most distant-known galaxies by type

Title Galaxy Constellation Distance Notes
Closest galaxy Sagittarius Dwarf Spheroidal Galaxy Sagittarius 0.070 Mly A proposed dwarf galaxy known as the Canis Major Overdensity may lie closer at 25,000 light-years, however its status as a galaxy is disputed.
Most distant galaxy JADES-GS-z13-0 Fornax z=13.2 Spectroscopic observations by JWST's NIRSpec instrument in December 2022 confirmed the galaxy's redshift of z = 13.2 to a high accuracy, establishing it as the oldest and most distant spectroscopically-confirmed galaxy known as of March 2023, with a light-travel distance (lookback time) of 13.6 billion years.
Closest quasar Markarian 231 Ursa Major z=0.0415 Sometimes classified as a Type-2 Seyfert galaxy, though mostly considered to be the nearest quasar.
Most distant quasar QSO J0313–1806 Eridanus z=7.64 Its discovery was announced in January 2021. It has a redshift of 7.64 making it the most distant-known quasar in the universe.[32]
Closest radio galaxy Centaurus A (NGC 5128, PKS 1322–427) Centaurus 13.7 Mly [33]
Most distant radio galaxy TGSS J1530+1049 Serpens z=5.72[34] Another radio galaxy, GLEAM J0917-0012, may either lie at z=2.01 or as distant as z=8.21.[35]
Closest Seyfert galaxy Circinus Galaxy Circinus 13 Mly This is also the closest Seyfert 2 galaxy. The closest Seyfert 1 galaxy is NGC 4151.
Most distant Seyfert galaxy HSC 0921+0007 Hydra z=6.56[36] Seyfert 1 galaxy; also a low-luminosity quasar.
Closest blazar Markarian 421 (Mrk 421, Mkn 421, PKS 1101+384, LEDA 33452) Ursa Major z=0.030 This is a BL Lac object.[37][38]
Most distant-known blazar Q0906+6930 Ursa Major z=5.47 This is a flat spectrum radio-loud quasar-type blazar.[39][40]
Closest BL Lac object Markarian 421 (Mkn 421, Mrk 421, PKS 1101+384, LEDA 33452)[37][38] Ursa Major z=0.030 It has been proposed that the nearby (16.4 Mpc) giant galaxy Messier 87 could actually be a BL Lac object viewed at an unfavorable angle.[41]
Most distant BL Lac object FIRST J233153.20+112952.11 Pegasus z=6.57 [42]
Closest LINER
Most distant LINER z=
Closest LIRG
Most distant LIRG z=
Closest ULIRG IC 1127 (Arp 220/APG 220) Serpens Caput z=0.018 [43]
Most distant ULIRG z=
Closest starburst galaxy IC 10 (UGC 192, PGC 1305) Cassiopeia 750 ± 150 kpc (2,450,000 ± 489,000 ly) A mild starburst galaxy, this is the only such galaxy within the Local Group.[44][45]
Most distant starburst galaxy SPT 0243-49 z=5.698 [46][47]

Closest galaxies

5 Closest Galaxies
Rank Galaxy Distance Notes
1 Milky Way Galaxy 0 This is the galaxy containing the Sun and its Solar System, and therefore Earth.
2 Canis Major Dwarf 0.025 Mly
3 Virgo Stellar Stream 0.030 Mly
4 Sagittarius Dwarf Spheroidal Galaxy 0.081 Mly
5 Large Magellanic Cloud 0.163 Mly Largest satellite galaxy of the Milky Way
6 Small Magellanic Cloud 0.197 Mly
  • Mly represents millions of light-years, a measure of distance.
  • Distances are measured from Earth, with Earth being at zero.
Nearest Galaxies by Type
Title Galaxy Date Distance Notes
Nearest galaxy Milky Way always 0 This is the galaxy containing the Sun and its Solar System, and therefore Earth.
Nearest galaxy to the Milky Way Sagittarius Dwarf Spheroidal Galaxy 1994 0.070 Mly The closest, undisputed galaxy. The disputed dwarf galaxy Canis Major Overdensity is even closer at 25,000 light-years.
Nearest dwarf galaxy Sagittarius Dwarf Spheroidal Galaxy 1994 0.070 Mly
Nearest major galaxy to the Milky Way Andromeda Galaxy always 2.54 Mly First identified as a separate galaxy in 1923
Nearest giant galaxy Maffei 1 1967 11 Mly Nearest major elliptical galaxy to the Milky Way
Nearest Neighboring Galaxy Title-holder
Galaxy Date Distance Notes
Ursa Major III 2023 0.01 Mly
Sagittarius Dwarf Elliptical Galaxy 1994–2023 0.026 Mly
Large Magellanic Cloud antiquity–1994 0.163 Mly This is the upper bound, as it is nearest galaxy observable with the naked eye.
Small Magellanic Cloud 1913–1914 0.197 Mly This was the first intergalactic distance measured. In 1913, Ejnar Hertzsprung measures the distance to SMC using Cepheid variables. In 1914, he did it for LMC.
Andromeda Galaxy 1923 2.5 Mly This was the first galaxy determined to not be part of the Milky Way.
  • Mly represents millions of light-years, a measure of distance.
  • Distances are measured from Earth, with Earth being at zero.

Most distant galaxies

Most Remote Galaxies by Type
Title Galaxy Date Redshift[lower-alpha 2] Notes
Most remote galaxy confirmed (spectroscopic redshift) JADES-GS-z13-0 2022 z=13.2 JADES-GS-z13-0 is the most distant galaxy with a spectroscopic redshift as of November 2022. [48]
Most remote quasar QSO J0313–1806 2021 z=7.64 Most distant as of January 2021.[32] Further information: List of quasars
Timeline of Most Remote Galaxy Record-holders[lower-alpha 3]
Galaxy Date Distance
(z=Redshift)[lower-alpha 2] 		Notes
GN-z11 2016– z=11.09
EGSY8p7
(EGSY-2008532660) 		2015–2016 z=8.68 This galaxy's redshift was determined by examining its Lyman-alpha emissions, which were released in August 2015.[49][50]
EGS-zs8-1 2015–2015 z=7.730 This was the most distant galaxy as of May 2015.[51][52]
Z8 GND 5296 2013–2015 z=7.51
SXDF-NB1006-2 2012–2013 z=7.215 [53]
GN-108036 2012–2012 z=7.213 [54]
BDF-3299 2012–2013 z=7.109 [55]
IOK-1 2006–2010 z=6.96 This was the most remote object known at the time of discovery. In 2009, gamma ray burst GRB 090423 was discovered at z=8.2, taking the title of most distant object. The next galaxy to hold the title also succeeded GRB 090423, that being UDFy-38135539.[56][57][58]
SDF J132522.3+273520 2005–2006 z=6.597 This was the remotest object known at time of discovery.[58][59]
SDF J132418.3+271455 2003–2005 z=6.578 This was the remotest object known at time of discovery.[59][60][61][62]
HCM-6A 2002–2003 z=6.56 This was the remotest object known at time of discovery. The galaxy is lensed by galaxy cluster Abell 370. This was the first galaxy, as opposed to quasar, found to exceed redshift 6. It exceeded the redshift of quasar SDSSp J103027.10+052455.0 of z=6.28[60][61][63][64][65][66]
SSA22−HCM1 1999–2002 z=5.74 This was the remotest object known at time of discovery. In 2000, the quasar SDSSp J104433.04-012502.2 was discovered at z=5.82, becoming the most remote object in the universe known. This was followed by another quasar, SDSSp J103027.10+052455.0 in 2001, the first object exceeding redshift 6, at z=6.28[67][68]
HDF 4-473.0 1998–1999 z=5.60 This was the remotest object known at the time of discovery.[68]
RD1 (0140+326 RD1) 1998 z=5.34 This was the remotest object known at time of discovery. This was the first object found beyond redshift 5.[68][69][70][71][72]
CL 1358+62 G1 & CL 1358+62 G2 1997–1998 z=4.92 These were the remotest objects known at the time of discovery. The pair of galaxies were found lensed by galaxy cluster CL1358+62 (z=0.33). This was the first time since 1964 that something other than a quasar held the record for being the most distant object in the universe. It exceeded the mark set by quasar PC 1247-3406 at z=4.897[68][70][71][73][74][75]

From 1964 to 1997, the title of most distant object in the universe were held by a succession of quasars.[75] That list is available at list of quasars.

8C 1435+63 1994–1997 z=4.25 This is a radio galaxy. At the time of its discovery, quasar PC 1247-3406 at z=4.73, discovered in 1991 was the most remote object known. This was the last radio galaxy to hold the title of most distant galaxy. This was the first galaxy, as opposed to quasar, that was found beyond redshift 4.[68][76][77][78]
4C 41.17 1990–1994 z=3.792 This is a radio galaxy. At the time of its discovery, quasar PC 1158+4635, discovered in 1989, was the most remote object known, at z=4.73 In 1991, quasar PC 1247-3406, became the most remote object known, at z=4.897[68][77][78][79][80]
1 Jy 0902+343 (GB6 B0902+3419, B2 0902+34) 1988–1990 z=3.395 This is a radio galaxy. At the time of discovery, quasar Q0051-279 at z=4.43, discovered in 1987, was the most remote object known. In 1989, quasar PC 1158+4635 was discovered at z=4.73, making it the most remote object known. This was the first galaxy discovered above redshift 3. It was also the first galaxy found above redshift 2.[68][80][81][82][83]
3C 256 1984–1988 z=1.819 This is a radio galaxy. At the time, the most remote object was quasar PKS 2000-330, at z=3.78, found in 1982.[68][84]
3C 241 1984 z=1.617 This is a radio galaxy. At the time, the most remote object was quasar PKS 2000-330, at z=3.78, found in 1982.[85][86]
3C 324 1983–1984 z=1.206 This is a radio galaxy. At the time, the most remote object was quasar PKS 2000-330, at z=3.78, found in 1982.[68][85][87]
3C 65 1982–1983 z=1.176 This is a radio galaxy. At the time, the most remote object was quasar OQ172, at z=3.53, found in 1974. In 1982, quasar PKS 2000-330 at z=3.78 became the most remote object.
3C 368 1982 z=1.132 This is a radio galaxy. At the time, the most remote object was quasar OQ172, at z=3.53, found in 1974.[68]
3C 252 1981–1982 z=1.105 This is a radio galaxy. At the time, the most remote object was quasar OQ172, at z=3.53, found in 1974.
3C 6.1 1979 – z=0.840 This is a radio galaxy. At the time, the most remote object was quasar OQ172, at z=3.53, found in 1974.[68][88]
3C 318 1976 – z=0.752 This is a radio galaxy. At the time, the most remote object was quasar OQ172, at z=3.53, found in 1974.[68]
3C 411 1975 – z=0.469 This is a radio galaxy. At the time, the most remote object was quasar OQ172, at z=3.53, found in 1974.[68]

From 1964 to 1997, the title of most distant object in the universe were held by a succession of quasars.[75] That list is available at list of quasars.

3C 295 1960– z=0.461 This is a radio galaxy. This was the remotest object known at time of discovery of its redshift. This was the last non-quasar to hold the title of most distant object known until 1997. In 1964, quasar 3C 147 became the most distant object in the universe known.[68][75][89][90][91]
LEDA 25177 (MCG+01-23-008) 1951–1960 z=0.2
(V=61000 km/s) 		This galaxy lies in the Hydra Supercluster. It is located at B1950.0  08h 55m 4s +03° 21′ and is the BCG of the fainter Hydra Cluster Cl 0855+0321 (ACO 732).[68][91][92][93][94][95][96][97]
LEDA 51975 (MCG+05-34-069) 1936– z=0.13
(V=39000 km/s) 		The brightest cluster galaxy of the Bootes cluster (ACO 1930), an elliptical galaxy at B1950.0  14h 30m 6s +31° 46′ apparent magnitude 17.8, was found by Milton L. Humason in 1936 to have a 40,000 km/s recessional redshift velocity.[95][98][99]
LEDA 20221 (MCG+06-16-021) 1932 – z=0.075
(V=23000 km/s) 		This is the BCG of the Gemini Cluster (ACO 568) and was located at B1950.0  07h 05m 0s +35° 04′[98][100]
BCG of WMH Christie's Leo Cluster 1931–1932 z=
(V=19700 km/s) 		[100][101][102][103]
BCG of Baede's Ursa Major Cluster 1930–1931 z=
(V=11700 km/s) 		[103][104]
NGC 4860 1929–1930 z=0.026
(V=7800 km/s) 		[105][106]
NGC 7619 1929 z=0.012
(V=3779 km/s) 		Using redshift measurements, NGC 7619 was the highest at the time of measurement. At the time of announcement, it was not yet accepted as a general guide to distance; however, later in the year, Edwin Hubble described redshift in relation to distance, leading to a seachange, and having this being accepted as an inferred distance.[105][107][108]
NGC 584 (Dreyer nebula 584) 1921–1929 z=0.006
(V=1800 km/s) 		At the time, nebula had yet to be accepted as independent galaxies. However, in 1923, galaxies were generally recognized as external to the Milky Way.[95][105][107][109][110][111][112]
M104 (NGC 4594) 1913–1921 z=0.004
(V=1180 km/s) 		This was the second galaxy whose redshift was determined; the first being Andromeda—which is approaching us and thus cannot have its redshift used to infer distance. Both were measured by Vesto Melvin Slipher. At this time, nebula had yet to be accepted as independent galaxies. NGC 4594 was originally measured as 1000 km/s, then refined to 1100, and then to 1180 in 1916.[105][109][112]
M81 antiquity –
20th century[lower-alpha 4] 		11.8 Mly z=-0.10) This is the lower bound, as it is remotest galaxy observable with the naked eye. It is 12 million light-years away. Redshift cannot be used to infer distance, because it is moving toward us faster than cosmological expansion.
Messier 101 1930– Using the pre-1950s Cepheid measurements, M101 was one of the most distant so measured.
Triangulum Galaxy 1924–1930 In 1924, Edwin Hubble announced the distance to M33 Triangulum.
Andromeda Galaxy 1923–1924 In 1923, Edwin Hubble measured the distance to Andromeda, and settled the question of whether or not there were galaxies, or if everything was in the Milky Way.
Small Magellanic Cloud 1913–1923 This was the first intergalactic distance measured. In 1913, Ejnar Hertzsprung measures the distance to SMC using Cepheid variables.

Timeline notes

  • MACS0647-JD, discovered in 2012, with z=10.7, does not appear on this list because it has not been confirmed with a spectroscopic redshift.[113]
  • UDFy-38135539, discovered in 2009, with z=8.6, does not appear on this list because its claimed redshift is disputed.[114] Follow-up observations have failed to replicate the cited redshift measurement.
  • A1689-zD1, discovered in 2008, with z=7.6, does not appear on this list because it has not been confirmed with a spectroscopic redshift.
  • Abell 68 c1 and Abell 2219 c1, discovered in 2007, with z=9, do not appear on this list because they have not been confirmed.[115]
  • IOK4 and IOK5, discovered in 2007, with z=7, do not appear on this list because they have not been confirmed with a spectroscopic redshift.
  • Abell 1835 IR1916, discovered in 2004, with z=10.0, does not appear on this list because its claimed redshift is disputed. Some follow-up observations have failed to find the object at all.
  • STIS 123627+621755, discovered in 1999, with z=6.68, does not appear on this list because its redshift was based on an erroneous interpretation of an oxygen emission line as a hydrogen emission line.[116][117][118]
  • BR1202-0725 LAE, discovered in 1998 at z=5.64 does not appear on the list because it was not definitively pinned. BR1202-0725 (QSO 1202-07) refers to a quasar that the Lyman alpha emitting galaxy is near. The quasar itself lies at z=4.6947[69][72]
  • BR2237-0607 LA1 and BR2237-0607 LA2 were found at z=4.55 while investigating around the quasar BR2237-0607 in 1996. Neither of these appear on the list because they were not definitively pinned down at the time. The quasar itself lies at z=4.558[119][120]
  • Two absorption dropouts in the spectrum of quasar BR 1202-07 (QSO 1202-0725, BRI 1202-0725, BRI1202-07) were found, one in early 1996, another later in 1996. Neither of these appear on the list because they were not definitively pinned down at the time. The early one was at z=4.38, the later one at z=4.687, the quasar itself lies at z=4.695[68][121][122][123][124]
  • In 1986, a gravitationally lensed galaxy forming a blue arc was found lensed by galaxy cluster CL 2224-02 (C12224 in some references). However, its redshift was only determined in 1991, at z=2.237, by which time, it would no longer be the most distant galaxy known.[125][126]
  • An absorption drop was discovered in 1985 in the light spectrum of quasar PKS 1614+051 at z=3.21 This does not appear on the list because it was not definitively fixed down. At the time, it was claimed to be the first non-QSO galaxy found beyond redshift 3. The quasar itself is at z=3.197[68][127]
  • In 1975, 3C 123 was incorrectly determined to lie at z=0.637 (actually z=0.218).[128][129]
  • From 1964 to 1997, the title of most distant object in the universe was held by a succession of quasars.[75] That list is available at list of quasars.
  • In 1958, clusters Cl 0024+1654 and Cl 1447+2619 were estimated to have redshifts of z=0.29 and z=0.35, respectively. However, no galaxy was spectroscopically determined.[91]

Galaxies by brightness and power

Title Galaxy Data Notes
Intrinsically brightest galaxy Baby Boom Galaxy Starburst galaxy located 12 billion light-years away
Brightest galaxy to the naked eye Large Magellanic Cloud Apparent magnitude 0.6 This galaxy has high surface brightness combined with high apparent brightness.
Intrinsically faintest galaxy Ursa Major III Absolute magnitude +2.2 This does not include dark galaxies.
Lowest surface brightness galaxy Andromeda IX
Most luminous galaxy WISE J224607.57-052635.0 As of 21 May 2015, WISE-J224607.57-052635.0-20150521 is the most luminous galaxy discovered and releases 10,000 times more energy than the Milky Way galaxy, although smaller. Nearly 100 percent of the light escaping from this dusty galaxy is Infrared radiation.[130][131] (Image)
Brightest distant galaxy (z > 6) Cosmos Redshift 7

Galaxies by mass and density

Title Galaxy Data Notes
Least massive galaxy Segue 2 ~550,000 MSun
Most massive galaxy ESO 146-IG 005 ~30×1012 MSun Central galaxy in Abell 3827, 1.4 Gly distant.[132][133]
Most dense galaxy M85-HCC1 This is an ultra-compact dwarf galaxy[134]
Least dense galaxy
Most massive spiral galaxy ISOHDFS 27 1.04×1012 MSun The preceding most massive spiral was UGC 12591[135]
Least massive galaxy with globular cluster(s) Andromeda I [136]

Galaxies by size

For a comprehensive list of large galaxies, see List of largest galaxies.

Field galaxies

Main page: Astronomy:Field galaxy
List of field galaxies
Galaxy Data Notes
NGC 4555
UGC 2885
SDSS J1021+1312 [137]

A field galaxy is a galaxy that does not belong to a larger cluster of galaxies and hence is gravitationally alone.

Interacting galaxies

Main page: Astronomy:Interacting galaxy
Galaxies in tidal interaction
Galaxies Data Notes
The Magellanic Clouds are being tidally disrupted by the Milky Way Galaxy, resulting in the Magellanic Stream drawing a tidal tail away from the LMC and SMC, and the Magellanic Bridge drawing material from the clouds to the Milky Way galaxy.
The smaller galaxy NGC 5195 is tidally interacting with the larger Whirlpool Galaxy, creating its grand design spiral galaxy architecture.
These three galaxies interact with each other and draw out tidal tails, which are dense enough to form star clusters. The bridge of gas between these galaxies is known as Arp's Loop.[138]
NGC 6872 is a barred spiral galaxy with a grand design spiral nucleus, and distinct well-formed outer barred-spiral architecture, caused by tidal interaction with satellite galaxy IC 4970.
Tadpole Galaxy The Tadpole Galaxy tidally interacted with another galaxy in a close encounter, and remains slightly disrupted, with a long tidal tail.
Galaxies in non-merger significant collision
Galaxies Data Notes
Arp 299 (NGC 3690 & IC 694) These two galaxies have recently collided and are now both barred irregular galaxies.
Galaxies disrupted post significant non-merger collisions
Galaxies Data Notes
Mayall's Object This is a pair of galaxies, one which punched through the other, resulting in a ring galaxy.

Galaxy mergers

Galaxies undergoing near-equal merger
Galaxies Data Notes
Antennae Galaxies (Ringtail Galaxy, NGC 4038 & NGC 4039, Arp 244) 2 galaxies Two spiral galaxies currently starting a collision, tidally interacting, and in the process of merger.
Eyes Galaxies (NGC 4435 & NGC 4438, Arp 120) 2 galaxies Two galaxies which have interacted or still interacting via an off-center collision, both had interacted with M86 in the past.
Butterfly Galaxies (Siamese Twins Galaxies, NGC 4567 & NGC 4568) 2 galaxies Two spiral galaxies in the process of starting to merge.
Mice Galaxies (NGC 4676, NGC 4676A & NGC 4676B, IC 819 & IC 820, Arp 242) 2 galaxies Two spiral galaxies currently tidally interacting and in the process of merger.
NGC 520 2 galaxies Two spiral galaxies undergoing collision, in the process of merger.
NGC 2207 and IC 2163 (NGC 2207 & IC 2163) 2 galaxies These are two spiral galaxies starting to collide, in the process of merger.
NGC 5090 and NGC 5091 (NGC 5090 & NGC 5091) 2 galaxies These two galaxies are in the process of colliding and merging.
NGC 7318 (Arp 319, NGC 7318A & NGC 7318B) 2 galaxies These are two starting to collide
Four galaxies in CL0958+4702 4 galaxies These four near-equals at the core of galaxy cluster CL 0958+4702 are in the process of merging.[139]
Galaxy protocluster LBG-2377 z=3.03 This was announced as the most distant galaxy merger ever discovered. It is expected that this proto-cluster of galaxies will merge to form a brightest cluster galaxy, and become the core of a larger galaxy cluster.[140][141]
Galaxy protocluster SPT2349-56 z=4.3 (14 galaxies) This protocluster is located at 12.4 billion light years from the Earth. Each of these galaxies are forming stars at 1000 times that of the Milky Way, nicknamed the Dusty Red Core.[142]
Recently merged galaxies of near-equals
Galaxy Data Notes
Starfish Galaxy (NGC 6240, IC 4625) This recently coalesced galaxy still has two prominent nuclei.
Galaxies undergoing disintegration by cannibalization
Disintegrating Galaxy Consuming Galaxy Notes
Canis Major Dwarf Galaxy Milky Way Galaxy The Monoceros Ring is thought to be the tidal tail of the disrupted CMa dg.
Virgo Stellar Stream Milky Way Galaxy This is thought to be a completely disrupted dwarf galaxy.
Sagittarius Dwarf Elliptical Galaxy Milky Way Galaxy M54 is thought to be the core of this dwarf galaxy.
Objects considered destroyed galaxies
Defunct Galaxy Destroyer Notes
Omega Centauri Milky Way Galaxy This is now categorized a globular cluster of the Milky Way. However, it is considered the core of a dwarf galaxy that the Milky Way cannibalized.[143]
Mayall II Andromeda Galaxy This is now categorized a globular cluster of Andromeda. However, it is considered the core of a dwarf galaxy that Andromeda cannibalized.
Gaia Sausage Milky Way Galaxy It is now considered a remnant of a dwarf galaxy that collided with the Milky Way about 8-11 billion years ago. It is the last major merger of the Milky Way in its lifetime.

Galaxies with some other notable feature

Galaxy name Distance Constellatio Giant radio lobes last3=Hardcastle|first3=Martin J.|last4=Botteon|first4=Andrea|last5=Shimwell|first5=Tim W.|last6=Dabhade|first6=Pratik|last7=Gast|first7=Aivin D. J. G. I. B.|last8=Röttgering|first8=Huub J. A.|last9=Brüggen|first9=Marcus|last10=Tasse|first10=Cyril|last11=Williams|first11=Wendy L.|last12=Shulevski|first12=Aleksandar|date=February 14, 2022|title=The discovery of a radio galaxy of at least 5 Mpc|journal=Astronomy & Astrophysics|volume=660|pages=A2|doi=10.1051/0004-6361/202142778|arxiv=2202.05427|bibcode=2022A&A...660A...2O|s2cid=246823634}}</ref>
M87 Virgo This is the central galaxy of the Virgo Cluster, the central cluster of the Local Supercluster[144] It contains the first black hole ever imaged, in April 2019, by the Event Horizon Telescope.
M102 Draco (Ursa Major) This galaxy cannot be definitively identified, with the most likely candidate being NGC 5866, and a good chance of it being a misidentification of M101. Other candidates have also been suggested.
NGC 2770 Lynx "Supernova Factory" NGC 2770 is referred to as the "Supernova Factory" due to three recent supernovae occurring within it.
Arp 122 Arp 122 is a collision of NGC 6040 and PGC 56942 or NGC 6039.
NGC 3314 (NGC 3314a and NGC 3314b) Hydra exact visual alignment This is a pair of spiral galaxies, one superimposed on another, at two separate and distinct ranges, and unrelated to each other. It is a rare chance visual alignment.
ESO 137-001 Triangulum Australe "tail" feature Lying in the galaxy cluster Abell 3627, this galaxy is being stripped of its gas by the pressure of the intracluster medium (ICM), due to its high speed traversal through the cluster, and is leaving a high density tail with large amounts of star formation. The tail features the largest amount of star formation outside of a galaxy seen so far. The galaxy has the appearance of a comet, with the head being the galaxy, and a tail of gas and stars.[145][146][147][148]
Comet Galaxy Sculptor interacting with a galaxy cluster Lying in galaxy cluster Abell 2667, this spiral galaxy is being tidally stripped of stars and gas through its high speed traversal through the cluster, having the appearance of a comet.
4C 37.11 230 Mpc Perseus Least separation between binary central black holes, at 24 ly (7.4 pc) OJ 287 has an inferred pair with a 12-year orbital period, and thus would be much closer than 4C 37.11's pair.
SDSS J150636.30+540220.9
 15h 06m 36.30s+54° 02′ 20.9″
("SDSS J1506+54") 		z = 0.608 Boötes Most efficient star production Most extreme example in the list of moderate-redshift galaxies with the highest density starbursts yet observed found in the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer data (Diamond-Stanic et al. 2012).[149]
Cosmos Redshift 7 z = 6.604 Sextans Brightest distant galaxy (z > 6, 12.9 billion light-years) Galaxy Cosmos Redshift 7 is reported to be the brightest of distant galaxies (z > 6) and to contain some of the earliest first stars (first generation; Population III) that produced the chemical elements needed for the later formation of planets and life as we know it.[5][150]
Galaxies (left/top, right/bottom): NGC 7541, NGC 3021, NGC 5643, NGC 3254, NGC 3147, NGC 105, NGC 2608, NGC 3583, NGC 3147, MRK 1337, NGC 5861, NGC 2525, NGC 1015, UGC 9391, NGC 691, NGC 7678, NGC 2442, NGC 5468, NGC 5917, NGC 4639, NGC 3972, The Antennae Galaxies, NGC 5584, M106, NGC 7250, NGC 3370, NGC 5728, NGC 4424, NGC 1559, NGC 3982, NGC 1448, NGC 4680, M101, NGC 1365, NGC 7329, NGC 3447

See also


Lists of galaxies

Main page: Astronomy:Lists of galaxies


Notes

  1. ↑ Excluding the Sun. Using the formula for addition of apparent magnitudes, the added magnitudes of all stars in the Milky Way but the Sun (−6.50) and the Sun (−26.74) differs from the apparent magnitude of just the sun by less than 10^-8.[151]
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 z represents redshift, a measure of recessional velocity and inferred distance due to cosmological expansion.
  3. ↑ quasars and other AGN are not included on this list, since they are only galactic cores, unless the host galaxy was observed when it was most distant.
  4. ↑ antiquity – 1913 (based on redshift); antiquity – 1930 (based on Cepheids)

References

  1. ↑ How Many Galaxies Are There? Astronomers Are Revealing the Enormity of the Universe
  2. ↑ Simmons, B.D. (2014). "Galaxy Zoo: CANDELS barred discs and bar fractions". MNRAS 445 (4): 3466–3474. doi:10.1093/mnras/stu1817. Bibcode: 2014MNRAS.445.3466S. 
  3. ↑ "Detailed Information for Object NGC 6872". NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database. http://ned.ipac.caltech.edu/cgi-bin/objsearch?search_type=Obj_id&objid=56033. 
  4. ↑ Eufrasio, Rafael T.; de Mello, Duília F.; Urrutia-Viscarra, Fernanda; Mendes de Oliveira, Claudia; Dwek, Eli (March 2013). "When the Largest Spiral is Formed". Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union 292: 328. doi:10.1017/S1743921313001543. Bibcode: 2013IAUS..292..328E. 
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 Sobral, David; Matthee, Jorryt; Darvish, Behnam; Schaerer, Daniel; Mobasher, Bahram; Röttgering, Huub J. A.; Santos, Sérgio; Hemmati, Shoubaneh (4 June 2015). "Evidence For POPIII-Like Stellar Populations in the Most Luminous LYMAN-α Emitters at the Epoch Of Re-Ionisation: Spectroscopic Confirmation". The Astrophysical Journal 808 (2): 139. doi:10.1088/0004-637x/808/2/139. Bibcode: 2015ApJ...808..139S. 
  6. ↑ Williams, Matt (November 2016). "What are Magellanic clouds?". https://phys.org/news/2016-11-magellanic-clouds.html. 
  7. ↑ Smith, Robert T. (1941). "The Radial Velocity of a Peculiar Nebula". Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific 53 (313): 187. doi:10.1086/125301. Bibcode: 1941PASP...53..187S. 
  8. ↑ Burbidge, E. Margaret (1964). "The Strange Extragalactic Systems: Mayall's Object and IC 883". Astrophysical Journal 140: 1617. doi:10.1086/148070. Bibcode: 1964ApJ...140.1617B. 
  9. ↑ Baade, W.; Minkowski, R. (1954). "On the Identification of Radio Sources". Astrophysical Journal 119: 215. doi:10.1086/145813. Bibcode: 1954ApJ...119..215B. 
  10. ↑ Karachentsev, J.D. (12 November 2022). "Peekaboo: the extremely metal poor dwarf galaxy HIPASS J1131-31". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 518 (4): 5893–5903. doi:10.1093/mnras/stac3284. https://academic.oup.com/mnras/article-abstract/518/4/5893/6825465. Retrieved 18 December 2022. 
  11. ↑ Villard, Ray (6 December 2022). "Peekaboo! A Tiny, Hidden Galaxy Provides A Peek Into The Past - Tucked Away In A Local Pocket Of Dark Matter, A Late-Blooming Dwarf Galaxy Looks Like iI Belongs In The Early Universe". NASA. https://hubblesite.org/contents/news-releases/2022/news-2022-051. Retrieved 18 December 2022. 
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 12.3 Karen Masters (December 2003). "Curious About Astronomy: Can any galaxies be seen with the naked eye?". Ask an Astronomer. http://curious.astro.cornell.edu/question.php?number=590. 
  13. ↑ "Magellanic Cloud". Astronomy Knowledge Base. University of Ottawa. http://www.site.uottawa.ca:4321/astronomy/index.html#MagellanicCloud. 
  14. ↑ "The Large Magellanic Cloud, LMC". SEDS. http://messier.seds.org/xtra/ngc/lmc.html. 
  15. ↑ "The Small Magellanic Cloud, SMC". SEDS. http://messier.seds.org/xtra/ngc/smc.html. 
  16. ↑ "Messier 31". SEDS. http://messier.seds.org/m/m031.html. 
  17. ↑ John E. Bortle (February 2001). "The Bortle Dark-Sky Scale". Sky & Telescope. http://www.skyandtelescope.com/resources/darksky/3304011.html. 
  18. ↑ "The Revised AINTNO 100". http://astronomy-mall.com/Adventures.In.Deep.Space/aintno.htm. 
  19. ↑ Stephen Uitti. "Farthest Naked Eye Object". http://www.uitti.net/stephen/astro/essays/farthest_naked_eye_object.shtml. 
  20. ↑ "Messier 81". SEDS. http://messier.seds.org/m/m081.html. 
  21. ↑ S. J. O'Meara (1998). The Messier Objects. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-55332-2. https://archive.org/details/messierobjectsfi00omea. 
  22. ↑ "6 galaxies naked-eye simultaneously!". https://www.cloudynights.com/topic/595989-6-galaxies-naked-eye-simultaneously/. 
  23. ↑ SEDS, Lord Rosse's drawings of M51, his "Question Mark" "Spiral Nebula"
  24. ↑ SEDS, Seyfert Galaxies
  25. ↑ Burbidge, G. (1999). "Baade & Minkowski's Identification of Radio Sources". Astrophysical Journal 525: 569. Bibcode: 1999ApJ...525C.569B. 
  26. ↑ Baade, W.; Minkowski, R. (1954). "Identification of the Radio Sources in Cassiopeia, Cygnus a, and Puppis a". The Astrophysical Journal 119: 206. doi:10.1086/145812. Bibcode: 1954ApJ...119..206B. 
  27. ↑ Scientific American, "The Ghostliest Galaxies", GD Bothun, Vol. 276, No. 2, February 1997, pp.40–45, Bibcode: 1997SciAm.276b..40B
  28. ↑ Gonzalez-Perez, J.; Kidger, M.; Martin-Luis, F. (2001). "Optical and Near-Infrared Calibration of AGN Field Stars: An All-Sky Network of Faint Stars Calibrated on the Landolt System". The Astronomical Journal 122 (4): 2055. doi:10.1086/322129. Bibcode: 2001AJ....122.2055G. 
  29. ↑ Brunthaler, A. (2000). "III Zw 2, the first superluminal jet in a Seyfert galaxy". Astronomy & Astrophysics Letters 357: 45. Bibcode: 2000A&A...357L..45B. 
  30. ↑ Ken Crosswell, "Malin 1: A Bizarre Galaxy Gets Slightly Less So" , 22 January 2007
  31. ↑ Moffet, Alan T. (1966). "The Structure of Radio Galaxies". Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics 4: 145–170. doi:10.1146/annurev.aa.04.090166.001045. Bibcode: 1966ARA&A...4..145M. 
  32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 "238.01. A Luminous Quasar at a Redshift of z=7.64", American Astronomical Society 237th Meeting, January 12, 2021, https://www.abstractsonline.com/pp8/#!/9243/presentation/1165, retrieved February 28, 2021 
  33. ↑ Sub-parsec-scale structure and evolution in Centaurus A Introduction  ; Tue 26 November, 15:27:29 PST 1996
  34. ↑ Saxena A.; Marinello M.; Overzier R.A.; Rottgering H.J.A. (2018). "Discovery of a radio galaxy at z = 5.72". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 480 (2): 2733. doi:10.1093/mnras/sty1996. Bibcode: 2018MNRAS.480.2733S. 
  35. ↑ Seymour, N.; Drouart, G.; Noirot, G.; Broderick, J. W.; Turner, R. J.; Shabala, S. S.; Stern, D. K.; Bellstedt, S. et al. (2022). "HST WFC3/Grism observations of the candidate ultra-high-redshift radio galaxy GLEAM J0917–0012". Publications of the Astronomical Society of Australia 39. doi:10.1017/pasa.2022.4. Bibcode: 2022PASA...39...16S. 
  36. ↑ Wolf, J.; Nandra, K.; Salvato, M.; Buchner, J.; Onoue, M.; Liu, T.; Merloni, A.; Ciroi, S. et al. (2023). "X-ray emission from a rapidly accreting narrow-line Seyfert 1 galaxy at z=6.56". Astronomy & Astrophysics 669: A127. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202244688. Bibcode: 2023A&A...669A.127W. 
  37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 The 2006 Giant Flare in PKS 2155-304 and Unidentified TeV Sources
  38. ↑ 38.0 38.1 Julie McEnery. "Time Variability of the TeV Gamma-Ray Emission from Markarian 421". Iac.es. http://www.iac.es/blazars/mcenery.html. 
  39. ↑ bNet, Ablaze from afar: astronomers may have identified the most distant "blazar" yet , Sept 2004
  40. ↑ Romani; David Sowards-Emmerd; Lincoln Greenhill; Peter Michelson (2004). "Q0906+6930: The Highest-Redshift Blazar". The Astrophysical Journal 610 (1): L9–L11. doi:10.1086/423201. Bibcode: 2004ApJ...610L...9R. 
  41. ↑ Tsvetanov, Zlatan I.; Hartig, George F.; Ford, Holland C.; Dopita, Michael A.; Kriss, Gerard A.; Pei, Yichuan C.; Dressel, Linda L.; Harms, Richard J. (1998). "M87: A Misaligned BL Lacertae Object?". The Astrophysical Journal 493 (2): L83–L86. doi:10.1086/311139. Bibcode: 1998ApJ...493L..83T. https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1998ApJ...493L..83T/abstract. 
  42. ↑ Koptelova, Ekaterina; Hwang, Chorng-Yuan (2022). "A BL Lacertae Object at a Cosmic Age of 800 Myr". The Astrophysical Journal Letters 929 (1): L7. doi:10.3847/2041-8213/ac61e0. Bibcode: 2022ApJ...929L...7K. 
  43. ↑ Rodríguez Zaurín, J.; Tadhunter, C. N.; González Delgado, R. M. (2008). "Optical spectroscopy of Arp220: the star formation history of the closest ULIRG". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 384 (3): 875–885. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2007.12658.x. Bibcode: 2008MNRAS.384..875R. 
  44. ↑ "APOD: 2012 January 4 - Starburst Galaxy IC 10". https://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap120104.html. 
  45. ↑ Bolatto, A. D.; Jackson, J. M.; Wilson, C. D.; Moriarty-Schieven, G. (2000). "Submillimeter Observations of IC 10: The Dust Properties and Neutral Carbon Content of a Low-Metallicity Starburst". Astrophysical Journal 532 (2): 909–921. doi:10.1086/308590. Bibcode: 2000ApJ...532..909B. 
  46. ↑ Science Daily, "'Monster' Starburst Galaxies Discovered in Early Universe" , NRAO, 13 March 2013 (accessed 13 March 2013)
  47. ↑ Vieira, J. D. (2013). "Dusty starburst galaxies in the early Universe as revealed by gravitational lensing". Nature 495 (7441): 344–347. doi:10.1038/nature12001. PMID 23485967. Bibcode: 2013Natur.495..344V. 
  48. ↑ Robertson, B. E. et al. (2023). "Identification and properties of intense star-forming galaxies at redshifts z > 10". Nature Astronomy 7 (5): 611–621. doi:10.1038/s41550-023-01921-1. 
  49. ↑ W. M. Keck Observatory (6 August 2015). "A new record: Keck Observatory measures most distant galaxy". Astronomy Now. http://astronomynow.com/2015/08/06/a-new-record-keck-observatory-measures-most-distant-galaxy/. 
  50. ↑ Mike Wall (5 August 2015). "Ancient Galaxy Is Most Distant Ever Found". Space.com. http://www.space.com/30170-most-distant-galaxy-discovered.html. 
  51. ↑ Oesch, P.A. (3 May 2015). "A Spectroscopic Redshift Measurement for a Luminous Lyman Break Galaxy at z=7.730 using Keck/MOSFIRE". The Astrophysical Journal 804 (2): L30. doi:10.1088/2041-8205/804/2/L30. Bibcode: 2015ApJ...804L..30O. 
  52. ↑ "Galaxy breaks record for farthest ever seen". Associated Press. CBC News. 6 May 2015. http://www.cbc.ca/news/technology/galaxy-breaks-record-for-farthest-ever-seen-1.3063187. 
  53. ↑ Shibuya, Takatoshi; Kashikawa, Nobunari; Ota, Kazuaki; Iye, Masanori; Ouchi, Masami; Furusawa, Hisanori; Shimasaku, Kazuhiro; Hattori, Takashi (2012). "The First Systematic Survey for Lyalpha Emitters at z = 7.3 with Red-sensitive Subaru/Suprime-Cam". The Astrophysical Journal 752 (2): 114. doi:10.1088/0004-637x/752/2/114. Bibcode: 2012ApJ...752..114S. 
  54. ↑ Ono, Yoshiaki; Ouchi, Masami; Mobasher, Bahram; Dickinson, Mark; Penner, Kyle; Shimasaku, Kazuhiro; Weiner, Benjamin J.; Kartaltepe, Jeyhan S. et al. (2012). "Spectroscopic Confirmation of Three z-dropout Galaxies at z = 6.844-7.213: Demographics of Lyalpha Emission in z ~ 7 Galaxies". The Astrophysical Journal 744 (2): 83. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/744/2/83. Bibcode: 2012ApJ...744...83O. 
  55. ↑ Vanzella, E.; Pentericci, L.; Fontana, A.; Grazian, A.; Castellano, M.; Boutsia, K.; Cristiani, S.; Dickinson, M. et al. (2011). "Spectroscopic Confirmation of Two Lyman Break Galaxies at Redshift Beyond 7". The Astrophysical Journal 730 (2): L35. doi:10.1088/2041-8205/730/2/l35. Bibcode: 2011ApJ...730L..35V. 
  56. ↑ Lehnert, M. D.; Nesvadba, N. P. H.; Cuby, J.-G.; Swinbank, A. M.; Morris, S.; Clément, B.; Evans, C. J.; Bremer, M. N. et al. (2010). "Spectroscopic confirmation of a galaxy at redshift z = 8.6". Nature 467 (7318): 940–942. doi:10.1038/nature09462. PMID 20962840. Bibcode: 2010Natur.467..940L. 
  57. ↑ Iye, MExpression error: Unrecognized word "et". (2006). "A galaxy at a redshift z = 6.96". Nature 443 (7108): 186–188. doi:10.1038/nature05104. PMID 16971942. Bibcode: 2006Natur.443..186I. 
  58. ↑ 58.0 58.1 Yoshi Taniguchi (2008). "Star Forming Galaxies at z > 5". Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union 3: 429–436. doi:10.1017/S1743921308020796. Bibcode: 2008IAUS..250..429T. 
  59. ↑ 59.0 59.1 PASJ: Publ. Astron. Soc. Jpn. 57, 165–182, 25 February 2005; The SUBARU Deep Field Project: Lymanα Emitters at a Redshift of 6.6
  60. ↑ 60.0 60.1 BBC News, Most distant galaxy detected , Tuesday, 25 March 2003, 14:28 GMT
  61. ↑ 61.0 61.1 SpaceRef, Subaru Telescope Detects the Most Distant Galaxy Yet and Expects Many More, Monday, 24 March 2003
  62. ↑ Kodaira; Taniguchi; Kashikawa; Kaifu; Ando; Karoji (2003). "The Discovery of Two Lyman-α Emitters Beyond Redshift 6 in the Subaru Deep Field". Publications of the Astronomical Society of Japan 55 (2): L17–L21. doi:10.1093/pasj/55.2.L17. Bibcode: 2003PASJ...55L..17K. 
  63. ↑ Hazel Muir (14 March 2002). "New record for Universe's most distant object". New Scientist. https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn2046-new-record-for-universes-most-distant-object.html. 
  64. ↑ "Far away stars light early cosmos". BBC News. 14 March 2002. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/1871043.stm. 
  65. ↑ Hu, E. M.; Cowie, L. L.; McMahon, R. G.; Capak, P.; Iwamuro, F.; Kneib, J.-P.; Maihara, T.; Motohara, K. (2002). "A Redshift z = 6.56 Galaxy behind the Cluster Abell 370". The Astrophysical Journal 568 (2): L75–L79. doi:10.1086/340424. Bibcode: 2002ApJ...568L..75H. 
  66. ↑ K2.1 HCM 6A — Discovery of a redshift z = 6.56 galaxy lying behind the cluster Abell 370
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  150. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named NYT-20150617
  151. ↑ "-log(100^(-x/5)+100^(-y/5))/log(100^(1/5))+26.74 where x=-26.74 and y=-6.5". http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=-log%28100%5E%28-x%2F5%29%2B100%5E%28-y%2F5%29%29%2Flog%28100%5E%281%2F5%29%29%2B26.74+where+x%3D-26.74+and+y%3D-6.5. 

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