Astronomy:List of galaxies

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Short description: List of some galaxies
This is one set of lists of galaxies. For even more lists, see Lists of galaxies.
Size (left) and distance (right) of a few well-known galaxies put to scale

There are an estimated 100 billion galaxies in all of the observable universe.[1] On the order of 100,000 galaxies make up the Local Supercluster, and about 51 galaxies are in the Local Group (see list of nearest galaxies for a complete list).

The first attempts at systematic catalogues of galaxies were made in the 1960s, with the Catalogue of Galaxies and Clusters of Galaxies listing 29,418 galaxies and galaxy clusters, and with the Morphological Catalogue of Galaxies, a putatively complete list of galaxies with photographic magnitude above 15, listing 30,642. In the 1980s, the Lyons Groups of Galaxies listed 485 galaxy groups with 3,933 member galaxies. Galaxy Zoo is a project aiming at a more comprehensive list: launched in July 2007, it has classified over one million galaxy images from The Sloan Digital Sky Survey, The Hubble Space Telescope and the Cosmic Assembly Near-Infrared Deep Extragalactic Legacy Survey.[2]

Named galaxies

This is a list of galaxies that are well known by something other than an entry in a catalog or list, or a set of coordinates, or a systematic designation.

Image Galaxy Constellation Origin of name Notes
False-colour image showing Alcyoneus with LOFAR radio data at 144 MHz (orange) and WISE infrared data at 3.4 micron (blue) overlaid.
 Alcyoneus Lynx A low-exitation, Fanaroff and Riley Class II radio galaxy, one of the largest discovered.
Andromeda I Andromeda Andromeda I was named because the galaxy is in the constellation Andromeda Andromeda I is a dwarf spheroidal galaxy (dSph) about 2.40 million light-years away in the constellation Andromeda. Andromeda I is part of the local group of galaxies and a satellite galaxy of the Andromeda Galaxy (M31). It is roughly 3.5 degrees south and slightly east of M31. As of 2005, it is the closest known dSph companion to M31 at an estimated projected distance of ~40 kpc or ~150,000 light-years.
Andromeda Galaxy Andromeda
Ambartsumian's Knot Ursa Major Appearance is similar to Ambartsumian's knot NGC 3561, also known as Arp 105, is a pair of interacting galaxies NGC 3561A and NGC 3561B within the galaxy cluster Abell 1185 in Ursa Major. It was discovered by British astronomer John Herschel on 30 March 1827.[6] Its common name is "the Guitar" and contains a small tidal dwarf galaxy known as Ambartsumian's Knot that is believed to be the remnant of the extensive tidal tail pulled out of one of the galaxies.
Antennae Galaxies Corvus Two colliding galaxies[3]
Backward Galaxy Centaurus
Barnard's Galaxy
Bear Paw Galaxy Lynx
Black Eye Galaxy Coma Berenices It has a spectacular dark band of absorbing dust in front of the galaxy's bright nucleus, giving rise to its nicknames of the "Black Eye" or "Evil Eye" galaxy.[4] Also known as "Sleeping Beauty Galaxy."
Blinking Galaxy Serpens
Bode's Galaxy Ursa Major Named for Johann Elert Bode who discovered this galaxy in 1774.[5] Also known as Messier 81. The largest galaxy in the M81 Group. It harbors a supermassive black hole 70 million times the mass of the Sun.
Butterfly Galaxies Virgo Looks are similar to a butterfly.[6]
Cartwheel Galaxy Sculptor
Cigar Galaxy Ursa Major
Circinus Galaxy Circinus
Cocoon Galaxy Canes Venatici
Coma Pinwheel Galaxy Coma Berenices
Comet Galaxy Sculptor
Condor Galaxy Pavo The largest known spiral galaxy, it has a diameter of over 665,300 light-years (204.0 kiloparsecs).[7] It is tidally disturbed by the smaller lenticular galaxy IC 4970.[8]
Cosmos Redshift 7 Sextans The name of this galaxy is based on a Redshift (z) measurement of nearly 7 (actually, z = 6.604).[9] Galaxy Cosmos Redshift 7 is reported to be the brightest of distant galaxies (z > 6) and to contain some of the earliest first stars (first generation; Population III) that produced the chemical elements needed for the later formation of planets and life as we know it.[9]
Dusty Hand Galaxy Camelopardalis
Eye of God Eridanus
Eye of Sauron Canes Venatici Due to its resemblance to the Eye of Sauron from The Lord of the Rings.[10]
Fireworks Galaxy Cygnus and Cepheus
Fried Egg Galaxy Pegasus
Godzilla Galaxy Perseus Its extremely large size[11]
Helix Galaxy Ursa Major
Grasshopper Lynx Named after its appearance to a grasshopper[12] Two colliding galaxies
Hidden Galaxy Camelopardalis The difficulty in observing this object makes it 'hidden'[13][14] though it can readily be detected even with binoculars.[15]
Hockey Stick Galaxies Canes Venatici
Hoag's Object Serpens Caput
Knife Edge Galaxy Draco
Large Magellanic Cloud Dorado/Mensa This is the fourth-largest galaxy in the Local Group, and forms a pair with the SMC, and from recent research, may not be part of the Milky Way system of satellites at all.[16]
Lindsay-Shapley Ring Volans
Little Sombrero Galaxy Pegasus
Malin 1 Coma Berenices Discovered and named by David Malin.[17]
Meathook Galaxy Volans After its appearance resembling a meathook.[18]
Medusa Merger Ursa Major
Sculptor Dwarf Galaxy Sculptor
Mice Galaxies Coma Berenices
Small Magellanic Cloud Tucana
Mayall's Object Ursa Major This is named after Nicholas Mayall, of the Lick Observatory, who discovered it.[19][20][21]
Milky Way Sagittarius (centre) The galaxy containing the Sun and its Solar System, and therefore Earth.
Needle Galaxy Coma Berenices
Wolf-Lundmark-Melotte Cetus
Paramecium Galaxy Pegasus Named after its appearance to the organism Paramecium It is included in the Atlas of Peculiar Galaxies in the category galaxies with detached segments.
Peekaboo Galaxy Hydra Galaxy, relatively nearby, is considered one of the most metal-poor ("extremely metal-poor" (XMP)), least chemically enriched, and seemingly primordial, galaxies known.[22][23]
Pinwheel Galaxy Ursa Major
Radio image of Porphyrion, a black hole jet system spanning an estimated 23 million light-years.
 Porphyrion Draco
Porpoise Galaxy Hydra Its appearance resembles a porpoise[24] Also known as the Penguin Galaxy
Sculptor Galaxy Sculptor
Skyrocket Galaxy Ursa Major
Sombrero Galaxy Virgo Similar in appearance to a sombrero.[25] Also known as Messier Object 104 or M104
Southern Pinwheel Galaxy Hydra
Spider Galaxy Boötes
Spiderweb Galaxy Hydra Its irregular shape and continuous structure resembles a spiderweb.[26]
Starfish Galaxy Ophiuchus
Sunflower Galaxy Canes Venatici
Tadpole Galaxy Draco The name comes from the resemblance of the galaxy to a tadpole.[27] This shape resulted from tidal interaction that drew out a long tidal tail.
Topsy Turvy Galaxy Reticulum The disorganized and chaotic appearance makes it look topsy turvy.[28]
Triangulum Galaxy Triangulum
UFO Galaxy Lynx Named after its resemblance to a UFO.[29]
Whale Galaxy Canes Venatici
Whirlpool Galaxy Canes Venatici

Naked-eye galaxies

This is a list of galaxies that are visible to the naked eye, for at the very least, keen-eyed observers in a very dark-sky environment that is high in altitude, during clear and stable weather.

Naked-eye galaxies
Galaxy Apparent
Magnitude 		Distance Constellation Notes
Milky Way −6.5[lower-alpha 1] 0 Sagittarius (centre) This is the galaxy containing the Sun and its Solar System, and therefore Earth. Most things visible to the naked eye in the sky are part of it, including the Milky Way composing the Zone of Avoidance.[30]
Large Magellanic Cloud 0.9 160 kly (49 kpc) Dorado/Mensa Visible only from the southern hemisphere. It is also the brightest patch of nebulosity in the sky.[30][31][32]
Small Magellanic Cloud (NGC 292) 2.7 200 kly (61 kpc) Tucana Visible only from the southern hemisphere.[30][33]
Andromeda Galaxy (M31, NGC 224) 3.4 2.5 Mly (770 kpc) Andromeda Once called the Great Andromeda Nebula, it is situated in the Andromeda constellation.[30][34]
Triangulum Galaxy (M33, NGC 598) 5.7 2.9 Mly (890 kpc) Triangulum Being a diffuse object, its visibility is strongly affected by even small amounts of light pollution, ranging from easily visible in direct vision in truly dark skies to a difficult averted vision object in rural/suburban skies.[35]
Centaurus A (NGC 5128) 6.84 13.7 Mly (4.2 Mpc) Centaurus Centaurus A has been spotted with the naked eye by Stephen James O'Meara.[36]
Bode's Galaxy (M81, NGC 3031) 6.94 12 Mly (3.7 Mpc) Ursa Major Highly experienced amateur astronomers may be able to see Messier 81 under exceptional observing conditions.[37][38][39]

Observational firsts

First Galaxy Constellation Year Notes
First spiral galaxy Whirlpool Galaxy Canes Venatici 1845 Lord William Parsons, Earl of Rosse discovered the first spiral nebula from observing M51 (recognition of the spiral shape without the recognition of the object as outside the Milky Way).[40]
Notion of galaxy Milky Way
& Andromeda Galaxy 		Sagittarius (centre)
& Andromeda 		1923
First Seyfert galaxy NGC 1068 (M77) Cetus 1943
(1908) 		The characteristics of Seyfert galaxies were first observed in M77 in 1908; however, Seyferts were defined as a class in 1943.[41]
First radio galaxy Cygnus A Cygnus 1951 Of several items, then called radio stars, Cygnus A was identified with a distant galaxy, being the first of many radio stars to become a radio galaxy.[42][43]
First quasar 3C 273 Virgo 1962
3C 48 Triangulum 1960
First superluminal galactic jet 3C 279 Virgo 1971
First low surface brightness galaxy Malin 1 Coma Berenices 1986 Malin 1 was the first verified LSB galaxy. LSB galaxies had been first theorized in 1976.[44]
First superluminal jet from a Seyfert III Zw 2 Pisces[45] 2000 [46]

Prototypes

This is a list of galaxies that became prototypes for a class of galaxies.

Prototype Galaxies
Class Galaxy Constellation Date Notes
BL Lac object BL Lacertae (BL Lac) Lacerta This AGN was originally catalogued as a variable star, and "stars" of its type are considered BL Lac objects.
Hoag-type Galaxy Hoag's Object Serpens Caput This is the prototype Hoag-type ring galaxy
Giant LSB galaxy Malin 1 Coma Berenices 1986 [47]
FR II radio galaxy
(double-lobed radio galaxy) 		Cygnus A Cygnus 1951 [48]
Starburst galaxy Cigar Galaxy Ursa Major
Flocculent spiral galaxy NGC 2841 Ursa Major

Closest and most distant-known galaxies by type

Title Galaxy Constellation Distance Notes
Closest galaxy Ursa Major III Ursa Major 32,600 light-years
(10 kiloparsecs) 		A proposed dwarf galaxy known as the Canis Major Overdensity may lie closer at 25,000 light-years, however its status as a galaxy is disputed.[49][50][51]
Most distant galaxy MoM-z14 Sextans z=14.44 Existed 280 million years after the Big Bang.[52]
Closest quasar Markarian 231 Ursa Major z=0.0415
Most distant quasar UHZ1 Sculptor z=10.1 Gravitationally lensed quasar behind Pandora's Cluster (Abell 2744). It is also the first quasar observed beyond a redshift of 10.[53][54]
Closest radio galaxy Centaurus A (NGC 5128, PKS 1322–427) Centaurus 13.7 Mly [55]
Most distant radio galaxy ILT J2336+1842 Pegasus z=6.6[56] Another radio galaxy, GLEAM J0917-0012, may either lie at z=2.01 or as distant as z=8.21.[57]
Closest Seyfert galaxy Circinus Galaxy Circinus 13 Mly Closest undisputed Seyfert galaxy. It has been proposed that the nearby (2.05 Mly) dwarf galaxy NGC 185 may also be a Seyfert,[58] though this status has been disputed.[59]
Most distant Seyfert galaxy HSC 0921+0007 Hydra z=6.56[60]
Closest blazar Markarian 421 (Mrk 421, Mkn 421, PKS 1101+384, LEDA 33452) Ursa Major z=0.030 This is a BL Lac object.[61][62]
Most distant-known blazar Q0906+6930 Ursa Major z=5.47 This is a flat spectrum radio-loud quasar-type blazar.[63][64]
Closest BL Lac object Centaurus A Centaurus 13.7 Mly Misaligned BL Lac nucleus.[65] Also the closest radio galaxy (see above)
Most distant BL Lac object FIRST J233153.20+112952.11 Pegasus z=6.57 [66]
Closest LINER
Most distant LINER z=
Closest LIRG
Most distant LIRG z=
Closest ULIRG IC 1127 (Arp 220/APG 220) Serpens Caput z=0.018 [67]
Most distant ULIRG z=
Closest starburst galaxy IC 10 (UGC 192, PGC 1305) Cassiopeia 750 ± 150 kpc (2,450,000 ± 489,000 ly) A mild starburst galaxy, this is the only such galaxy within the Local Group.[68][69]
Most distant starburst galaxy SPT 0243-49 Horologium z=5.698 [70][71]
Most distant spiral galaxy Zhúlóng Sextans z=5.2 [72]
Closest jellyfish galaxy IC 3418 Virgo 17 Mpc [73]
Most distant jellyfish galaxy COSMOS2020-635829 Sextans z=1.156 A candidate jellyfish galaxy.[74]

Closest galaxies

See also: Astronomy:List of nearest galaxies
5 Closest Galaxies
Rank Galaxy Distance Notes
1 Milky Way Galaxy 0 This is the galaxy containing the Sun and its Solar System, and therefore Earth.
2 Ursa Major III 0.032 Mly
3 Sagittarius Dwarf Spheroidal Galaxy 0.081 Mly
4 Large Magellanic Cloud 0.163 Mly
5 Small Magellanic Cloud 0.197 Mly
  • Mly represents millions of light-years, a measure of distance.
  • Distances are measured from Earth, with Earth being at zero.
Nearest Galaxies by Type
Title Galaxy Date Distance Notes
Nearest galaxy Milky Way always 0
Nearest galaxy to the Milky Way Sagittarius Dwarf Spheroidal Galaxy 1994 0.070 Mly
Nearest dwarf galaxy Sagittarius Dwarf Spheroidal Galaxy 1994 0.070 Mly
Nearest major galaxy to the Milky Way Andromeda Galaxy always 2.54 Mly
Nearest giant galaxy Maffei 1 1967 11 Mly
Nearest Neighboring Galaxy Title-holder
Galaxy Date Distance Notes
Ursa Major III 2023 0.01 Mly
Sagittarius Dwarf Spheroidal Galaxy 1994–2023 0.026 Mly
Large Magellanic Cloud antiquity–1994 0.163 Mly
Small Magellanic Cloud 1913–1914 0.197 Mly
Andromeda Galaxy 1923 2.5 Mly
  • Mly represents millions of light-years, a measure of distance.
  • Distances are measured from Earth, with Earth being at zero.

Most distant galaxies

See also: Astronomy:List of the most distant astronomical objects
Most Remote Galaxies by Type
Title Galaxy Date Redshift[lower-alpha 2] Notes
Most remote galaxy of any type, confirmed (spectroscopic redshift) MoM-z14 2025 z=14.44 As of its announcement in May 2025.[75]
Most remote quasar UHZ1 2023 z=10.3

As of its announcement in 2023.[76][77][78]

Most distant Lyman-break galaxy MoM-z14 2025 z=14.44 [75]
Timeline of Most Remote Galaxy Record-holders[lower-alpha 3]
Galaxy Date Distance
(z=Redshift)[lower-alpha 2] 		Notes
MoM-z14 2025– z=14.44 [75][79]
JADES-GS-z14-0 2024–2025 z=14.32 [80][75]
JADES-GS-z13-0 2012–2024 z=13.20 [80]
GN-z11 2016–2022 z=11.09
EGSY8p7
(EGSY-2008532660) 		2015–2016 z=8.68 This galaxy's redshift was determined by examining its Lyman-alpha emissions, which were released in August 2015.[81][82]
EGS-zs8-1 2015–2015 z=7.730 This was the most distant galaxy as of May 2015.[83][84]
Z8 GND 5296 2013–2015 z=7.51
SXDF-NB1006-2 2012–2013 z=7.215 [85]
GN-108036 2012–2012 z=7.213 [86]
BDF-3299 2012–2013 z=7.109 [87]
IOK-1 2006–2010 z=6.96 This was the most remote object known at the time of discovery. In 2009, gamma ray burst GRB 090423 was discovered at z=8.2, taking the title of most distant object. The next galaxy to hold the title also succeeded GRB 090423, that being UDFy-38135539.[88][89][90]
SDF J132522.3+273520 2005–2006 z=6.597 This was the remotest object known at time of discovery.[90][91]
SDF J132418.3+271455 2003–2005 z=6.578 This was the remotest object known at time of discovery.[91][92][93][94]
HCM-6A 2002–2003 z=6.56 This was the remotest object known at time of discovery. The galaxy is lensed by galaxy cluster Abell 370. This was the first galaxy, as opposed to quasar, found to exceed redshift 6. It exceeded the redshift of quasar SDSSp J103027.10+052455.0 of z=6.28[92][93][95][96][97][98]
SSA22−HCM1 1999–2002 z=5.74 This was the remotest object known at time of discovery. In 2000, the quasar SDSSp J104433.04-012502.2 was discovered at z=5.82, becoming the most remote object in the universe known. This was followed by another quasar, SDSSp J103027.10+052455.0 in 2001, the first object exceeding redshift 6, at z=6.28[99][100]
HDF 4-473.0 1998–1999 z=5.60 This was the remotest object known at the time of discovery.[100]
RD1 (0140+326 RD1) 1998 z=5.34 This was the remotest object known at time of discovery. This was the first object found beyond redshift 5.[100][101][102][103][104]
CL 1358+62 G1 & CL 1358+62 G2 1997–1998 z=4.92 These were the remotest objects known at the time of discovery. The pair of galaxies were found lensed by galaxy cluster CL1358+62 (z=0.33). This was the first time since 1964 that something other than a quasar held the record for being the most distant object in the universe. It exceeded the mark set by quasar PC 1247-3406 at z=4.897[100][102][103][105][106][107]

From 1964 to 1997, the title of most distant object in the universe were held by a succession of quasars.[107] That list is available at list of quasars.

8C 1435+63 1994–1997 z=4.25 This is a radio galaxy. At the time of its discovery, quasar PC 1247-3406 at z=4.73, discovered in 1991 was the most remote object known. This was the last radio galaxy to hold the title of most distant galaxy. This was the first galaxy, as opposed to quasar, that was found beyond redshift 4.[100][108][109][110]
4C 41.17 1990–1994 z=3.792 This is a radio galaxy. At the time of its discovery, quasar PC 1158+4635, discovered in 1989, was the most remote object known, at z=4.73 In 1991, quasar PC 1247-3406, became the most remote object known, at z=4.897[100][109][110][111][112]
1 Jy 0902+343 (GB6 B0902+3419, B2 0902+34) 1988–1990 z=3.395 This is a radio galaxy. At the time of discovery, quasar Q0051-279 at z=4.43, discovered in 1987, was the most remote object known. In 1989, quasar PC 1158+4635 was discovered at z=4.73, making it the most remote object known. This was the first galaxy discovered above redshift 3. It was also the first galaxy found above redshift 2.[100][112][113][114][115]
3C 256 1984–1988 z=1.819 This is a radio galaxy. At the time, the most remote object was quasar PKS 2000-330, at z=3.78, found in 1982.[100][116]
3C 241 1984 z=1.617 This is a radio galaxy. At the time, the most remote object was quasar PKS 2000-330, at z=3.78, found in 1982.[117][118]
3C 324 1983–1984 z=1.206 This is a radio galaxy. At the time, the most remote object was quasar PKS 2000-330, at z=3.78, found in 1982.[100][117][119]
3C 65 1982–1983 z=1.176 This is a radio galaxy. At the time, the most remote object was quasar OQ172, at z=3.53, found in 1974. In 1982, quasar PKS 2000-330 at z=3.78 became the most remote object.
3C 368 1982 z=1.132 This is a radio galaxy. At the time, the most remote object was quasar OQ172, at z=3.53, found in 1974.[100]
3C 252 1981–1982 z=1.105 This is a radio galaxy. At the time, the most remote object was quasar OQ172, at z=3.53, found in 1974.
3C 6.1 1979 – z=0.840 This is a radio galaxy. At the time, the most remote object was quasar OQ172, at z=3.53, found in 1974.[100][120]
3C 318 1976 – z=0.752 This is a radio galaxy. At the time, the most remote object was quasar OQ172, at z=3.53, found in 1974.[100]
3C 411 1975 – z=0.469 This is a radio galaxy. At the time, the most remote object was quasar OQ172, at z=3.53, found in 1974.[100]

From 1964 to 1997, the title of most distant object in the universe were held by a succession of quasars.[107] That list is available at list of quasars.

3C 295 1960– z=0.461 This is a radio galaxy. This was the remotest object known at time of discovery of its redshift. This was the last non-quasar to hold the title of most distant object known until 1997. In 1964, quasar 3C 147 became the most distant object in the universe known.[100][107][121][122][123]
LEDA 25177 (MCG+01-23-008) 1951–1960 z=0.2
(V=61000 km/s) 		This galaxy lies in the Hydra Supercluster. It is located at B1950.0  08h 55m 4s +03° 21′ and is the BCG of the fainter Hydra Cluster Cl 0855+0321 (ACO 732).[100][123][124][125][126][127][128][129]
LEDA 51975 (MCG+05-34-069) 1936– z=0.13
(V=39000 km/s) 		The brightest cluster galaxy of the Bootes cluster (ACO 1930), an elliptical galaxy at B1950.0  14h 30m 6s +31° 46′ apparent magnitude 17.8, was found by Milton L. Humason in 1936 to have a 40,000 km/s recessional redshift velocity.[127][130][131]
LEDA 20221 (MCG+06-16-021) 1932 – z=0.075
(V=23000 km/s) 		This is the BCG of the Gemini Cluster (ACO 568) and was located at B1950.0  07h 05m 0s +35° 04′[130][132]
BCG of WMH Christie's Leo Cluster 1931–1932 z=
(V=19700 km/s) 		[132][133][134][135]
BCG of Baede's Ursa Major Cluster 1930–1931 z=
(V=11700 km/s) 		[135][136]
NGC 4860 1929–1930 z=0.026
(V=7800 km/s) 		[137][138]
NGC 7619 1929 z=0.012
(V=3779 km/s) 		Using redshift measurements, NGC 7619 was the highest at the time of measurement. At the time of announcement, it was not yet accepted as a general guide to distance; however, later in the year, Edwin Hubble described redshift in relation to distance, leading to a seachange, and having this being accepted as an inferred distance.[137][139][140]
NGC 584 (Dreyer nebula 584) 1921–1929 z=0.006
(V=1800 km/s) 		At the time, nebula had yet to be accepted as independent galaxies. However, in 1923, galaxies were generally recognized as external to the Milky Way.[127][137][139][141][142][143][144]
M104 (NGC 4594) 1913–1921 z=0.004
(V=1180 km/s) 		This was the second galaxy whose redshift was determined; the first being Andromeda—which is approaching us and thus cannot have its redshift used to infer distance. Both were measured by Vesto Melvin Slipher. At this time, nebula had yet to be accepted as independent galaxies. NGC 4594 was originally measured as 1000 km/s, then refined to 1100, and then to 1180 in 1916.[137][141][144]
M81 antiquity –
20th century[lower-alpha 4] 		11.8 Mly z=-0.10) This is the lower bound, as it is remotest galaxy observable with the naked eye. It is 12 million light-years away. Redshift cannot be used to infer distance, because it is moving toward us faster than cosmological expansion.
Messier 101 1930–
Triangulum Galaxy 1924–1930
Andromeda Galaxy 1923–1924 In 1923, Edwin Hubble measured the distance to Andromeda, and settled the question of whether or not there were galaxies, or if everything was in the Milky Way.
Small Magellanic Cloud 1913–1923 This was the first intergalactic distance measured. In 1913, Ejnar Hertzsprung measures the distance to SMC using Cepheid variables.

Timeline notes

  • MACS0647-JD, discovered in 2012, with z=10.7, does not appear on this list because it has not been confirmed with a spectroscopic redshift.[145]
  • UDFy-38135539, discovered in 2009, with z=8.6, does not appear on this list because its claimed redshift is disputed.[146] Follow-up observations have failed to replicate the cited redshift measurement. * A1689-zD1, discovered in 2008, with z=7.6, does not appear on this list because it has not been confirmed with a spectroscopic redshift.
  • Abell 68 c1 and Abell 2219 c1, discovered in 2007, with z=9, do not appear on this list because they have not been confirmed.[147]
  • IOK4 and IOK5, discovered in 2007, with z=7, do not appear on this list because they have not been confirmed with a spectroscopic redshift.
  • STIS 123627+621755, discovered in 1999, with z=6.68, does not appear on this list because its redshift was based on an erroneous interpretation of an oxygen emission line as a hydrogen emission line.[148][149][150]
  • BR1202-0725 LAE, discovered in 1998 at z=5.64 does not appear on the list because it was not definitively pinned. BR1202-0725 (QSO 1202-07) refers to a quasar that the Lyman alpha emitting galaxy is near. The quasar itself lies at z=4.6947[101][104]
  • BR2237-0607 LA1 and BR2237-0607 LA2 were found at z=4.55 while investigating around the quasar BR2237-0607 in 1996. Neither of these appear on the list because they were not definitively pinned down at the time. The quasar itself lies at z=4.558[151][152]
  • Two absorption dropouts in the spectrum of quasar BR 1202-07 (QSO 1202-0725, BRI 1202-0725, BRI1202-07) were found, one in early 1996, another later in 1996. Neither of these appear on the list because they were not definitively pinned down at the time. The early one was at z=4.38, the later one at z=4.687, the quasar itself lies at z=4.695[100][153][154][155][156]
  • In 1986, a gravitationally lensed galaxy forming a blue arc was found lensed by galaxy cluster CL 2224-02 (C12224 in some references). However, its redshift was only determined in 1991, at z=2.237, by which time, it would no longer be the most distant galaxy known.[157][158]
  • An absorption drop was discovered in 1985 in the light spectrum of quasar PKS 1614+051 at z=3.21 This does not appear on the list because it was not definitively fixed down. At the time, it was claimed to be the first non-QSO galaxy found beyond redshift 3. The quasar itself is at z=3.197[100][159]
  • In 1975, 3C 123 was incorrectly determined to lie at z=0.637 (actually z=0.218).[160][161]
  • From 1964 to 1997, the title of most distant object in the universe was held by a succession of quasars.[107] That list is available at list of quasars.
  • In 1958, clusters Cl 0024+1654 and Cl 1447+2619 were estimated to have redshifts of z=0.29 and z=0.35, respectively. However, no galaxy was spectroscopically determined.[123]

Galaxies by brightness and power

Title Galaxy Data Notes
Intrinsically brightest galaxy Baby Boom Galaxy
Brightest galaxy to the naked eye Large Magellanic Cloud Apparent magnitude 0.6
Intrinsically faintest galaxy Ursa Major III Absolute magnitude +2.2
Lowest surface brightness galaxy Andromeda IX
Most luminous galaxy WISE J224607.57−052635.0 As of 21 May 2015, WISE-J224607.57-052635.0-20150521 is the most luminous galaxy discovered and releases 10,000 times more energy than the Milky Way galaxy, although smaller. Nearly 100 percent of the light escaping from this dusty galaxy is Infrared radiation.[162][163] (Image)
Brightest distant galaxy (z > 6) Cosmos Redshift 7

Galaxies by mass and density

Title Galaxy Data Notes
Least massive galaxy Segue 2 ~550,000 MSun
Most massive galaxy ESO 146-5 27×1012 MSun Central galaxy in Abell 3827, 1.4 Gly distant.[164]
Most dense galaxy M85-HCC1 This is an ultra-compact dwarf galaxy[165]
Least dense galaxy
Most massive spiral galaxy ISOHDFS 27 1.04×1012 MSun The preceding most massive spiral was UGC 12591[166]
Least massive galaxy with globular cluster(s) Andromeda I [167]

Galaxies by size

See also: Astronomy:List of largest galaxies
Title Galaxy Constellation Diameter Estimation method Notes
Smallest known galaxy Ursa Major III Ursa Major 3 parsecs (9.8 light-years)[168] Half-light radius
Largest known galaxy ESO 383-76 Centaurus 540.89 kiloparsecs (1,764,000 light-years)[169][lower-alpha 5] 90% total B-light Central galaxy of Abell 3571[170]
Largest spiral galaxy NGC 6872 Pavo 220 kiloparsecs (718,000 light-years) D25.5 isophote
Largest irregular galaxy UGC 6697 Leo 62.82 kiloparsecs (205,000 light-years) D25 isophote
Largest lenticular galaxy ESO 248-6 Eridanus 530.62 kiloparsecs (1,731,000 light-years) 90% total B-light
Largest starburst galaxy Abell 2125 BCG Ursa Minor 219.28 kiloparsecs (715,000 light-years) 2MASS K-band total mag
Largest radio galaxy TXS 0033+252 Andromeda 7,985 kiloparsecs (26,044,000 light-years)[171]

Interacting galaxies

Main article: Astronomy:Interacting galaxy
Galaxies in tidal interaction
Galaxies Data Notes
These three galaxies interact with each other and draw out tidal tails, which are dense enough to form star clusters. The bridge of gas between these galaxies is known as Arp's Loop.[172]
Tadpole Galaxy
Galaxies in non-merger significant collision
Galaxies Data Notes
Arp 299 (NGC 3690 & IC 694)
Galaxies disrupted post significant non-merger collisions
Galaxies Data Notes
Mayall's Object

Galaxy mergers

Galaxies undergoing near-equal merger
Galaxies Data Notes
Antennae Galaxies (Ringtail Galaxy, NGC 4038 & NGC 4039, Arp 244) 2 galaxies
Eyes Galaxies (NGC 4435 & NGC 4438, Arp 120) 2 galaxies
Butterfly Galaxies (Siamese Twins Galaxies, NGC 4567 & NGC 4568) 2 galaxies
Mice Galaxies (NGC 4676, NGC 4676A & NGC 4676B, IC 819 & IC 820, Arp 242) 2 galaxies
NGC 520 2 galaxies
NGC 2207 and IC 2163 (NGC 2207 & IC 2163) 2 galaxies
NGC 5090 and NGC 5091 (NGC 5090 & NGC 5091) 2 galaxies
NGC 7318 (Arp 319, NGC 7318A & NGC 7318B) 2 galaxies
Four galaxies in CL0958+4702 4 galaxies These four near-equals at the core of galaxy cluster CL 0958+4702 are in the process of merging.[173]
Galaxy protocluster LBG-2377 z=3.03 This was announced as the most distant galaxy merger ever discovered. It is expected that this proto-cluster of galaxies will merge to form a brightest cluster galaxy, and become the core of a larger galaxy cluster.[174][175]
Galaxy protocluster SPT2349-56 z=4.3 (14 galaxies) This protocluster is located at 12.4 billion light years from the Earth. Each of these galaxies are forming stars at 1000 times that of the Milky Way, nicknamed the Dusty Red Core.[176]
Recently merged galaxies of near-equals
Galaxy Data Notes
Starfish Galaxy (NGC 6240, IC 4625)
Galaxies undergoing disintegration by cannibalization
Disintegrating Galaxy Consuming Galaxy Notes
Canis Major Dwarf Galaxy Milky Way Galaxy
Virgo Stellar Stream Milky Way Galaxy
Sagittarius Dwarf Elliptical Galaxy Milky Way Galaxy
Objects considered destroyed galaxies
Defunct Galaxy Destroyer Notes
Omega Centauri Milky Way Galaxy This is now categorized a globular cluster of the Milky Way. However, it is considered the core of a dwarf galaxy that the Milky Way cannibalized.[177]
Mayall II Andromeda Galaxy
Gaia Sausage Milky Way Galaxy

Galaxies with some other notable feature

Galaxy name Distance Constellation Property Notes
SDSS J081421.68+522410 Lynx Giant radio lobes Also termed Alcyoneus. Its radio lobes are some of the largest known structure made by a single galaxy.[178]
M87 Virgo [clarification needed] This is the central galaxy of the Virgo Cluster, the central cluster of the Local Supercluster[179] It contains the first black hole ever imaged, in April 2019, by the Event Horizon Telescope. |- M102 Draco (Ursa Major) [clarification needed] This galaxy cannot be definitively identified, with the most likely candidate being NGC 5866, and a good chance of it being a misidentification of M101. Other candidates have also been suggested.
NGC 2770 Lynx "Supernova Factory" NGC 2770 is referred to as the "Supernova Factory" due to three recent supernovae occurring within it.
Arp 122 [clarification needed] Arp 122 is a collision of NGC 6040 and PGC 56942 or NGC 6039.
NGC 3314 (NGC 3314a and NGC 3314b) Hydra exact visual alignment This is a pair of spiral galaxies, one superimposed on another, at two separate and distinct ranges, and unrelated to each other. It is a rare chance visual alignment.
ESO 137-001 Triangulum Australe "tail" feature Lying in the galaxy cluster Abell 3627, this galaxy is being stripped of its gas by the pressure of the intracluster medium (ICM), due to its high speed traversal through the cluster, and is leaving a high density tail with large amounts of star formation. The tail features the largest amount of star formation outside of a galaxy seen so far. The galaxy has the appearance of a comet, with the head being the galaxy, and a tail of gas and stars.[180][181][182][183]
Comet Galaxy Sculptor interacting with a galaxy cluster Lying in galaxy cluster Abell 2667, this spiral galaxy is being tidally stripped of stars and gas through its high speed traversal through the cluster, having the appearance of a comet.
4C +37.11 230 Mpc Perseus Least separation between binary central black holes, at 24 ly (7.4 pc) OJ 287 has an inferred pair with a 12-year orbital period, and thus would be much closer than 4C 37.11's pair.
SDSS J150636.30+540220.9
 15h 06m 36.30s+54° 02′ 20.9″
("SDSS J1506+54") 		z = 0.608 Boötes Most efficient star production Most extreme example in the list of moderate-redshift galaxies with the highest density starbursts yet observed found in the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer data (Diamond-Stanic et al. 2012).[184]
Cosmos Redshift 7 z = 6.604 Sextans Brightest distant galaxy (z > 6, 12.9 billion light-years) Galaxy Cosmos Redshift 7 is reported to be the brightest of distant galaxies (z > 6) and to contain some of the earliest first stars (first generation; Population III) that produced the chemical elements needed for the later formation of planets and life as we know it.[9][185]
RUBIES-UDS-QG-z7 z = 7.29 Cetus Earliest known massive quiescent galaxy This galaxy is reported to be the most distant and therefore earliest (700 million years after the Big Bang) massive galaxy where star formation stopped, contrary to expectations based on current models of galaxy formation.[186]
AMORE6 z = 5.725 Sculptor Most pristine galaxy This galaxy is reported to be very metal poor, with the oxygen abundance of 12+log(O/H) < 5.8 (2 sigma), or <0.12% of Solar abundance, measured via JWST spectroscopy. This metallicity measurement is the lowest in the literature, making it the most pristine galaxy to date.[187]
Galaxies (left/top, right/bottom): NGC 7541, NGC 3021, NGC 5643, NGC 3254, NGC 3147, NGC 105, NGC 2608, NGC 3583, NGC 3147, MRK 1337, NGC 5861, NGC 2525, NGC 1015, UGC 9391, NGC 691, NGC 7678, NGC 2442, NGC 5468, NGC 5917, NGC 4639, NGC 3972, The Antennae Galaxies, NGC 5584, M106, NGC 7250, NGC 3370, NGC 5728, NGC 4424, NGC 1559, NGC 3982, NGC 1448, NGC 4680, M101, NGC 1365, NGC 7329, NGC 3447

See also

Lists of galaxies

Main article: Astronomy:Lists of galaxies

Notes

  1. ↑ Excluding the Sun. Using the formula for addition of apparent magnitudes, the added magnitudes of all stars in the Milky Way but the Sun (−6.50) and the Sun (−26.74) differs from the apparent magnitude of just the sun by less than 10^-8.[188]
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 z represents redshift, a measure of recessional velocity and inferred distance due to cosmological expansion.
  3. ↑ quasars and other AGN are not included on this list, since they are only galactic cores, unless the host galaxy was observed when it was most distant.
  4. ↑ antiquity – 1913 (based on redshift); antiquity – 1930 (based on Cepheids)
  5. ↑ The quick-look major axis physical diameter given by NED of 273.77 kiloparsecs (893,000 light-years) was based on an earlier distance estimate of 128 megaparsecs (417.5 million light-years). The quoted diameter in this infobox was based on NED's provided scale "Virgo + GA + Shapley" of 973 pc/arcsec multiplied with the given angular diameter of 555.90 arcsec.

References

  1. ↑ How Many Galaxies Are There? Astronomers Are Revealing the Enormity of the Universe
  2. ↑ Simmons, B.D. (2014). "Galaxy Zoo: CANDELS barred discs and bar fractions". MNRAS 445 (4): 3466–3474. doi:10.1093/mnras/stu1817. Bibcode: 2014MNRAS.445.3466S. 
  3. ↑ O'Meara, Stephen James (2002). The Caldwell Objects. Cambridge University Press. pp. 240–43. ISBN 978-0-521-82796-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=3Hg6YHgx9nAC&pg=PA242. 
  4. ↑ Rubin, Vera C. (January 1994). "Kinematics of NGC 4826: A sleeping beauty galaxy, not an evil eye". The Astronomical Journal 107: 173. doi:10.1086/116842. ISSN 0004-6256. Bibcode: 1994AJ....107..173R. 
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  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 Sobral, David; Matthee, Jorryt; Darvish, Behnam; Schaerer, Daniel; Mobasher, Bahram; Röttgering, Huub J. A.; Santos, Sérgio; Hemmati, Shoubaneh (4 June 2015). "Evidence For POPIII-Like Stellar Populations in the Most Luminous LYMAN-α Emitters at the Epoch Of Re-Ionisation: Spectroscopic Confirmation". The Astrophysical Journal 808 (2): 139. doi:10.1088/0004-637x/808/2/139. Bibcode: 2015ApJ...808..139S. 
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  23. ↑ Villard, Ray (6 December 2022). "Peekaboo! A Tiny, Hidden Galaxy Provides A Peek Into The Past - Tucked Away In A Local Pocket Of Dark Matter, A Late-Blooming Dwarf Galaxy Looks Like iI Belongs In The Early Universe". NASA. https://hubblesite.org/contents/news-releases/2022/news-2022-051. Retrieved 18 December 2022. 
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  36. ↑ "The Revised AINTNO 100". http://astronomy-mall.com/Adventures.In.Deep.Space/aintno.htm. 
  37. ↑ Stephen Uitti. "Farthest Naked Eye Object". http://www.uitti.net/stephen/astro/essays/farthest_naked_eye_object.shtml. 
  38. ↑ "Messier 81". SEDS. http://messier.seds.org/m/m081.html. 
  39. ↑ S. J. O'Meara (1998). The Messier Objects. Cambridge University Press. p. 228. ISBN 978-0-521-55332-2. https://archive.org/details/messierobjectsfi00omea. 
  40. ↑ SEDS, Lord Rosse's drawings of M51, his "Question Mark" "Spiral Nebula"
  41. ↑ SEDS, Seyfert Galaxies
  42. ↑ Burbidge, G. (1999). "Baade & Minkowski's Identification of Radio Sources". Astrophysical Journal 525: 569. Bibcode: 1999ApJ...525C.569B. 
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  85. ↑ Shibuya, Takatoshi; Kashikawa, Nobunari; Ota, Kazuaki; Iye, Masanori; Ouchi, Masami; Furusawa, Hisanori; Shimasaku, Kazuhiro; Hattori, Takashi (2012). "The First Systematic Survey for Lyalpha Emitters at z = 7.3 with Red-sensitive Subaru/Suprime-Cam". The Astrophysical Journal 752 (2): 114. doi:10.1088/0004-637x/752/2/114. Bibcode: 2012ApJ...752..114S. 
  86. ↑ Ono, Yoshiaki; Ouchi, Masami; Mobasher, Bahram; Dickinson, Mark; Penner, Kyle; Shimasaku, Kazuhiro; Weiner, Benjamin J.; Kartaltepe, Jeyhan S. et al. (2012). "Spectroscopic Confirmation of Three z-dropout Galaxies at z = 6.844-7.213: Demographics of Lyalpha Emission in z ~ 7 Galaxies". The Astrophysical Journal 744 (2): 83. doi:10.1088/0004-637X/744/2/83. Bibcode: 2012ApJ...744...83O. 
  87. ↑ Vanzella, E.; Pentericci, L.; Fontana, A.; Grazian, A.; Castellano, M.; Boutsia, K.; Cristiani, S.; Dickinson, M. et al. (2011). "Spectroscopic Confirmation of Two Lyman Break Galaxies at Redshift Beyond 7". The Astrophysical Journal 730 (2): L35. doi:10.1088/2041-8205/730/2/l35. Bibcode: 2011ApJ...730L..35V. 
  88. ↑ Lehnert, M. D.; Nesvadba, N. P. H.; Cuby, J.-G.; Swinbank, A. M.; Morris, S.; Clément, B.; Evans, C. J.; Bremer, M. N. et al. (2010). "Spectroscopic confirmation of a galaxy at redshift z = 8.6". Nature 467 (7318): 940–942. doi:10.1038/nature09462. PMID 20962840. Bibcode: 2010Natur.467..940L. 
  89. ↑ Iye, MExpression error: Unrecognized word "et". (2006). "A galaxy at a redshift z = 6.96". Nature 443 (7108): 186–188. doi:10.1038/nature05104. PMID 16971942. Bibcode: 2006Natur.443..186I. 
  90. ↑ 90.0 90.1 Yoshi Taniguchi (2008). "Star Forming Galaxies at z > 5". Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union 3: 429–436. doi:10.1017/S1743921308020796. Bibcode: 2008IAUS..250..429T. 
  91. ↑ 91.0 91.1 PASJ: Publ. Astron. Soc. Jpn. 57, 165–182, 25 February 2005; The SUBARU Deep Field Project: Lymanα Emitters at a Redshift of 6.6
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  93. ↑ 93.0 93.1 SpaceRef, Subaru Telescope Detects the Most Distant Galaxy Yet and Expects Many More, Monday, 24 March 2003
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  95. ↑ Hazel Muir (14 March 2002). "New record for Universe's most distant object". New Scientist. https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn2046-new-record-for-universes-most-distant-object.html. 
  96. ↑ "Far away stars light early cosmos". BBC News. 14 March 2002. https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/1871043.stm. 
  97. ↑ Hu, E. M.; Cowie, L. L.; McMahon, R. G.; Capak, P.; Iwamuro, F.; Kneib, J.-P.; Maihara, T.; Motohara, K. (2002). "A Redshift z = 6.56 Galaxy behind the Cluster Abell 370". The Astrophysical Journal 568 (2): L75–L79. doi:10.1086/340424. Bibcode: 2002ApJ...568L..75H. 
  98. ↑ K2.1 HCM 6A — Discovery of a redshift z = 6.56 galaxy lying behind the cluster Abell 370
  99. ↑ Hu, Esther M.; McMahon, Richard G.; Cowie, Lennox L. (1999). "An Extremely Luminous Galaxy at z = 5.74". The Astrophysical Journal 522 (1): L9–L12. doi:10.1086/312205. Bibcode: 1999ApJ...522L...9H. 
  100. ↑ 100.00 100.01 100.02 100.03 100.04 100.05 100.06 100.07 100.08 100.09 100.10 100.11 100.12 100.13 100.14 100.15 100.16 Daniel Stern; Hyron Spinrad (1999). "Search Techniques for Distant Galaxies". Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific 111 (766): 1475–1502. doi:10.1086/316471. Bibcode: 1999PASP..111.1475S. http://nedwww.ipac.caltech.edu/level5/Sept04/Stern/Stern1.html. 
  101. ↑ 101.0 101.1 John Noble Wilford (20 October 1998). "Peering Back in Time, Astronomers Glimpse Galaxies Aborning". The New York Times. https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9B0DEFDD123DF933A15753C1A96E958260. 
  102. ↑ 102.0 102.1 Astronomy Picture of the Day, A Baby Galaxy , 24 March 1998
  103. ↑ 103.0 103.1 Arjun Dey; Hyron Spinrad; Daniel Stern; Graham; Chaffee (1998). "A Galaxy at z=5.34". The Astrophysical Journal 498 (2): L93–L97. doi:10.1086/311331. Bibcode: 1998ApJ...498L..93D. 
  104. ↑ 104.0 104.1 "Previous What's New in Cosmology's". http://www.astro.ucla.edu/~wright/old_new_cosmo.html#12Mar98. 
  105. ↑ Franx, Marijn; Illingworth, Garth D.; Kelson, Daniel D.; Van Dokkum, Pieter G.; Tran, Kim-Vy (1997). "A Pair of Lensed Galaxies at z = 4.92 in the Field of CL 1358+62". The Astrophysical Journal 486 (2): L75–L78. doi:10.1086/310844. Bibcode: 1997ApJ...486L..75F. 
  106. ↑ Astronomy Picture of the Day, Behind CL1358+62: A New Farthest Object , 31 July 1997
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  143. ↑ Vesto Melvin Slipher (19 January 1921). "DREYER NEBULA NO. 584 INCONCEIVABLY DISTANT; Dr. Slipher Says the Celestial Speed Champion Is 'Many Millions of Light Years' Away". The New York Times. https://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9906E2DA153CE533A2575AC1A9679C946095D6CF. 
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  145. ↑ Coe, Dan; Zitrin, Adi; Carrasco, Mauricio; Shu, Xinwen; Zheng, Wei; Postman, Marc; Bradley, Larry; Koekemoer, Anton et al. (2013). "CLASH: Three Strongly Lensed Images of a Candidate z ≈ 11 Galaxy". The Astrophysical Journal 762 (1): 32. doi:10.1088/0004-637x/762/1/32. Bibcode: 2013ApJ...762...32C. 
  146. ↑ Lehnert, M. D.; Nesvadba, N. P. H.; Cuby, J.-G.; Swinbank, A. M.; Morris, S.; Clément, B.; Evans, C. J.; Bremer, M. N. et al. (2010). "Spectroscopic confirmation of a galaxy at redshift z = 8.6". Nature 467 (7318): 940–942. doi:10.1038/nature09462. PMID 20962840. Bibcode: 2010Natur.467..940L. 
  147. ↑ David Shiga (10 July 2007). "Baby galaxies sighted at dawn of universe". New Scientist. https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn12233. 
  148. ↑ Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Lab scientists revoke status of space object
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  150. ↑ BBC News, Hubble spies most distant object, Thursday, 15 April 1999
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  153. ↑ "ESO Astronomers Detect a Galaxy at the Edge of the Universe" (Press release). European Southern Observatory (ESO). 15 September 1995. eso9526. Archived from the original on 28 November 2010. Retrieved 21 October 2018.
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  155. ↑ Wampler, E. J. (1996). "High resolution observations of the QSO BR 1202-0725: deuterium and ionic abundances at redshifts above z=4". Astronomy & Astrophysics 316: 33. Bibcode: 1996A&A...316...33W. 
  156. ↑ Elston, Richard; Bechtold, Jill; Hill, Gary J.; Ge, Jian (1996). "A Redshift 4.38 MG II Absorber toward BR 1202-0725". Astrophysical Journal Letters 456: L13. doi:10.1086/309853. Bibcode: 1996ApJ...456L..13E. 
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  170. ↑ Dupke, Renato A.; Elvas, A.; Irwin, J. (May 1, 2012). "A3571, The Brightest Line of Sight Bullet?". American Astronomical Society Meeting Abstracts #220 220: 514.01. Bibcode: 2012AAS...22051401D. https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012AAS...22051401D. 
  171. ↑ Mostert, Rafaël (2024). "Constraining the giant radio galaxy population with machine learning and Bayesian inference". Astronomy & Astrophysics 691: A185. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/202348897. Bibcode: 2024A&A...691A.185M. 
  172. ↑ Sky and Telescope, Stars in the Middle of Nowhere , 10 January 2008
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  174. ↑ Larry O'Hanlon (9 April 2008). "Found! Oldest galaxy pile-up". http://www.abc.net.au/science/articles/2008/04/09/2211965.htm. 
  175. ↑ Cooke, Jeff; Barton, Elizabeth J.; Bullock, James S.; Stewart, Kyle R.; Wolfe, Arthur M. (2008). "A Candidate Brightest Protocluster Galaxy atz= 3.03". The Astrophysical Journal 681 (2): L57–L60. doi:10.1086/590406. Bibcode: 2008ApJ...681L..57C. 
  176. ↑ Michelle Starr (26 April 2018). "This Megamerger of 14 Galaxies Could Become The Most Massive Structure in Our Universe". https://www.sciencealert.com/galaxy-megamergers-in-the-early-universe-protoclusters-spt2349-56-dusty-red-core. 
  177. ↑ "Black hole found in Omega Centauri". United Press International. 10 April 2008. http://www.upi.com/Science_News/2008/04/10/Black_hole_found_in_Omega_Centauri/UPI-67471207850855/. 
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  179. ↑ "Local Large-Scale Structure". Hayden Planetarium. 15 September 2008. http://haydenplanetarium.org/universe/duguide/exgt_local_structure.php. 
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  181. ↑ "Orphan' Stars Found in Long Galaxy Tail" (Press release). NASA. 20 September 2007. Archived from the original on 4 November 2008.
  182. ↑ Sun (2007). "H-alpha tail, intracluster HII regions and star-formation: ESO137-001 in Abell 3627". The Astrophysical Journal 671 (1): 190–202. doi:10.1086/522690. Bibcode: 2007ApJ...671..190S. 
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  184. ↑ Geach, J. E. (April 2013). "A Redline Starburst: CO(2–1) Observations of an Eddington-Limited Galaxy Reveal Star Formation At Its Most Extreme". The Astrophysical Journal Letters 767 (1): L17. doi:10.1088/2041-8205/767/1/L17. Bibcode: 2013ApJ...767L..17G. 
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  186. ↑ Weibel, Andrea; de Graaff, Anna; Setton, David J.; Miller, Tim B.; Oesch, Pascal A.; Brammer, Gabriel; Lagos, Claudia D. P.; Whitaker, Katherine E. et al. (April 2025). "RUBIES Reveals a Massive Quiescent Galaxy at z = 7.3" (in en). The Astrophysical Journal 983 (1): 11. doi:10.3847/1538-4357/adab7a. ISSN 0004-637X. Bibcode: 2025ApJ...983...11W. 
  187. ↑ Morishita, Takahiro; Zhaoran, Liu; Stiavelli, Massimo; Treu, Tommaso; Bergamini, Pietro; Zhang, Yechi (July 2025). "Pristine Massive Star Formation Caught at the Break of Cosmic Dawn". arXiv:2507.10521 [astro-ph.CO].
  188. ↑ "-log(100^(-x/5)+100^(-y/5))/log(100^(1/5))+26.74 where x=-26.74 and y=-6.5". http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=-log%28100%5E%28-x%2F5%29%2B100%5E%28-y%2F5%29%29%2Flog%28100%5E%281%2F5%29%29%2B26.74+where+x%3D-26.74+and+y%3D-6.5. 



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