Engineering:Xeon Phi

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Short description: Series of x86 manycore processors from Intel
Xeon Phi
Intel Xeon Phi 5100.jpg
Xeon Phi 5100 without heatsink
General Info
Launched2010
Discontinued2020[1]
Marketed byIntel
Designed byIntel
Common manufacturer(s)
  • Intel
Performance
Max. CPU clock rate1.053 GHz to 1.7 GHz
Cache
L1 cache32 KB per core
L2 cache512 KB per core
Architecture and classification
ApplicationSupercomputers
High-performance computing
Min. feature size45 nm transistors to 14 nm transistors (tri-gate)
MicroarchitectureIntel Many Integrated Cores (MIC)
Instruction setx86-64
Extensions
Physical specifications
Cores
  • 32-72
Socket(s)
  • LGA 3647
  • PCI Express 3.0 x16
Products, models, variants
Core name(s)
  • Knights Ferry
  • Knights Conrner
  • Knights Landing
  • Knights Mill
  • Knights Hill
Model(s)
    • Xeon Phi 3100
    • Xeon Phi 5100
    • Xeon Phi 7100
    • Xeon Phi 7200
History

Xeon Phi[2] was a series of x86 manycore processors designed and made by Intel. It was intended for use in supercomputers, servers, and high-end workstations. Its architecture allowed use of standard programming languages and application programming interfaces (APIs) such as OpenMP.[3][4]

Xeon Phi launched in 2010. Since it was originally based on an earlier GPU design (codenamed "Larrabee") by Intel[5] that was cancelled in 2009,[6] it shared application areas with GPUs. The main difference between Xeon Phi and a GPGPU like Nvidia Tesla was that Xeon Phi, with an x86-compatible core, could, with less modification, run software that was originally targeted to a standard x86 CPU.

Initially in the form of PCI Express-based add-on cards, a second-generation product, codenamed Knights Landing, was announced in June 2013.[7] These second-generation chips could be used as a standalone CPU, rather than just as an add-in card.

The Tianhe-2 supercomputer uses Xeon Phi processors.

In June 2013, the Tianhe-2 supercomputer at the National Supercomputer Center in Guangzhou (NSCC-GZ) was announced[8] as the world's fastest supercomputer ((As of June 2023), it is No. 10[9]). It used Intel Xeon Phi coprocessors and Ivy Bridge-EP Xeon E5 v2 processors to achieve 33.86 petaFLOPS.[10]

The Xeon Phi product line directly competed with Nvidia's Tesla and AMD Radeon Instinct lines of deep learning and GPGPU cards. It was discontinued due to a lack of demand and Intel's problems with its 10nm node.[11]

History

Code name Process Comments
Knights Ferry 45 nm offered as PCI Express card; derived from Larrabee project
Knights Corner 22 nm derived from P54C; vector processing unit; first device to be announced as Xeon Phi
Knights Landing 14 nm derived from Silvermont/Airmont (Intel Atom);[12] AVX-512
Knights Mill 14 nm nearly identical to Knights Landing but optimized for deep learning
Knights Hill 10 nm cancelled
A lineup of the Xeon Phi coprocessors. From the left; Knights Ferry, Knights Corner, Knights Landing.

Background

The Larrabee microarchitecture (in development since 2006[13]) introduced very wide (512-bit) SIMD units to a x86 architecture based processor design, extended to a cache-coherent multiprocessor system connected via a ring bus to memory; each core was capable of four-way multithreading. Due to the design being intended for GPU as well as general purpose computing, the Larrabee chips also included specialised hardware for texture sampling.[14][15] The project to produce a retail GPU product directly from the Larrabee research project was terminated in May 2010.[16]

Another contemporary Intel research project implementing x86 architecture on a many-multicore processor was the 'Single-chip Cloud Computer' (prototype introduced 2009[17]), a design mimicking a cloud computing computer datacentre on a single chip with multiple independent cores: the prototype design included 48 cores per chip with hardware support for selective frequency and voltage control of cores to maximize energy efficiency, and incorporated a mesh network for inter-chip messaging. The design lacked cache-coherent cores and focused on principles that would allow the design to scale to many more cores.[18]

The Teraflops Research Chip (prototype unveiled 2007[19]) is an experimental 80-core chip with two floating-point units per core, implementing a 96-bit VLIW architecture instead of the x86 architecture.[20] The project investigated intercore communication methods, per-chip power management, and achieved 1.01 TFLOPS at 3.16 GHz consuming 62 W of power.[21][22]

Knights Ferry

Intel's Many Integrated Core (MIC) prototype board, named Knights Ferry, incorporating a processor codenamed Aubrey Isle was announced 31 May 2010. The product was stated to be a derivative of the Larrabee project and other Intel research including the Single-chip Cloud Computer.[23][24]

The development product was offered as a PCIe card with 32 in-order cores at up to 1.2 GHz with four threads per core, 2 GB GDDR5 memory,[25] and 8 MB coherent L2 cache (256 KB per core with 32 KB L1 cache), and a power requirement of ~300 W,[25] built at a 45 nm process.[26] In the Aubrey Isle core a 1,024-bit ring bus (512-bit bi-directional) connects processors to main memory.[27] Single-board performance has exceeded 750 GFLOPS.[26] The prototype boards only support single-precision floating-point instructions.[28]

Initial developers included CERN, Korea Institute of Science and Technology Information (KISTI) and Leibniz Supercomputing Centre. Hardware vendors for prototype boards included IBM, SGI, HP, Dell and others.[29]

Knights Corner

The Knights Corner product line is made at a 22 nm process size, using Intel's Tri-gate technology with more than 50 cores per chip, and is Intel's first many-cores commercial product.[23][26]

In June 2011, SGI announced a partnership with Intel to use the MIC architecture in its high-performance computing products.[30] In September 2011, it was announced that the Texas Advanced Computing Center (TACC) will use Knights Corner cards in their 10-petaFLOPS "Stampede" supercomputer, providing 8 petaFLOPS of compute power.[31] According to "Stampede: A Comprehensive Petascale Computing Environment" the "second-generation Intel (Knights Landing) MICs will be added when they become available, increasing Stampede's aggregate peak performance to at least 15 PetaFLOPS."[32]

On 15 November 2011, Intel showed an early silicon version of a Knights Corner processor.[33][34]

On 5 June 2012, Intel released open source software and documentation regarding Knights Corner.[35]

On 18 June 2012, Intel announced at the 2012 Hamburg International Supercomputing Conference that Xeon Phi will be the brand name used for all products based on their Many Integrated Core architecture.[2][36][37][38][39][40][41] In June 2012, Cray announced it would be offering 22 nm 'Knight's Corner' chips (branded as 'Xeon Phi') as a co-processor in its 'Cascade' systems.[42][43]

In June 2012, ScaleMP announced a virtualization update allowing Xeon Phi as a transparent processor extension, allowing legacy MMX/SSE code to run without code changes.[44] An important component of the Intel Xeon Phi coprocessor's core is its vector processing unit (VPU).[45] The VPU features a novel 512-bit SIMD instruction set, officially known as Intel Initial Many Core Instructions (Intel IMCI). Thus, the VPU can execute 16 single-precision (SP) or 8 double-precision (DP) operations per cycle. The VPU also supports Fused Multiply-Add (FMA) instructions and hence can execute 32 SP or 16 DP floating point operations per cycle. It also provides support for integers. The VPU also features an Extended Math Unit (EMU) that can execute operations such as reciprocal, square root, and logarithm, thereby allowing these operations to be executed in a vector fashion with high bandwidth. The EMU operates by calculating polynomial approximations of these functions.

On 12 November 2012, Intel announced two Xeon Phi coprocessor families using the 22 nm process size: the Xeon Phi 3100 and the Xeon Phi 5110P.[46][47][48] The Xeon Phi 3100 will be capable of more than 1 teraFLOPS of double-precision floating-point instructions with 240 GB/s memory bandwidth at 300 W.[46][47][48] The Xeon Phi 5110P will be capable of 1.01 teraFLOPS of double-precision floating-point instructions with 320 GB/s memory bandwidth at 225 W.[46][47][48] The Xeon Phi 7120P will be capable of 1.2 teraFLOPS of double-precision floating-point instructions with 352 GB/s memory bandwidth at 300 W.

On 17 June 2013, the Tianhe-2 supercomputer was announced[8] by TOP500 as the world's fastest. Tianhe-2 used Intel Ivy Bridge Xeon and Xeon Phi processors to achieve 33.86 petaFLOPS. It was the fastest on the list for two and a half years, lastly in November 2015.[49]

Design and programming

The cores of Knights Corner are based on a modified version of P54C design, used in the original Pentium.[50] The basis of the Intel MIC architecture is to leverage x86 legacy by creating an x86-compatible multiprocessor architecture that can use existing parallelization software tools.[26] Programming tools include OpenMP,[51] OpenCL,[52] Cilk/Cilk Plus and specialised versions of Intel's Fortran, C++[53] and math libraries.[54]

Design elements inherited from the Larrabee project include x86 ISA, 4-way SMT per core, 512-bit SIMD units, 32 KB L1 instruction cache, 32 KB L1 data cache, coherent L2 cache (512 KB per core[55]), and ultra-wide ring bus connecting processors and memory.

The Knights Corner 512-bit SIMD instructions share many intrinsic functions with AVX-512 extension . The instruction set documentation is available from Intel under the extension name of KNC.[56][57][58][59]

Models of Xeon Phi X100 Series
Name Serial Code Cores
(Threads @ 4× core)
 Clock (MHz) L2
cache 		GDDR5 ECC memory Peak DP
compute
(GFLOPS) 		TDP
(W) 		Cooling
system 		Form factor Released
Base Turbo Quantity Channels BW
GB/s
Xeon Phi 3110X[60] SE3110X 061 (244) 1053 - 30.5 MB 06 GB 12 240 1028 300 Bare board PCIe 2.0 x16 card November, 2012
08 GB 16 320
Xeon Phi 3120A[61] SC3120A 057 (228) 1100 - 28.5 MB 06 GB 12 240 1003 300 Fan/heatsink 17 June 2013
Xeon Phi 3120P [62] SC3120P 057 (228) 1100 - 28.5 MB 06 GB 12 240 1003 300 Passive heatsink 17 June 2013
Xeon Phi 31S1P[63] BC31S1P 057 (228) 1100 - 28.5 MB 08 GB 16 320 1003 270 Passive heatsink 17 June 2013
Xeon Phi 5110P[64] SC5110P 060 (240) 1053 - 30.0 MB 08 GB 16 320 1011 225 Passive heatsink 12 Nov 2012
Xeon Phi 5120D[65] SC5120D 060 (240) 1053 - 30.0 MB 08 GB 16 352 1011 245 Bare board SFF 230-pin card 17 June 2013
BC5120D
Xeon Phi SE10P[66] SE10P 061 (244) 1100 - 30.5 MB 08 GB 16 352 1074 300 Passive heatsink PCIe 2.0 x16 card 12 Nov. 2012
Xeon Phi SE10X[67] SE10X 061 (244) 1100 - 30.5 MB 08 GB 16 352 1074 300 Bare board 12 Nov. 2012
Xeon Phi 7110P[68] SC7110P 061 (244) 1100 1250 30.5 MB 16 GB 16 352 1220 300 Passive heatsink ???
Xeon Phi 7110X[69] SC7110X 061 (244) 1250 ??? 30.5 MB 16 GB 16 352 1220 300 Bare board ???
Xeon Phi 7120A[70] SC7120A 061 (244) 1238 1333 30.5 MB 16 GB 16 352 1208 300 Fan/heatsink 6 April 2014
Xeon Phi 7120D[71] SC7120D 061 (244) 1238 1333 30.5 MB 16 GB 16 352 1208 270 Bare board SFF 230-pin card March ??, 2014
Xeon Phi 7120P[72] SC7120P 061 (244) 1238 1333 30.5 MB 16 GB 16 352 1208 300 Passive heatsink PCIe 2.0 x16 card 17 June 2013
Xeon Phi 7120X[73] SC7120X 061 (244) 1238 1333 30.5 MB 16 GB 16 352 1208 300 Bare board 17 June 2013

Knights Landing

Intel Xeon Phi Knights Landing engineering sample
The same processor, delidded
Die shot

Code name for the second-generation MIC architecture product from Intel.[32] Intel officially first revealed details of its second-generation Intel Xeon Phi products on 17 June 2013.[10] Intel said that the next generation of Intel MIC Architecture-based products will be available in two forms, as a coprocessor or a host processor (CPU), and be manufactured using Intel's 14 nm process technology. Knights Landing products will include integrated on-package memory for significantly higher memory bandwidth.

Knights Landing contains up to 72 Airmont (Atom) cores with four threads per core,[74][75] using LGA 3647 socket[76] supporting up to 384 GB of "far" DDR4 2133 RAM and 8–16 GB of stacked "near" 3D MCDRAM, a version of the Hybrid Memory Cube. Each core has two 512-bit vector units and supports AVX-512 SIMD instructions, specifically the Intel AVX-512 Foundational Instructions (AVX-512F) with Intel AVX-512 Conflict Detection Instructions (AVX-512CD), Intel AVX-512 Exponential and Reciprocal Instructions (AVX-512ER), and Intel AVX-512 Prefetch Instructions (AVX-512PF). Support for IMCI has been removed in favor of AVX-512.[77]

The National Energy Research Scientific Computing Center announced that Phase 2 of its newest supercomputing system "Cori" would use Knights Landing Xeon Phi coprocessors.[78]

On 20 June 2016, Intel launched the Intel Xeon Phi product family x200 based on the Knights Landing architecture, stressing its applicability to not just traditional simulation workloads, but also to machine learning.[79][80] The model lineup announced at launch included only Xeon Phi of bootable form-factor, but two versions of it: standard processors and processors with integrated Intel Omni-Path architecture fabric.[81] The latter is denoted by the suffix F in the model number. Integrated fabric is expected to provide better latency at a lower cost than discrete high-performance network cards.[79]

On 14 November 2016, the 48th list of TOP500 contained 2 systems using Knights Landing in the Top 10.[82]

The PCIe based co-processor variant of Knight's Landing was never offered to the general market and was discontinued by August 2017.[83] This included the 7220A, 7240P and 7220P coprocessor cards.

Intel announced they were discontinuing Knights Landing in summer 2018.[84]

Models

All models can boost to their peak speeds, adding 200 MHz to their base frequency when running just one or two cores. When running from three to the maximum number of cores, the chips can only boost 100 MHz above the base frequency. All chips run high-AVX code at a frequency reduced by 200 MHz.[85]

Models of Xeon Phi X200 Coprocessor Series
Name Serial Code Cores
(Threads @ 4× core)
 Clock (MHz) L2
cache 		MCDRAM memory DDR4 memory TDP
(W) 		Cooling
system 		Form factor Released
Base Turbo Quantity BW Capacity BW
Xeon Phi 7220A[86] SC7220A 68 (272) 1200 1400 34 MB 16 GB 400+ GB/s 384 GB 102.4 GB/s 275 Active heatsink PCIe 3.0 x16 card ???
Xeon Phi 7220P[87] SC7220P Passive heatsink
Xeon Phi 7240P[88] SC7240P 1300 1500
Models of Xeon Phi X200 CPU Series
Xeon Phi
7200 Series 		sSpec
number 		Cores
(Threads) 		Clock (MHz) L2
cache 		MCDRAM memory DDR4 memory Peak DP
compute 		TDP
(W) 		Socket Release date Part number
Base Turbo Quantity BW Capacity BW
Xeon Phi 7210[89] SR2ME (B0) 64 (256) 1300 1500 32 MB 16 GB 400+ GB/s 384 GB 102.4 GB/s 2662
GFLOPS 		215 SVLCLGA3647 20 June 2016 HJ8066702859300
SR2X4 (B0)
Xeon Phi 7210F[90] SR2X5 (B0) 230 HJ8066702975000
Xeon Phi 7230[91] SR2MF (B0) 215 HJ8066702859400
SR2X3 (B0)
Xeon Phi 7230F[92] SR2X2 (B0) 230 HJ8066702269002
Xeon Phi 7250[93] SR2MD (B0) 68 (272) 1400 1600 34 MB 3046
GFLOPS[94] 		215 HJ8066702859200
SR2X1 (B0)
Xeon Phi 7250F[95] SR2X0 (B0) 230 HJ8066702268900
Xeon Phi 7290[96] SR2WY (B0) 72 (288) 1500 1700 36 MB 3456
GFLOPS 		245 HJ8066702974700
Xeon Phi 7290F[97] SR2WZ (B0) 260 HJ8066702975200

Knights Mill

Knights Mill is Intel's codename for a Xeon Phi product specialized in deep learning,[98] initially released in December 2017.[99] Nearly identical in specifications to Knights Landing, Knights Mill includes optimizations for better utilization of AVX-512 instructions and enables four-way hyper-threading. Single-precision and variable-precision floating-point performance increased, at the expense of double-precision floating-point performance.

Models
Models of Xeon Phi X205 CPU Series
Xeon Phi
72x5 Series 		sSpec number Cores
(Threads) 		Clock (MHz) L2
cache 		MCDRAM memory DDR4 memory Peak DP
compute 		TDP
(W) 		Socket Release date Part number
Base Turbo Quantity BW Capacity BW
Xeon Phi 7235 SR3VF (A0) 64 (256) 1300 1400 32 MB 16 GB 400+ GB/s 384 GB 102.4 GB/s TBA 250 SVLCLGA3647 Q4 2017 HJ8068303823900
Xeon Phi 7255 SR3VG (A0) 68 (272) 1100 1200 34 MB 115.2 GB/s TBA 215 HJ8068303826300
Xeon Phi 7285 SR3VE (A0) 68 (272) 1300 1400 34 MB 115.2 GB/s TBA 250 HJ8068303823800
Xeon Phi 7295 SR3VD (A0) 72 (288) 1500 1600 36 MB 115.2 GB/s TBA 320 HJ8068303823700

Knights Hill

Knights Hill was the codename for the third-generation MIC architecture, for which Intel announced the first details at SC14.[100] It was to be manufactured in a 10 nm process.[101]

Knights Hill was expected to be used in the United States Department of Energy Aurora supercomputer, to be deployed at Argonne National Laboratory.[102][103] However, Aurora was delayed in favor of using an "advanced architecture" with a focus on machine learning.[104][105]

In 2017, Intel announced that Knights Hill had been canceled in favor of another architecture built from the ground up to enable Exascale computing in the future. This new architecture is now expected for 2020–2021[needs update].[106][107]

Programming

One performance and programmability study reported that achieving high performance with Xeon Phi still needs help from programmers and that merely relying on compilers with traditional programming models is insufficient.[108] Other studies in various domains, such as life sciences[109] and deep learning,[110] have shown that exploiting the thread- and SIMD-parallelism of Xeon Phi achieves significant speed-ups.

Competitors

See also

References

  1. ↑ Ian Cutress & Anton Shilov (7 May 2019). "The Larrabee Chapter Closes: Intel's Final Xeon Phi Processors Now in EOL". https://www.anandtech.com/show/14305/intel-xeon-phi-knights-mill-now-eol. 
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Radek (18 June 2012). "Chip Shot: Intel Names the Technology to Revolutionize the Future of HPC - Intel Xeon Phi Product Family". Intel. https://newsroom.intel.com/community/intel_newsroom/blog/2012/06/18/intel-names-the-technology-to-revolutionize-the-future-of-hpc--intel-xeon-phi-product-family. 
  3. ↑ robert-reed (4 February 2013). "Best Known Methods for Using OpenMP on Intel Many Integrated Core (Intel MIC) Architecture". https://software.intel.com/en-us/articles/best-known-methods-for-using-openmp-on-intel-many-integrated-core-intel-mic-architecture. 
  4. ↑ Jeffers, James; Reinders, James (1 March 2013). Intel Xeon Phi Coprocessor High Performance Programming. Morgan Kaufmann. ISBN 978-0124104143. 
  5. ↑ Hruska, Joel (8 May 2019). "Intel Quietly Kills Off Xeon Phi". https://www.extremetech.com/extreme/290963-intel-quietly-kills-off-xeon-phi. 
  6. ↑ "Intel scraps graphics chip based on Larrabee". Reuters. 6 December 2009. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-intel/intel-scraps-graphics-chip-based-on-larrabee-idUSTRE5B51QR20091206?type=technologyNews. 
  7. ↑ Sodani, Avinash (2016). "Knights Landing: Second-Generation Intel Xeon Phi Product". IEEE Micro 36 (2): 34–46. doi:10.1109/MM.2016.25. 
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 "TOP500 - June 2013". TOP500. https://www.top500.org/lists/2013/06/. 
  9. ↑ "June 2023 | TOP500 Supercomputer Sites" (in en). https://www.top500.org/lists/top500/list/2023/06/. 
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 "Intel Powers the World's Fastest Supercomputer, Reveals New and Future High Performance Computing Technologies". https://newsroom.intel.com/community/intel_newsroom/blog/2013/06/17/intel-powers-the-worlds-fastest-supercomputer-reveals-new-and-future-high-performance-computing-technologies. 
  11. ↑ W1zzard (24 July 2018). "Intel is Giving up on Xeon Phi - Eight More Models Declared End-Of-Life". https://www.techpowerup.com/246237/intel-is-giving-up-on-xeon-phi-eight-more-models-declared-end-of-life. 
  12. ↑ Marc Sauter (20 June 2016). "Knights Landing: Intel veröffentlicht Xeon Phi mit bis zu 7 Teraflops - Golem.de" (in de). https://www.golem.de/news/knights-landing-intel-veroeffentlicht-xeon-phi-mit-bis-zu-7-teraflops-1606-121642.html. 
  13. ↑ Charlie Demerjian (3 July 2006), "New from Intel: It's Mini-Cores!", theinquirer.net (The Inquirer), https://www.theinquirer.net/inquirer/news/1029138/new-from-intel-its-mini-cores 
  14. ↑ Seiler, L.; Cavin, D.; Espasa, E.; Grochowski, T.; Juan, M.; Hanrahan, P.; Carmean, S.; Sprangle, A. et al. (August 2008). "Larrabee: A Many-Core x86 Architecture for Visual Computing". ACM Transactions on Graphics. Proceedings of ACM SIGGRAPH 2008 27 (3): 18:11. doi:10.1145/1360612.1360617. ISSN 0730-0301. https://download-software.intel.com/sites/default/files/m/9/4/9/larrabee_manycore.pdf. Retrieved 2008-08-06. 
  15. ↑ Tom Forsyth, SIMD Programming with Larrabee, Intel, https://www.stanford.edu/class/ee380/Abstracts/100106-slides.pdf 
  16. ↑ Ryan Smith (25 May 2010), Intel Kills Larrabee GPU, Will Not Bring a Discrete Graphics Product to Market\, AnandTech, https://www.anandtech.com/show/3738/intel-kills-larrabee-gpu-will-not-bring-a-discrete-graphics-product-to-market 
  17. ↑ Tony Bradley (3 December 2009), "Intel 48-Core "Single-Chip Cloud Computer" Improves Power Efficiency", pcworld.com (PCWorld), https://www.pcworld.com/article/183653/intel_48core_singlechip_cloud_computer_improves_power_efficiency.html 
  18. ↑ "Intel Research : Single-Chip Cloud Computer", techresearch.intel.com (Intel), http://techresearch.intel.com/ProjectDetails.aspx?Id=1 
  19. ↑ Ben Ames (11 February 2007), "Intel Tests Chip Design With 80-Core Processor", pcworld.com (IDG News), https://www.pcworld.com/article/128924/intel_tests_chip_design_with_80core_processor.html 
  20. ↑ "Intel Details 80-Core Teraflops Research Chip - X-bit labs". xbitlabs.com. http://www.xbitlabs.com/news/cpu/display/20070212224710.html. 
  21. ↑ "Intel's Teraflops Research Chip", download.intel.com (Intel), https://download.intel.com/pressroom/kits/Teraflops/Teraflops_Research_Chip_Overview.pdf 
  22. ↑ Anton Shilov (12 February 2007), "Intel Details 80-Core Teraflops Research Chip", xbitlabs.com (Xbit laboratories), http://www.xbitlabs.com/news/cpu/display/20070212224710.html 
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 Rupert Goodwins (1 June 2010), "Intel unveils many-core Knights platform for HPC", zdnet.co.uk (ZDNet), http://www.zdnet.co.uk/news/desktop-hardware/2010/06/01/intel-unveils-many-core-knights-platform-for-hpc-40089093/ 
  24. ↑ "Intel News Release : Intel Unveils New Product Plans for High-Performance Computing", intel.com (Intel), 31 May 2010, https://www.intel.com/pressroom/archive/releases/2010/20100531comp.htm 
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 Mike Giles (24 June 2010), "Runners and riders in GPU steeplechase", people.maths.ox.ac.uk: pp. 8–10, http://people.maths.ox.ac.uk/gilesm/talks/nag_tpc10.pdf 
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 26.2 26.3 Gareth Halfacree (20 June 2011), "Intel pushes for HPC space with Knights Corner", thinq.co.uk (Net Communities Limited, UK), http://www.thinq.co.uk/2011/6/20/intel-pushes-hpc-space-knights-corner/ 
  27. ↑ "Intel Many Integrated Core Architecture", many-core.group.cam.ac.uk (Intel), December 2010, http://www.many-core.group.cam.ac.uk/ukgpucc2/talks/Elgar.pdf 
  28. ↑ Rick Merritt (20 June 2011), "OEMs show systems with Intel MIC chips", EE Times, https://www.eetimes.com/electronics-news/4217092/OEMs-show-systems-with-Intel-MIC-chips 
  29. ↑ Tom R. Halfhill (18 July 2011), "Intel Shows MIC Progress", linleygroup.com (The Linley Group), http://www.linleygroup.com/newsletters/newsletter_detail.php?num=4729 
  30. ↑ Andrea Petrou (20 June 2011), "SGI wants Intel for super supercomputer", news.techeye.net, http://news.techeye.net/hardware/sgi-wants-intel-for-super-supercomputer 
  31. ↑ ""Stampede's" Comprehensive Capabilities to Bolster U.S. Open Science Computational Resources", tacc.utexas.edu (Texas Advanced Computing Center), 22 September 2011, http://www.tacc.utexas.edu/news/press-releases/2011/stampede 
  32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 "Stampede: A Comprehensive Petascale Computing Environment". IEEE Cluster 2011 Special Topic. http://www.ieeecluster.org/2011/images/program/Stampede_Abstracts.pdf. 
  33. ↑ Yam, Marcus (16 November 2011), "Intel's Knights Corner: 50+ Core 22nm Co-processor", tomshardware.com (Tom's Hardware), https://www.tomshardware.com/news/intel-knights-corner-mic-co-processor,14002.html, retrieved 16 November 2011 
  34. ↑ Sylvie Barak (16 November 2011), "Intel unveils 1 TFLOP/s Knights Corner", EE Times, https://www.eetimes.com/electronics-news/4230654/Intel-unveils-1-TFLOP-s-Knight-s-Corner, retrieved 16 November 2011 
  35. ↑ James Reinders (5 June 2012), Knights Corner: Open source software stack, Intel, https://software.intel.com/en-us/blogs/2012/06/05/knights-corner-open-source-software-stack 
  36. ↑ Prickett Morgan, Timothy (18 June 2012), "Intel slaps Xeon Phi brand on MIC coprocessors", 222.theregister.co.uk, https://www.theregister.co.uk/2012/06/18/intel_mic_xeon_phi_cray/ 
  37. ↑ Intel Corporation (18 June 2012), "Latest Intel Xeon Processors E5 Product Family Achieves Fastest Adoption of New Technology on Top500 List", marketwatch.com, http://www.marketwatch.com/story/latest-intelr-xeonr-processors-e5-product-family-achieves-fastest-adoption-of-new-technology-on-top500-list-2012-06-18, retrieved 18 June 2012, "Intel Xeon Phi is the new brand name for all future Intel Many Integrated Core Architecture based products targeted at HPC, enterprise, datacenters and workstations. The first Intel Xeon Phi product family member is scheduled for volume production by the end of 2012" 
  38. ↑ Raj Hazra (18 June 2012). "Intel Xeon Phi coprocessors accelerate the pace of discovery and innovation". Intel. https://blogs.intel.com/technology/2012/06/intel-xeon-phi-coprocessors-accelerate-discovery-and-innovation/. 
  39. ↑ Rick Merritt (18 June 2012). "Cray will use Intel MIC, branded Xeon Phi". EETimes. https://www.eetimes.com/electronics-news/4375500/Cray-will-use-Intel-MIC--branded-Xeon-Phi. 
  40. ↑ Terrence O'Brien (18 June 2012). "Intel christens its 'Many Integrated Core' products Xeon Phi, eyes exascale milestone". Engadget. https://www.engadget.com/2012/06/18/intel-christens-its-mic-products-xeon-phi/. 
  41. ↑ Jeffrey Burt (18 June 2012). "Intel Wraps Xeon Phi Branding Around MIC Coprocessors". eWeek. https://www.eweek.com/networking/intel-wraps-xeon-phi-branding-around-mic-coprocessors/. 
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  44. ↑ "ScaleMP vSMP Foundation to Support Intel Xeon Phi", ScaleMP.com (ScaleMP), 20 June 2012, http://www.scalemp.com/scalemp-vsmp-foundation-to-support-intel-xeon-phi 
  45. ↑ George Chrysos (12 November 2012). "Intel Xeon Phi X100 Family Coprocessor - the Architecture". https://software.intel.com/en-us/articles/intel-xeon-phi-coprocessor-codename-knights-corner. 
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  49. ↑ "Tianhe-2 (MilkyWay-2)". Top500.org. 14 November 2015. https://top500.org/system/177999. 
  50. ↑ Hruska, Joel (30 July 2012). "Intel's 50-core champion: In-depth on Xeon Phi". ExtremeTech. Ziff Davis, Inc.. https://www.extremetech.com/extreme/133541-intels-64-core-champion-in-depth-on-xeon-phi. 
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  52. ↑ Rick Merritt (20 June 2011), "OEMs show systems with Intel MIC chips", EE Times, https://www.eetimes.com/electronics-news/4217092/OEMs-show-systems-with-Intel-MIC-chips 
  53. ↑ Dokulil, Jiri; Bajrovic, Enes; Benkner, Siegfried; Pllana, Sabri; Sandrieser, Martin; Bachmayer, Beverly (23 November 2012), Efficient Hybrid Execution of C++ Applications using Intel Xeon Phi Coprocessor, Bibcode: 2012arXiv1211.5530D 
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  57. ↑ "Intel Xeon Phi Coprocessor Instruction Set Architecture Reference Manual". Intel. 7 September 2012. https://software.intel.com/sites/default/files/forum/278102/327364001en.pdf. 
  58. ↑ "Intel Developer Zone: Intel Xeon Phi Coprocessor". Intel. https://software.intel.com/mic-developer. 
  59. ↑ "Intel® Intrinsics Guide". https://software.intel.com/sites/landingpage/IntrinsicsGuide/#techs=KNC. 
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  63. ↑ "Intel Xeon Phi 31S1P - BC31S1P". http://www.cpu-world.com/CPUs/Xeon_Phi/Intel-Xeon%20Phi%2031S1P.html. 
  64. ↑ "Intel Xeon Phi Coprocessor 5110P (8GB, 1.053 GHz, 60 core) Product Specifications". Intel ARK (Product Specs). https://ark.intel.com/products/71992/Intel-Xeon-Phi-Coprocessor-5110P-8GB-1_053-GHz-60-core. 
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  67. ↑ "Intel Xeon Phi SE10X". http://www.cpu-world.com/CPUs/Xeon_Phi/Intel-Xeon%20Phi%20SE10X.html. 
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  73. ↑ "Intel Xeon Phi Coprocessor 7120X (16GB, 1.238 GHz, 61 core) Product Specifications". Intel ARK (Product Specs). https://ark.intel.com/products/75800/Intel-Xeon-Phi-Coprocessor-7120X-16GB-1_238-GHz-61-core. 
  74. ↑ "Intel Xeon Phi 'Knights Landing' Features Integrated Memory With 500 GB/s Bandwidth and DDR4 Memory Support - Architecture Detailed". WCCFtech. 2013-11-25. https://wccftech.com/intel-xeon-phi-knights-landing-features-integrated-memory-500-gbs-bandwidth-ddr4-memory-support-architecture-detailed/. 
  75. ↑ Sebastian Anthony (26 November 2013), Intel unveils 72-core x86 Knights Landing CPU for exascale supercomputing, ExtremeTech, https://www.extremetech.com/extreme/171678-intel-unveils-72-core-x86-knights-landing-cpu-for-exascale-supercomputing 
  76. ↑ Tom's Hardware: Intel Xeon Phi Knights Landing Now Shipping; Omni Path Update, Too. 20 June 2016
  77. ↑ James Reinders (23 July 2013), AVX-512 Instructions, Intel, https://software.intel.com/en-us/blogs/2013/avx-512-instructions 
  78. ↑ "Cori". https://www.nersc.gov/users/computational-systems/cori. 
  79. ↑ 79.0 79.1 "2016 ISC High Performance: Intel's Rajeeb Hazra Delivers Keynote Address". https://vimeo.com/intelpr/review/171590720/0bb679ec36. 
  80. ↑ Pradeep Dubey (20 June 2016). "How Intel Xeon Phi Processors Benefit Machine Learning/Deep Learning Apps and Frameworks". https://software.intel.com/en-us/blogs/2016/06/20/how-xeon-phi-processors-benefit-machine-and-deep-learning-apps-frameworks. 
  81. ↑ Introducing the Intel Xeon Phi Processor – Your Path to Deeper Insight
  82. ↑ "TOP500_List November 2016". https://top500.org/lists/top500/2016/11/highlights/. 
  83. ↑ Larabel, Michael (24 August 2017). "Intel Quietly Drops Xeon Phi 7200 Coprocessors". Phoronix. https://www.phoronix.com/scan.php?page=news_item&px=No-More-Xeon-Phi-7200-Cards. 
  84. ↑ "Product Change Notification 116378 - 00". https://qdms.intel.com/dm/i.aspx/9C54A9A7-BF37-4496-B268-BD2746EA54D3/PCN116378-00.pdf. 
  85. ↑ "Intel Xeon Phi processor: Your Path to Deeper Insight". https://www.intel.com/content/dam/www/public/us/en/documents/product-briefs/xeon-phi-processor-product-brief.pdf. 
  86. ↑ "Intel Xeon Phi 7220A". https://www.cpu-world.com/CPUs/Xeon_Phi/Intel-Xeon%20Phi%207220A.html. 
  87. ↑ "Intel Xeon Phi 7220P". https://www.cpu-world.com/CPUs/Xeon_Phi/Intel-Xeon%20Phi%207220P.html. 
  88. ↑ "Intel Xeon Phi 7240P". https://www.cpu-world.com/CPUs/Xeon_Phi/Intel-Xeon%20Phi%207240P.html. 
  89. ↑ "Intel Xeon Phi Processor 7210 (16GB, 1.30 GHz, 64 core) Product Specifications". Intel ARK (Product Specs). https://ark.intel.com/products/94033/Intel-Xeon-Phi-Processor-7210-16GB-1_30-GHz-64-core. 
  90. ↑ "Intel Xeon Phi Processor 7210F (16GB, 1.30 GHz, 64 core) Product Specifications". Intel ARK (Product Specs). https://ark.intel.com/products/94709/Intel-Xeon-Phi-Processor-7210F-16GB-1_30-GHz-64-core. 
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  93. ↑ "Intel Xeon Phi Processor 7250 (16GB, 1.40 GHz, 68 core) Product Specifications". Intel ARK (Product Specs). https://ark.intel.com/products/94035/Intel-Xeon-Phi-Processor-7250-16GB-1_40-GHz-68-core. 
  94. ↑ "Intel Xeon Phi Processors". https://www.intel.com/content/www/us/en/products/processors/xeon-phi/xeon-phi-processors.html. 
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  96. ↑ "Intel Xeon Phi Processor 7290 (16GB, 1.50 GHz, 72 core) Product Specifications". Intel ARK (Product Specs). https://ark.intel.com/products/95830/Intel-Xeon-Phi-Processor-7290-16GB-1_50-GHz-72-core. 
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  98. ↑ Smith, Ryan (17 August 2016). "Intel Announces Knight's Mill: A Xeon Phi for Deep Learning". Anandtech. https://www.anandtech.com/show/10575/intel-announces-knights-mill-a-xeon-phi-for-deep-learning. 
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  100. ↑ SC14: Supercomputing '14; International Conference for High Performance Computing, Networking, Storage and Analysis in year 2014
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  102. ↑ ALCF staff (9 April 2015), Introducing Aurora, https://www.alcf.anl.gov/articles/introducing-aurora 
  103. ↑ ALCF staff (9 April 2015), Aurora, https://aurora.alcf.anl.gov/ 
  104. ↑ Hemsoth, Nicole (23 May 2017). "Some Surprises in the 2018 DoE Budget for Supercomputing". Next Platform. https://www.nextplatform.com/2017/05/23/surprises-2018-doe-budget-supercomputing/. 
  105. ↑ Brueckner, Rich (16 June 2017). "Is Aurora Morphing into an Exascale AI Supercomputer?". Inside HPC. https://insidehpc.com/2017/06/told-aurora-morphing-novel-architecture-ai-supercomputer/. 
  106. ↑ Damkroger, Trish (13 November 2017). "Unleashing high performance computing today and tomorrow". Intel IT Peer Network. https://itpeernetwork.intel.com/unleashing-high-performance-computing/. 
  107. ↑ Kampman, Jeff (13 November 2017). "Intel quietly kills off next-gen Knights Hill Xeon Phi chips". Tech Report. https://techreport.com/news/32829/intel-quietly-kills-off-next-gen-knights-hill-xeon-phi-chips. 
  108. ↑ Fang, Jianbin; Sips, Henk; Zhang, Lilun; Xu, Chuanfu; Yonggang, Che; Varbanescu, Ana Lucia (2014). "Test-Driving Intel Xeon Phi". 2014 ACM/SPEC International Conference on Performance Engineering. https://research.spec.org/icpe_proceedings/2014/p137.pdf. Retrieved 30 December 2013. 
  109. ↑ Memeti, Suejb; Pllana, Sabri; Benkner, Siegfried; Pllana, Sabri; Sandrieser, Martin; Bachmayer, Beverly (29 June 2015), Accelerating DNA Sequence Analysis using Intel Xeon Phi, Bibcode: 2015arXiv150608612M 
  110. ↑ Viebke, Andre; Pllana, Sabri; Benkner, Siegfried; Pllana, Sabri; Sandrieser, Martin; Bachmayer, Beverly (30 June 2015), The Potential of the Intel Xeon Phi for Supervised Deep Learning, Bibcode: 2015arXiv150609067V 
  111. ↑ Jon Stokes (20 June 2011). "Intel takes wraps off 50-core supercomputing processor plans". https://arstechnica.com/business/news/2011/06/intel-takes-wraps-off-of-50-core-supercomputing-coprocessor-plans.ars. 
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