Social:Lhasa Tibetan

Short description: Official dialect of Tibetan, spoken in Lhasa

Lhasa Tibetan
བོད་སྐད་
Native to	Lhasa
Region	Tibet Autonomous Region, U-Tsang
Native speakers	(1.2 million cited 1990 census)
Language family	Sino-Tibetan Tibeto-Burman Tibeto-Kanauri (?) Bodish Tibetic Central Tibetan Lhasa Tibetan
Early forms	Old Tibetan Classical Tibetan
Writing system	Tibetan script Tibetan Braille
Official status
Official language in	China Tibet Autonomous Region
Regulated by	Committee for the Standardisation of the Tibetan Language
Language codes
ISO 639-1	bo
ISO 639-1	tib (B) bod (T)
ISO 639-3	bod
Glottolog	tibe1272
Linguasphere	70-AAA-ac

Lhasa Tibetan (Tibetan: ལྷ་སའི་སྐད་, Wylie: Lha-sa'i skad, THL: Lhaséké, ZYPY: Lasägä), or Standard Tibetan, is the Tibetan dialect spoken by educated people of Lhasa, the capital of the Tibetan Autonomous Region. It is an official language of the Tibet Autonomous Region.

In the traditional "three-branched" classification of the Tibetic languages, the Lhasa dialect belongs to the Central Tibetan branch (the other two being Khams Tibetan and Amdo Tibetan). In terms of mutual intelligibility, speakers of Khams Tibetan are able to communicate at a basic level with Lhasa Tibetan, while Amdo speakers cannot. Both Lhasa Tibetan and Khams Tibetan evolved to become tonal and do not preserve the word-initial consonant clusters, which makes them very far from Classical Tibetan, especially when compared to the more conservative Amdo Tibetan.

Registers

Like many languages, Lhasa Tibetan has a variety of language registers:

• ཕལ་སྐད (Wylie: phal skad, literally "demotic language"): the vernacular speech.
• ཞེ་ས (Wylie: zhe sa, "honorifics or deference, courtesy"): the formal spoken style, particularly prominent in Lhasa.
• ཡིག་སྐད (Wylie: yig skad, literally "letters language" or "literary language"): the written literary style; may include ཆོས་སྐད chos skad below.
• ཆོས་སྐད (Wylie: chos skad, literally "doctrine language" or "religious language"): the literary style in which the scriptures and other classical works are written.

Grammar

Syntax and word order

Tibetan is an ergative language, with what can loosely be termed subject–object–verb (SOV) word order. Grammatical constituents broadly have head-final word order:

• adjectives generally follow nouns in Tibetan, unless the two are linked by a genitive particle
• objects and adverbs precede the verb, as do adjectives in copular clauses
• a noun marked with the genitive case precedes the noun which it modifies
• demonstratives and numerals follow the noun they modify.

Nouns and pronouns

Tibetan nouns do not possess grammatical gender, although this may be marked lexically, nor do they inflect for number. However, definite human nouns may take a plural marker Tibetan: ཚོ, Wylie: tsho.

Tibetan has been described as having six cases: absolutive, agentive, genitive, ablative, associative and oblique. These are generally marked by particles, which are attached to entire noun phrases, rather than individual nouns. These suffixes may vary in form based on the final sound of the root.

Personal pronouns are inflected for number, showing singular, dual and plural forms. They can have between one and three registers.

The Standard Tibetan language distinguishes three levels of demonstrative: proximal Tibetan: འདི, Wylie: 'di "this", medial Tibetan: དེ, Wylie: de "that", and distal Tibetan: ཕ་གི, Wylie: pha-gi "that over there (yonder)". These can also take case suffixes.

Verbs

Verbs in Tibetan always come at the end of the clause. Verbs do not show agreement in person, number or gender in Tibetan. There is also no voice distinction between active and passive; Tibetan verbs are neutral with regard to voice.

Tibetan verbs can be divided into classes based on volition and valency. The volition of the verb has a major effect on its morphology and syntax. Volitional verbs have imperative forms, whilst non-volitional verbs do not: compare Tibetan: ལྟོས་ཤིག, Wylie: ltos shig "Look!" with the non-existent *Tibetan: མཐོང་ཤིག, Wylie: mthong shig "*See!". Additionally, only volitional verbs can take the egophoric copula Tibetan: ཡིན, Wylie: yin.

Verbs in Tibetan can be split into monovalent and divalent verbs; some may also act as both, such as Tibetan: ཆག, Wylie: chag "break". This interacts with the volition of the verb to condition which nouns take the ergative case and which must take the absolutive, remaining unmarked. Nonetheless, distinction in transitivity is orthogonal to volition; both the volitional and non-volitional classes contain transitive as well as intransitive verbs.

The aspect of the verb affects which verbal suffixes and which final auxiliary copulae are attached. Morphologically, verbs in the unaccomplished aspect are marked by the suffix Tibetan: གི, Wylie: gi or its other forms, identical to the genitive case for nouns, whereas accomplished aspect verbs do not use this suffix. Each can be broken down into two subcategories: under the unaccomplished aspect, future and progressive/general; under the accomplished aspect, perfect and aorist or simple perfective.

Evidentiality is a well-known feature of Tibetan verb morphology, gaining much scholarly attention, and contributing substantially to the understanding of evidentiality across languages. The evidentials in Standard Tibetan interact with aspect in a system marked by final copulae, with the following resultant modalities being a feature of Standard Tibetan, as classified by Nicolas Tournadre:

• Assertive
• Allocentric intentional egophoric
• Allocentric intentional egophoric/Imminent danger
• Experiential egophoric
• Habitual/Generic assertive
• Inferential
• Intentional egophoric
• Intentional/Habitual egophoric
• Receptive egophoric
• Testimonial

Numerals

Stonen tablets with prayers in Tibetan at a Temple in McLeod Ganj

Pechas, scriptures of Tibetan Buddhism, at a library in Dharamsala, India

Unlike many other languages of East Asia such as Burmese, Chinese, Japanese, Korean and Vietnamese, there are no numeral auxiliaries or measure words used in counting in Tibetan. However, words expressive of a collective or integral are often used after the tens, sometimes after a smaller number.

In scientific and astrological works, the numerals, as in Vedic Sanskrit, are expressed by symbolical words.

The written numerals are a variant of the Hindu–Arabic numeral system, forming a base-10 positional counting system that is attested early on in Classical Tibetan texts.

Tibetan Numerals	༠	༡	༢	༣	༤	༥	༦	༧	༨	༩
Devanagari numerals	०	१	२	३	४	५	६	७	८	९
Bengali numerals	০	১	২	৩	৪	৫	৬	৭	৮	৯
Arabic numerals	0	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9

Tibetan makes use of a special connector particle for the units above each multiple of ten. Between 100 and 199, the connective དང dang, literally "and", is used after the hundred portion. Above ས་ཡ saya million, the numbers are treated as nouns and thus have their multiples following the word.

The numbers 1, 2, 3 and 10 change spelling when combined with other numerals, reflecting a change in pronunciation in combination.

Written Tibetan	Wylie transliteration	Arabic numerals		Written Tibetan	Wylie transliteration	Arabic numerals		Written Tibetan	Wylie transliteration	Arabic numerals
གཅིག	gcig	1		ཉི་ཤུ་རྩ་གཅིག	nyi shu tsa gcig	21		བཞི་བརྒྱ	bzhi bgya	400
གཉིས	gnyis	2		ཉི་ཤུ་རྩ་གཉིས	nyi shu rtsa gynis	22		ལྔ་བརྒྱ	lnga bgya	500
གསུམ	gsum	3		ཉི་ཤུ་རྩ་གསུམ	nyi shu rtsa gsum	23		དྲུག་བརྒྱ	drug bgya	600
བཞི	bzhi	4		ཉི་ཤུ་རྩ་བཞི	nyi shu rtsa bzhi	24		བདུན་བརྒྱ	bdun bgya	700
ལྔ	lnga	5		ཉི་ཤུ་རྩ་ལྔ	nyi shu rtsa lnga	25		བརྒྱད་བརྒྱ	brgyad bgya	800
དྲུག	drug	6		ཉི་ཤུ་རྩ་དྲུག	nyi shu rtsa drug	26		དགུ་བརྒྱ	dgu bgya	900
བདུན	bdun	7		ཉི་ཤུ་རྩ་བདུན	nyi shu rtsa bdun	27		ཆིག་སྟོང	chig stong	1000
བརྒྱད	brgyad	8		ཉི་ཤུ་རྩ་བརྒྱད	nyi shu rtsa brgyad	28		ཁྲི	khri	(a unit of) 10,000
དགུ	dgu	9		ཉི་ཤུ་རྩ་དགུ	nyi shu rtsa dgu	29
བཅུ	bcu	10		སུམ་ཅུ	sum cu	30		སུམ་ཅུ་སོ་གཅིག	sum cu so gcig	31
བཅུ་གཅིག	bcu gcig	11		བཞི་བཅུ	bzhi bcu	40		བཞི་བཅུ་ཞེ་གཅིག	bzhi bcu zhe gcig	41
བཅུ་གཉིས	bcu gnyis	12		ལྔ་བཅུ	lnga bcu	50		ལྔ་བཅུ་ང་གཅིག	lnga bcu nga gcig	51
བཅུ་གསུམ	bcu gsum	13		དྲུག་ཅུ	drug cu	60		དྲུག་ཅུ་རེ་གཅིག	drug cu re gcig	61
བཅུ་བཞི	bcu bzhi	14		བདུན་ཅུ	bdun cu	70		བདུན་ཅུ་དོན་གཅིག	bdun cu don gcig	71
བཅོ་ལྔ	bco lnga	15		བརྒྱད་ཅུ	brgyad cu	80		བརྒྱད་ཅུ་གྱ་གཅིག	brgyad cu gya gcig	81
བཅུ་དྲུག	bcu drug	16		དགུ་བཅུ	dgu bcu	90		དགུ་བཅུ་གོ་གཅིག	dgu bcu go gcig	91
བཅུ་བདུན	bcu bdun	17		བརྒྱ	bgya	100		བརྒྱ་དང་གཅིག	bgya dang gcig	101
བཅོ་བརྒྱད	bco brgyad	18		བརྒྱ་དང་ལྔ་བཅུ	bgya dang lnga bcu	150
བཅུ་དགུ	bcu dgu	19		ཉིས་བརྒྱ	nyis bgya	200
ཉི་ཤུ	nyi shu	20		སུམ་བརྒྱ	sum bgya	300
								འབུམ	'bum	(a unit of) 100,000
								ས་ཡ	sa ya	(a unit of) 1,000,000 (1 Million)
								བྱེ་བ	bye ba	(a unit of) 10,000,000
								དུང་ཕྱུར	dung phyur	(a unit of) 100,000,000
								ཐེར་འབུམ	ther 'bum	(a unit of) 1,000,000,000 (1 Billion)

Ordinal numbers are formed by adding a suffix to the cardinal number, པ (-pa), with the exception of the ordinal number "first", which has its own lexeme, དང་པོ (dang po).

Writing system

Tibetan is written with an Indic script, with a historically conservative orthography that reflects Old Tibetan phonology and helps unify the Tibetan-language area. It is also helpful in reconstructing Proto Sino-Tibetan and Old Chinese.

Wylie transliteration is the most common system of romanization used by Western scholars in rendering written Tibetan using the Latin alphabet (such as employed on much of this page), while linguists tend to use other special transliteration systems of their own. As for transcriptions meant to approximate the pronunciation, Tibetan pinyin is the official romanization system employed by the government of the People's Republic of China, while English language materials use the THL transcription system. Certain names may also retain irregular transcriptions, such as Chomolungma for Mount Everest.

Tibetan (orthographic) syllable structure is (C₁C₂)C₃(C₄)V(C₅C₆) Not all combinations are licit.

position	C1	C2	C3	C4	V	C5	C6
name	Prefix	Superfix	Root	Subjoined	Vowel	Suffix	Suffix 2
licit letters	ག ད བ མ འ	ར ལ ས	any consonant	ཡ ར ཝ ལ	any vowel	ག མ ང ད ལ ས ན བ ར འ	ས

Phonology

The following summarizes the sound system of the dialect of Tibetan spoken in Lhasa, the most influential variety of the spoken language.

Vowels

Tournadre and Sangda Dorje describe eight vowels in the standard language:

Vowel phonemes of Standard Tibetan

	Front	Back
Close	i y	u
Close-mid	e ø	o
Open-mid	ɛ
Open	a

Three additional vowels are sometimes described as significantly distinct: [ʌ] or [ə], which is normally an allophone of /a/; [ɔ], which is normally an allophone of /o/; and [ɛ̈] (an unrounded, centralised, mid front vowel), which is normally an allophone of /e/. These sounds normally occur in closed syllables; because Tibetan does not allow geminated consonants, there are cases in which one syllable ends with the same sound as the one following it. The result is that the first is pronounced as an open syllable but retains the vowel typical of a closed syllable. For instance, zhabs (foot) is pronounced [ɕʌp] and pad (borrowing from Sanskrit padma, lotus) is pronounced [pɛʔ], but the compound word, zhabs pad is pronounced [ɕʌpɛʔ]. This process can result in minimal pairs involving sounds that are otherwise allophones.

Sources vary on whether the [ɛ̈] phone (resulting from /e/ in a closed syllable) and the [ɛ] phone (resulting from /a/ through the i-mutation) are distinct or basically identical.

Phonemic vowel length exists in Lhasa Tibetan but in a restricted set of circumstances. Assimilation of Classical Tibetan's suffixes, normally 'i (འི་), at the end of a word produces a long vowel in Lhasa Tibetan; the feature is sometimes omitted in phonetic transcriptions. In normal spoken pronunciation, a lengthening of the vowel is also frequently substituted for the sounds [r] and [l] when they occur at the end of a syllable.

The vowels /i/, /y/, /e/, /ø/, and /ɛ/ each have nasalized forms: /ĩ/, /ỹ/, /ẽ/, /ø̃/, and /ɛ̃/, respectively, which historically results from /in/, /en/, etc. In some unusual cases, the vowels /a/, /u/, and /o/ may also be nasalised.

Tones

The Lhasa dialect is usually described as having two tones: high and low. However, in monosyllabic words, each tone can occur with two distinct contours. The high tone can be pronounced with either a flat or a falling contour, and the low tone can be pronounced with either a flat or rising-falling contour, the latter being a tone that rises to a medium level before falling again. It is normally safe to distinguish only between the two tones because there are very few minimal pairs that differ only because of contour. The difference occurs only in certain words ending in the sounds [m] or [ŋ]; for instance, the word kham (Tibetan: ཁམ་, "piece") is pronounced [kʰám] with a high flat tone, whereas the word Khams (Tibetan: ཁམས་, "the Kham region") is pronounced [kʰâm] with a high falling tone.

In polysyllabic words, tone is not important except in the first syllable. This means that from the point of view of phonological typology, Tibetan could more accurately be described as a pitch-accent language than a true tone language, in the latter of which all syllables in a word can carry their own tone.

Consonants

Consonant phonemes of Standard Tibetan

	Bilabial		Alveolar		Retroflex	(Alveolo-) Palatal		Velar		Glottal
Nasal	m		n			ɲ		ŋ
Stop	pʰ	p	tʰ	t	ʈʰ ~ ʈʂʰ ʈ ~ ʈʂ	cʰ	c	kʰ	k	ʔ
Affricate			tsʰ	ts		tɕʰ	tɕ
Fricative			s		ʂ	ɕ				h
Approximant	w ~ ɥ		ɹ̥	ɹ		j
Lateral			l̥	l		ʎ

1. In the low tone, the unaspirated /p, t, ts, ʈ ~ ʈʂ, tɕ, c, k/ are voiced [b, d, dz, ɖ ~ ɖʐ, dʑ, ɟ, ɡ], whereas the aspirated stops and affricates /pʰ, tʰ, tsʰ, ʈʰ ~ ʈʂʰ, tɕ, cʰ, kʰ/ lose some of their aspiration. Thus, in this context, the main distinction between /p, t, ts, ʈ ~ ʈʂ, tɕ, c, k/ and /pʰ, tʰ, tsʰ, ʈʰ ~ ʈʂʰ, tɕʰ, cʰ, kʰ/ is voicing. The dialect of the upper social strata in Lhasa does not use voiced stops and affricates in the low tone.
2. The alveolar trill ([r]) is in complementary distribution of the alveolar approximant [ɹ]; therefore, both are treated as one phoneme.
3. The voiceless alveolar lateral approximant [l̥] resembles the voiceless alveolar lateral fricative [ɬ] found in languages such as Welsh and Zulu and is sometimes transcribed ⟨ɬ⟩.
4. The consonants /m/, /ŋ/, /p/, /r/, /l/, and /k/ may appear in syllable-final positions. The Classical Tibetan final /n/ is still present, but its modern pronunciation is normally realized as a nasalisation of the preceding vowel, rather than as a discrete consonant (see above). However, /k/ is not pronounced in the final position of a word except in very formal speech. Also, syllable-final /r/ and /l/ are often not clearly pronounced but realized as a lengthening of the preceding vowel. The phonemic glottal stop /ʔ/ appears only at the end of words in the place of /s/, /t/, or /k/, which were pronounced in Classical Tibetan but have since been elided. For instance, the word for Tibet itself was Bod in Classical Tibetan but is now pronounced [pʰø̀ʔ] in the Lhasa dialect.

Verbal system

The Lhasa Tibetan verbal system distinguishes four tenses and three evidential moods.

	Future	Present	Past	Perfect
Personal	V་གི་ཡིན་ V-gi-yin	V་གི་ཡོད་ V-gi-yod	V་པ་ཡིན / V་བྱུང་ V-pa-yin / byung	V་ཡོད་ V-yod
Factual	V་གི་རེད་ V-gi-red	V་གི་ཡོད་པ་རེད་ V-gi-yod-pa-red	V་པ་རེད་ V-pa-red	V་ཡོད་པ་རེད་ V-yod-pa-red
Testimonial	-------	V་གི་འདུག་ V-gi-'dug	V་སོང་ V-song	V་བཞག་ V-bzhag

The three moods may all occur with all three grammatical persons, though early descriptions associated the personal modal category with European first-person agreement.

Scholarship

In the 18th and 19th centuries several Western linguists arrived in Tibet:

• The Capuchin friars who settled in Lhasa for a quarter of century from 1719:
  • Francesco della Penna, well known from his accurate description of Tibet,
  • Cassian di Macerata sent home materials which were used by the Augustine friar Aug. Antonio Georgi of Rimini (1711–1797) in his Alphabetum Tibetanum (Rome, 1762, 4t0), a ponderous and confused compilation, which may be still referred to, but with great caution.
• The Hungarian Sándor Kőrösi Csoma (1784–1842), who published the first Tibetan–European language dictionary (Classical Tibetan and English in this case) and grammar, Essay Towards a Dictionary, Tibetan and English.
• Heinrich August Jäschke of the Moravian mission which was established in Ladakh in 1857, Tibetan Grammar and A Tibetan–English Dictionary.
• At St Petersburg, Isaac Jacob Schmidt published his Grammatik der tibetischen Sprache in 1839 and his Tibetisch-deutsches Wörterbuch in 1841. His access to Mongolian sources had enabled him to enrich the results of his labours with a certain amount of information unknown to his predecessors. His Tibetische Studien (1851–1868) is a valuable collection of documents and observations.
• In France, P. E. Foucaux published in 1847 a translation from the Rgya tcher rol-pa, the Tibetan version of the Lalita Vistara, and in 1858 a Grammaire thibétaine.
• Ant. Schiefner of St Petersburg in 1849 his series of translations and researches.
• Theos Casimir Bernard, a PhD scholar of religion from Columbia University, explorer and practitioner of Yoga and Tibetan Buddhism, published, after his 1936/37 trip to India and Tibet, A Simplified Grammar of the Literary Tibetan Language, 1946 . See the 'Books' section.

Indian indologist and linguist Rahul Sankrityayan wrote a Tibetan grammar in Hindi. Some of his other works on Tibetan were:

1. Tibbati Bal-Siksha, 1933
2. Pathavali (Vols. 1, 2, 3), 1933
3. Tibbati Vyakaran, 1933
4. Tibbat May Budh Dharm, 1948

• Japanese linguist Kitamura Hajime published a grammar and dictionary of Lhasa Tibetan

Contemporary usage

In much of Tibet, primary education is conducted either primarily or entirely in the Tibetan language, and bilingual education is rarely introduced before students reach middle school. However, Chinese is the language of instruction of most Tibetan secondary schools. In April 2020, classroom instruction was switched from Tibetan to Mandarin Chinese in Ngaba, Sichuan. Students who continue on to tertiary education have the option of studying humanistic disciplines in Tibetan at a number of minority colleges in China. This contrasts with Tibetan schools in Dharamsala, India, where the Ministry of Human Resource Development curriculum requires academic subjects to be taught in English from middle school. Literacy and enrollment rates continue to be the main concern of the Chinese government. Much of the adult population in Tibet remains illiterate, and despite compulsory education policies, many parents in rural areas are unable to send their children to school.

In February 2008, Norman Baker, a UK MP, released a statement to mark International Mother Language Day claiming, "The Chinese government are following a deliberate policy of extinguishing all that is Tibetan, including their own language in their own country" and he asserted a right for Tibetans to express themselves "in their mother tongue". However, Tibetologist Elliot Sperling has noted that "within certain limits the PRC does make efforts to accommodate Tibetan cultural expression" and "the cultural activity taking place all over the Tibetan plateau cannot be ignored."

Some scholars also question such claims because most Tibetans continue to reside in rural areas where Chinese is rarely spoken, as opposed to Lhasa and other Tibetan cities where Chinese can often be heard. In the Texas Journal of International Law, Barry Sautman stated that "none of the many recent studies of endangered languages deems Tibetan to be imperiled, and language maintenance among Tibetans contrasts with language loss even in the remote areas of Western states renowned for liberal policies... claims that primary schools in Tibet teach Mandarin are in error. Tibetan was the main language of instruction in 98% of TAR primary schools in 1996; today, Mandarin is introduced in early grades only in urban schools.... Because less than four out of ten TAR Tibetans reach secondary school, primary school matters most for their cultural formation."

Machine translation software and applications

An incomplete list of machine translation software or applications that can translate Tibetan language from/to a variety of other languages.

• 藏译通 – Zangyitong, a mobile app for translating between Tibetan and Chinese.
• 青海弥陀翻译 – A Beta-version WeChat Mini Program that translate between Tibetan language to/from Chinese. (invitation from WeChat users only)
• 腾讯民汉翻译 – A WeChat Mini Program that translate between Tibetan language to/from Chinese.
• THL Tibetan to English Translation Tool – A webpage that annotates Tibetan text various English meanings and translations, with 10+ dictionaries integrated. A downloadable version is also available.
• 中国社科院 藏汉(口语)机器翻译 – A demonstrative website (slow in response) translating Tibetan to Chinese, developed by Chinese Academy of Social Sciences. It works well on Tibetan text from official Chinese News websites.
• Panlex – A multilingual translation website with a few Tibetan words.
• Microsoft Translator – Has a Option to Translate Tibetan.

Example Text

From Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Tibetan, written in the Tibetan script:

See also

• Central Tibetan
• Amdo Tibetan
• Khams Tibetan
• Languages of Bhutan

Further reading

• Bernard, Theos C. (1946), A Simplified Grammar of the Literary Tibetan Language, Santa Barbara, California: Tibetan Text Society. 
• Tibetan–English Dictionary (with Sanskrit Synonyms), Calcutta: Bengal Secretariat Book Depot, 1902, ISBN 978-81-86142-82-0, https://archive.org/details/atibetanenglish00dasgoog. . Reprinted by Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, ISBN:81-208-1713-3.
• Hodge, Stephen (2003), An Introduction to Classical Tibetan, Orchid Press, ISBN 974-524-039-7. 
• A short practical grammar of the Tibetan language, with special reference to the spoken dialects, London: Hardinge Simpole, 2004, ISBN 1-84382-077-3.  " ... contains a facsimile of the original publication in manuscript, the first printed version of 1883, and the later Addenda published with the Third Edition."—P. [4] of cover./ First edition published in Kye-Lang in Brit. Lahoul by the author, in manuscript, in 1865.
•    (1866). Romanized Tibetan and English dictionary. https://books.google.com/books?id=kqACAAAAQAAJ. Retrieved 2011-06-30. (Original from Oxford University)
•    (1881). A Tibetan–English dictionary, with special reference to the prevailing dialects: To which is added an English-Tibetan vocabulary. London: Unger Brothers (T. Grimm). https://archive.org/details/atibetanenglish00jsgoog. 
•    (1883). Heinrich Wenzel. ed. Tibetan grammar. Trübner's collection of simplified grammars. 7 (2nd ed.). London: Trübner & co.. https://archive.org/details/TibetanGrammarByH.A.Jschke. 
• Kopp, Teresa Kunkel. 1998. Verbalizers in Lhasa Tibetan. PhD dissertation, University of Texas at Arlington.
• Naga, Sangye Tandar. (2010). "Some Reflections on the Mysterious Nature of Tibetan Language" In: The Tibet Journal, Special issue. Autumn 2009 vol XXXIV n. 3-Summer 2010 vol XXXV n. 2. "The Earth Ox Papers", edited by Roberto Vitali, pp. 561–566.
• Sandberg, Graham (1894). Hand-book of colloquial Tibetan: A practical guide to the language of Central Tibet. Calcutta: Thacker, Spink & Co.. https://archive.org/details/handbookcolloqu00sandgoog. (Original from Harvard University)
• Tournadre, Nicolas; Dorje, Sangda (2003), Manual of Standard Tibetan, New York: Snow Lion Publications, ISBN 1-55939-189-8, https://archive.org/details/manualofstandard00nico. 
• Hahn, Michael. "Foundational Questions of Tibetan Morphology." The Tibet Journal, vol. 33, no. 2, 1 July 2008, pp. 3–19.
• Review of Becoming Bilingual in School and Home in Tibetan Areas of China: Stories of Struggle (2018). China Review International, Vol. 25, No. 1, 48–53.

External links

• Translations of Tibetan texts, Tibetan language courses & publications by Erick Tsiknopoulos and the Trikāya Translation Committee.