Viridiplantae

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Viridiplantae (kingdom Plantae sensu stricto), the green plants, is a natural group or clade of around half a million eukaryotes. They are green because they contain chloroplasts, cell organelles able to produce food by photosynthesis. They are major primary producers of food both in the sea and on land. The group includes both green algae and the land plants (embryophytes) that arose from them.

In 2005, Sina Adl and colleagues proposed the name Chloroplastida for the group. In 2012, Frederik Leliaert and colleagues suggested a revised taxonomy of the Viridiplantae. In 2019, M. Leebens-Mack and colleagues proposed a phylogeny based on analysis of over a thousand plant genomes. It renders the former "chlorophyte algae" and "streptophyte algae" paraphyletic, as the land plants arose from within them.

Definition

Viridiplantae (lit. green plants)[1] is a clade of around 450,000–500,000 species of chloroplast-bearing eukaryotes. Most of them are autotrophs that obtain their energy by photosynthesis and play important primary production roles in both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems.[2] The clade includes all green algae, which are primarily aquatic; many are microscopic unicellular phytoplankton. It also includes the macroscopic, multicellular, generally complex-structured land plants (embryophytes, i.e. Plantae sensu strictissimo), which emerged from within the freshwater green algae clade Streptophyta[3][4][5] during the Ordivician.[6][7]

In traditional taxonomy, the classification of green algae typically exclude the land plants, rendering them a paraphyletic group; however it is cladistically accurate to regard land plants as a specialized clade of green algae that had evolved to thrive on dry land,[8] thus making Viridiplantae a monophyletic group. Since the realization that the embryophytes emerged from green algae, some authors are starting to include them.[8][9][10][11][12]

Viridiplantae species all have cells with cellulose in their cell walls, and primary chloroplasts derived from endosymbiosis with cyanobacteria that contain chlorophylls a and b and lack phycobilins. In some classification systems, the group has been treated as a kingdom[13] under various names such as Viridiplantae, Chlorobionta or simply the kingdom Plantae (sensu stricto), the lattermost expanding upon the traditional grouping of (land) plants to include all green algae closely and distantly related to Embryophyta. Adl et al., who produced a classification for all eukaryotes in 2005, introduced the name Chloroplastida for this group, reflecting the group having primary chloroplasts, and they rejected the name Viridiplantae on the grounds that some of the species are not plants as understood traditionally.[14] Together with Rhodophyta (red algae), Glaucophyta (grey algae) and other basal groups such as the phagotrophic Rhodelphidia[15] and the picoplanktonic Picozoa (both considered sister to red algae), Viridiplantae belong to the larger primary algae clade Archaeplastida, which in itself is sometimes described as "Plantae sensu lato".[citation needed]

Evolution

Taxonomy

Leliaert et al, 2012 propose the following simplified taxonomy of the Viridiplantae.[16]

Phylogeny

In 2019, a phylogeny based on genomes and transcriptomes from 1,153 plant species was proposed.[18] The placing of algal groups is supported by phylogenies based on genomes from the Mesostigmatophyceae and Chlorokybophyceae that have since been sequenced. Both the "chlorophyte algae" and the "streptophyte algae" are treated as paraphyletic (vertical bars beside phylogenetic tree diagram) in this analysis.[19][20] The classification of Bryophyta is supported both by Puttick et al. 2018,[21] and by phylogenies involving the hornwort genomes that have also since been sequenced.[22][23]

Archaeplastida
 

Rhodophyta 50px

 
 
 

Glaucophyta 50px

 
Viridiplantae
 

Prasinodermophyta

 
 
 

Chlorophyta 50px

 
 

 

 
 
 
 

Mesostigmatophyceae

 
 
 

Chlorokybophyceae

 
 

Spirotaenia 30px

 
 
 
 
 

Klebsormidiales 50px

 
 
 

Chara 40px

 
 
 

Coleochaetales

 
 
 

Zygnematophyceae 50px

 
Embryophytes
 
Bryophytes
 

Hornworts 40px

 
 
 

Liverworts 50px

 
 

Mosses 20px

 
 
 
 
 
 

Lycophytes 50px

 
 
 

Ferns 50px

 
Spermatophytes
 

Gymnosperms 40px

 
 

Angiosperms 50px

 
(seed plants)
 
 
(land plants)
 
 
 
 
 
 
(green plants)
 
Script error: No such module "Clade/labels".
 

Ancestrally, the green algae were flagellates.[16]

References

  1. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named CavalierSmith1981
  2. ↑ Leebens-Mack, J.H. (October 2019). "One thousand plant transcriptomes and the phylogenomics of green plants". Nature 574 (7780): 679–685. doi:10.1038/s41586-019-1693-2. PMID 31645766. 
  3. ↑ Cocquyt, Ellen; Verbruggen, Heroen; Leliaert, Frederik; Zechman, Frederick W; Sabbe, Koen; De Clerck, Olivier (February 2009). "Gain and loss of elongation factor genes in green algae". BMC Evolutionary Biology 9 (1): 39. doi:10.1186/1471-2148-9-39. PMID 19216746. Bibcode: 2009BMCEE...9...39C. 
  4. ↑ Becker, B. (2007). Function and Evolution of the Vacuolar Compartment in Green Algae and Land Plants (Viridiplantae). International Review of Cytology. 264. pp. 1–24. doi:10.1016/S0074-7696(07)64001-7. ISBN 978-0-12-374263-6. https://archive.org/details/internationalrev0000unse_w6f2/page/1. 
  5. ↑ Kim, E.; Graham, L.E. (July 2008). Redfield, Rosemary Jeanne. ed. "EEF2 analysis challenges the monophyly of Archaeplastida and Chromalveolata". PLOS One 3 (7). doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0002621. PMID 18612431. Bibcode: 2008PLoSO...3.2621K. 
  6. ↑ Su, Danyan; Yang, Lingxiao; Shi, Xuan; Ma, Xiaoya; Zhou, Xiaofan; Hedges, S Blair; Zhong, Bojian (2021-07-29). Battistuzzi, Fabia Ursula. ed. "Large-Scale Phylogenomic Analyses Reveal the Monophyly of Bryophytes and Neoproterozoic Origin of Land Plants". Molecular Biology and Evolution 38 (8): 3332–3344. doi:10.1093/molbev/msab106. PMID 33871608. PMC 8321542. https://academic.oup.com/mbe/article/38/8/3332/6237914. 
  7. ↑ Becker, B.; Marin, B. (2009), "Streptophyte algae and the origin of embryophytes", Annals of Botany 103 (7): 999–1004, doi:10.1093/aob/mcp044, PMID 19273476 
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 Delwiche, C.F.; Timme, R.E. (June 2011). "Plants". Current Biology 21 (11): R417–22. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2011.04.021. PMID 21640897. Bibcode: 2011CBio...21.R417D. 
  9. ↑ "Charophycean Green Algae Home Page". http://www.life.umd.edu/labs/delwiche/Charophyte.html. 
  10. ↑ Ruhfel, Brad R.; Gitzendanner, Matthew A.; Soltis, Pamela S.; Soltis, Douglas E.; Burleigh, J. Gordon (February 2014). "From algae to angiosperms-inferring the phylogeny of green plants (Viridiplantae) from 360 plastid genomes". BMC Evolutionary Biology 14 (1): 23. doi:10.1186/1471-2148-14-23. PMID 24533922. Bibcode: 2014BMCEE..14...23R. 
  11. ↑ Delwiche, Charles F.; Cooper, E.D. (October 2015). "The Evolutionary Origin of a Terrestrial Flora". Current Biology 25 (19): R899–910. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2015.08.029. PMID 26439353. Bibcode: 2015CBio...25.R899D. 
  12. ↑ Parfrey, Laura Wegener; Lahr, Daniel J. G.; Knoll, Andrew H.; Katz, Laura A. (August 2011). "Estimating the timing of early eukaryotic diversification with multigene molecular clocks". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 108 (33): 13624–9. doi:10.1073/pnas.1110633108. PMID 21810989. Bibcode: 2011PNAS..10813624P. 
  13. ↑ "Viridiplantae". https://www.uniprot.org/taxonomy/33090. 
  14. ↑ Adl, Sina M. et al. (2005). "The new higher level classification of eukaryotes with emphasis on the taxonomy of protists". The Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology 52 (5): 399–451. doi:10.1111/j.1550-7408.2005.00053.x. PMID 16248873. 
  15. ↑ Bowles, Alexander M. C.; Williamson, Christopher J.; Williams, Tom A.; Lenton, Timothy M.; Donoghue, Philip C. J. (2022-10-31). "The origin and early evolution of plants". Trends in Plant Science 28 (3): 312–329. doi:10.1016/j.tplants.2022.09.009. PMID 36328872. https://www.cell.com/trends/plant-science/abstract/S1360-1385(22)00271-0. 
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 Leliaert, Frederik; Smith, David R.; Moreau, Hervé; Herron, Matthew D.; Verbruggen, Heroen; Delwiche, Charles F.; De Clerck, Olivier (2012). "Phylogeny and molecular evolution of the green algae". Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences 31 (1): 1–46. doi:10.1080/07352689.2011.615705. Bibcode: 2012CRvPS..31....1L. https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01590252/file/article.pdf. 
  17. ↑ Marin, B. (September 2012). "Nested in the Chlorellales or independent class? Phylogeny and classification of the Pedinophyceae (Viridiplantae) revealed by molecular phylogenetic analyses of complete nuclear and plastid-encoded rRNA operons". Protist 163 (5): 778–805. doi:10.1016/j.protis.2011.11.004. PMID 22192529. 
  18. ↑ Leebens-Mack, M.; Barker, M.; Carpenter, E. et al. (2019). "One thousand plant transcriptomes and the phylogenomics of green plants". Nature 574 (7780): 679–685. doi:10.1038/s41586-019-1693-2. PMID 31645766. 
  19. ↑ Liang, Zhe (2019). "Mesostigma viride Genome and Transcriptome Provide Insights into the Origin and Evolution of Streptophyta". Advanced Science 7 (1). doi:10.1002/advs.201901850. PMID 31921561. 
  20. ↑ Wang, Sibo (2020). "Genomes of early-diverging streptophyte algae shed light on plant terrestrialization". Nature Plants 6 (2): 95–106. doi:10.1038/s41477-019-0560-3. PMID 31844283. Bibcode: 2020NatPl...6...95W. 
  21. ↑ Puttick, Mark (2018). "The Interrelationships of Land Plants and the Nature of the Ancestral Embryophyte". Current Biology 28 (5): 733–745. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2018.01.063. PMID 29456145. Bibcode: 2018CBio...28E.733P. 
  22. ↑ Zhang, Jian (2020). "The hornwort genome and early land plant evolution". Nature Plants 6 (2): 107–118. doi:10.1038/s41477-019-0588-4. PMID 32042158. Bibcode: 2020NatPl...6..107Z. 
  23. ↑ Li, Fay Wei (2020). "Anthoceros genomes illuminate the origin of land plants and the unique biology of hornworts". Nature Plants 6 (3): 259–272. doi:10.1038/s41477-020-0618-2. PMID 32170292. Bibcode: 2020NatPl...6..259L. 

Wikidata ☰ Q11973077 entry



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