Engineering:Ingenuity (helicopter)

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Short description: Retired NASA helicopter on the Mars 2020 mission


Ingenuity
Part of Mars 2020
Mars helicopter on sol 46 enhanced.png
Ingenuity at Wright Brothers Field on April 6, 2021, its third day of deployment on Mars
TypeExtraterrestrial autonomous UAV helicopter
ManufacturerJet Propulsion Laboratory
Technical details
Dimensions121 cm × 49 cm × 52 cm (48 in × 19 in × 20 in)
Dry mass1.8 kilograms (4.0 lb)[1]
Power6 Solar-charged Sony VTC-4 Li ion batteries; typical motor input power: 350 watt[2]
Flight history
First flight
19 April 2021, 07:34 UTC
Last flight
18 January 2024
Flights72
FateRetired due to sustained rotor blade damage[3]
Instruments

Ingenuity, nicknamed Ginny, is an autonomous NASA helicopter that operated on Mars from 2021 to 2024 as part of the Mars 2020 mission. Ingenuity made its first flight on April 19, 2021, demonstrating that flight is possible in the extremely thin atmosphere of Mars, and was the first aircraft to conduct a powered and controlled extra-terrestrial flight.[4][5][6][7][8] It was designed by NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) in collaboration with AeroVironment, NASA's Ames Research Center and Langley Research Center[9] with some components supplied by Lockheed Martin Space, Qualcomm, and SolAero.[10]

Ingenuity was delivered to Mars on February 18, 2021 attached to the underside of the Perseverance rover, which landed at Octavia E. Butler Landing near the western rim of the 45 km (28 mi) wide Jezero crater.[11][12][13][14][15] Because radio signals take between five and twenty minutes to travel between Earth and Mars, depending on the planets' positions, it could not be controlled directly in real time but flew autonomously to execute flight plans designed and sent to it by JPL.[16]

Originally intended to make only five flights, Ingenuity completed 72 flights over a period of nearly three years. The original intention was a 30-sol technology demonstration, requiring five flights at altitudes ranging from 3–5 m (10–16 ft) for up to 90 seconds each to prove its airworthiness.[1][17] Following this successful demonstration phase, JPL designed a series of operational flights to explore how aerial scouting could aid the exploration of Mars and other worlds.[18][19] In this operational role Ingenuity scouted areas of interest for the Perseverance rover, improved navigational techniques and explored the limits of its flight envelope.[20][21][1][22] Ingenuity's performance and resilience in the harsh Martian environment greatly exceeded expectations, allowing it to perform far more flights than were initially planned.[23] Ingenuity's rotor blades were damaged while landing on its 72nd, and last, flight on January 18, 2024.[24] NASA announced the end of its mission on January 25, 2024.[3][25] Ingenuity had flown for a total of two hours, eight minutes and 48 seconds over 1,004 days, covering more than 17 kilometres (11 mi).[26] .[3][27][28]

Development

Concept

Prototype Mars helicopter, which first flew in a pressure chamber simulating the Martian atmosphere on May 31, 2016

The development of the project that would eventually become Ingenuity started in 2012 when JPL director Charles Elachi toured and met with members of the Autonomous Systems Division at JPL. The idea for the project drew on prior concept work in the division. By January 2015, NASA agreed to fund the development of a full-size model, which came to be known as the "risk reduction" vehicle.[29] NASA's JPL and AeroVironment published the conceptual design in 2014 for a scout helicopter to accompany a rover.[9][30][31] By mid-2016, $15 million was being requested to continue development of the helicopter.[32] By December 2017, engineering models of the vehicle had been tested in a simulated Martian atmosphere[22][33] and models were undergoing testing in the Arctic, but its inclusion in the mission had not yet been approved or funded.[34]

Mission integration

At the time of the approval of the Mars 2020 program in July 2014,[35] a helicopter flight demonstration was neither scoped nor budgeted.[36]

The United States federal budget, announced in March 2018, provided $23 million for the helicopter for one year,[37][38] and it was announced on May 11, 2018, that the helicopter could be developed and tested in time to be included in the Mars 2020 mission.[39] The helicopter underwent extensive flight-dynamics and environment testing,[22][40] and was mounted on the underside of the Perseverance rover in August 2019.[41] NASA spent about $80 million to build Ingenuity and about $5 million to operate the helicopter.[42]

In 2019, preliminary designs of Ingenuity were tested on Earth in simulated Mars atmospheric and gravity conditions. For flight testing, a large vacuum chamber was used to simulate the very low pressure of the atmosphere of Mars – filled with carbon dioxide to approximately 0.60% (about ​1⁄160) of standard atmospheric pressure at sea level on Earth – which is roughly equivalent to a helicopter flying at 34,000 m (112,000 ft) altitude in the atmosphere of Earth. In order to simulate the much-reduced gravity field of Mars (38% of Earth's), 62% of Earth's gravity was offset by a line pulling upwards during flight tests.[43] A "wind-wall" consisting of almost 900 computer fans was used to provide wind in the chamber.[44][45]:1:08:05–1:08:40

In April 2020, the vehicle was named Ingenuity by Vaneeza Rupani, a girl in the 11th grade at Tuscaloosa County High School in Northport, Alabama, who submitted an essay into NASA's "Name the Rover" contest.[46][47] Known in planning stages as the Mars Helicopter Scout,[48] or simply the Mars Helicopter,[49] the nickname Ginny later entered use in parallel to the parent rover Perseverance being affectionately referred to as Percy.[50] Its full-scale engineering model for testing on Earth was named Earth Copter and, unofficially, Terry.[51]

Ingenuity was designed to be a technology demonstrator by JPL to assess whether such a vehicle could fly safely. Before it was built, launched and landed, scientists and managers expressed hope that helicopters could provide better mapping and guidance that would give future mission controllers more information to help with travel routes, planning, and hazard avoidance.[39][52][53] Based on the performance of previous rovers through Curiosity, it was assumed that such aerial scouting might enable future rovers to safely drive up to three times as far per sol.[54][55] However, the new AutoNav capability of Perseverance significantly reduced this advantage, allowing the rover to cover more than 100 meters per sol.[56]

Development team

Ingenuity team, 2018

The Ingenuity team was comparatively small, with never more than 65 full-time-equivalent employees from JPL. Program workers from AeroVironment, NASA AMES and Langley research centers brought the total to 150.[29] Key personnel include:

  • MiMi Aung – Ingenuity Mars Helicopter Project Manager at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory,[57][58][59][29]
  • Bob Balaram – Chief Engineer (prior to Nov 2021)[60][61][62][63]
  • Timothy Canham – Flight Software Lead and Operations Lead (prior to June 2021)[64][65][66]
  • Håvard Fjær Grip – GNC Lead and Chief Pilot[67][68][69][63][70][71]
  • Matt Keennon – AeroVironment Technical Lead[31]
  • Ben Pipenberg – AeroVironment Design Lead[31]
  • Josh Ravich – Mechanical Engineering Lead[72][73]
  • Teddy Tzanetos – Operations Lead[74][75][71]
  • Nacer Chahat – Antenna Engineer and Telecom System Engineering[76][77][78]

On June 15, 2021, the team behind Ingenuity was named the 2021 winner of the John L. "Jack" Swigert Jr. Award for Space Exploration from the Space Foundation.[79] On April 5, 2022, the National Aeronautic Association awarded Ingenuity and its group in JPL the 2021 Collier Trophy.[80][81]

Opposition

The idea to include a helicopter in the Mars 2020 mission was opposed by several people. Up until the end of the 2010s, several NASA leaders, scientists and JPL employees argued against integrating a helicopter into the mission. For three years, the future Ingenuity was developed outside the Mars 2020 project and its budget.[17][82] And although NASA management accepted assurances in the spring of 2018 that the addition of a helicopter would not harm the goals of the expedition, Mars 2020 chief scientist, Kenneth Farley, stated "I have personally been opposed to it because we are working very hard for efficiencies and spending 30 days working on a technology demonstration does not further those goals directly from the science point of view".[83] Farley was convinced that the helicopter was a distraction from the priority scientific tasks, unacceptable even for a short time.[83]

Comparison of total distance traveled by Ingenuity and Perseverance[lower-alpha 1]

The skepticism on the part of NASA leadership was not unfounded. Scientists, engineers and managers proceeded from a pragmatic comparison of the benefits of additional aerial reconnaissance with the costs that inevitably fall on the schedule for the rover to complete all the tasks assigned to it. Arguing with MiMi Aung on the air of a joint conference,[clarification needed] Jennifer Trosper warned that thanks to auto-navigation, the rover ultimately outpaces the helicopter. These calculations were first confirmed in the spring of 2022 when by the beginning of Sol 400 the helicopter did not take a leading position on the track along the slopes of the delta,[clarification needed] although it covered a distance several times less than the rover. Due to the increased loss of time for recharging and transmitting telemetry, the attempt to bring the helicopter to the position of the route plotter,[clarification needed] planned during the ascent to the delta, also failed.[84]

At the end of the "test window", NASA extended support for Ingenuity for another 30 sols, limiting the frequency of departures to one flight every few weeks. Later on, some of NASA's senior leaders seized the opportunity to dampen their enthusiasm for the Martian helicopter. Thus, addressing directly all the staff of the Mars 2020 project, the director of the Mars exploration program E. Janson and the principal Mars explorer M. Meyer urged the staff to "be highly disciplined and concentrate on collecting samples".[85] At the same time, in their report to the Planetary Advisory Committee (PAC) on June 14, 2021, the helicopter was mentioned only in the past tense: "placed Ingenuity and completed the technology demonstration phase".[85]

Despite this early pessimism, Ingenuity has since proved to be more than capable of keeping up with Perseverance, actually staying ahead of the rover for the majority of the traverse up the Jezero delta.[86] Insufficient solar energy during the Martian winter was the main driver of poor operational performance in the latter half of 2022.[87]

Design

Mechanical design

The main components of Ingenuity

Ingenuity consists of a rectangular fuselage measuring 136 mm × 195 mm × 163 mm (5.4 in × 7.7 in × 6.4 in) suspended below a pair of coaxial counter-rotating rotors measuring 1.21 m (4 ft) in diameter.[1][33][49] This assembly is supported by four landing legs of 384 mm (15.1 in) each.[1] It also carries a solar array mounted above the rotors to recharge its batteries. The entire vehicle is 0.49 m (1 ft 7 in) tall.[1]

Ingenuity upper swashplate assembly
A – Rotor blade; B – Pitch link; C – Servo; D – Swashplate

The lower gravity of Mars (about a third of Earth's) only partially offsets the thinness of the 95% carbon dioxide atmosphere of Mars,[88] making it much harder for an aircraft to generate adequate lift. The planet's atmospheric density is about ​1⁄100 that of Earth's at sea level, or about the same as at 27,000 m (87,000 ft), an altitude never reached by existing helicopters. This density reduces even more in Martian winters. To keep Ingenuity aloft, its specially shaped blades of enlarged size must rotate between 2400 and 2900 rpm, or about 10 times faster than what is needed on Earth.[33][89][90] Each of the helicopter's contra-rotating coaxial rotors is controlled by a separate swashplate that can affect both collective and cyclic pitch.[91] Ingenuity was also constructed to spacecraft specifications to withstand the acceleration and vibrations during launch and Mars landing without damage.[90]

Avionics

Ingenuity relies on different sensor packages grouped in two assemblies. All sensors are commercial off-the-shelf units.

Structural design of internal hardware of Ingenuity

The Upper Sensor Assembly, with associated vibration isolation elements, is mounted on the mast close to the vehicle's center-of-mass to minimize the effects of angular rates and accelerations. It consists of a cellphone-grade Bosch BMI-160 Inertial measurement unit (IMU) and an inclinometer (Murata SCA100T-D02); the inclinometer is used to calibrate the IMU while on the ground prior to flight. The Lower Sensor Assembly consists of an altimeter (Garmin LIDAR Lite v3), cameras, and a secondary IMU, all mounted directly on the Electronics Core Module (not on the mast).[91]

The monopole antenna of the base station is mounted on a bracket in the right rear part of the rover.

Ingenuity uses a 425×165 mm solar panel to recharge its batteries, which are six Sony Li-ion cells with 35–40 Wh (130–140 kJ) of energy capacity[43] (nameplate capacity of 2 Ah).[22] Flight duration is not constrained by available battery power, but by thermals – during flight, the drive motors heat up by 1 °C every second, and the thin Martian atmosphere makes for poor heat dissipation.[92] The helicopter uses a Qualcomm Snapdragon 801 processor running a Linux operating system.[64] Among other functions, it controls the visual navigation algorithm via a velocity estimate derived from terrain features tracked with the navigation camera.[93] The Qualcomm processor is connected to two radiation-resistant flight-control microcontrollers (MCUs) to perform necessary control functions.[22]

The telecommunication system consists of two identical radios with monopole antennae for data exchange between the helicopter and rover. The radio link utilizes the low-power Zigbee communication protocols, implemented via 914 MHz SiFlex 02 chipsets mounted in both vehicles. The communication system is designed to relay data at 250 kbit/s over distances of up to 1,000 m (3,300 ft).[76] The omnidirectional antenna is part of the helicopter's solar panel assembly and weighs 4 grams.[94]

Cameras and photography

Ingenuity's two cameras, as seen from under the aircraft

Ingenuity is equipped with two commercial-off-the-shelf (COTS) cameras: a high-resolution Return to Earth (RTE) camera and a lower resolution navigation (NAV) camera. The RTE camera consists of the Sony IMX 214, a rolling shutter, 4208 × 3120-pixel resolution color sensor, fitted with a Bayer color filter array and an O-film optics module. The NAV camera consists of an Omnivision OV7251, a 640 × 480 black and white global shutter sensor, mounted to a Sunny optics module.[22]

Unlike Perseverance, Ingenuity does not have a special stereo camera for taking twin photos for 3D pictures simultaneously. However, the helicopter can make such images by taking duplicate color photos of the same terrain while hovering in slightly offset positions, as in flight 11, or by taking an offset picture on the return leg of a roundtrip flight, as in flight 12.[95]

Combination of two images, one each from Ingenuity's Navigation Camera and color camera (RTE), taken while Ingenuity was on the ground

While the RTE color camera is not necessary for flights (as in flights 7 and 8[74]), the NAV camera operates continuously throughout each flight, with the captured images used for visual odometry to determine the aircraft's position and motion during flight. Due to limitations on the transmission rate between the aircraft, the rover, and Earth, only a limited number of images can be saved from each flight. Images to save for transmission are defined by the flight plan prior to each flight, and the remaining images from the NAV camera are discarded after use.[citation needed]

As of December 16, 2021, 2,091 black-and-white images from the navigation camera[96] and 104 color images from the terrain camera (RTE)[97] have been published.

Count of stored images from both cameras per each flight[96]
Flight No. Date (UTC) and Mars 2020 mission sol Photographs Comments
b/w
NAV 		color
RTE
Before April 19, 2021 (sol 58) 6[98] 6[99] Preflight camera tests
1 April 19, 2021 (sol 58) 15 —
2 April 22, 2021 (sol 61) 17 3 The first color photo session
3 April 25, 2021 (sol 64) 24 4
4 April 30, 2021 (sol 69) 62 5
5 May 7, 2021 (sol 76) 128 6
6 May 23, 2021 (sol 91) 106 8
7 June 8, 2021 (sol 107) 72 0 RTE was turned off[74]
8 June 22, 2021 (sol 121) 186 0
9 July 5, 2021 (sol 133) 193 10
10 July 24, 2021 (sol 152) 190 10 Five pairs of color images of Raised Ridges taken to make anaglyphs.[75]
11 August 5, 2021 (sol 164) 194 10
12 August 16, 2021 (Sol 174) 197[100] 10 Five pairs of color images of Séítah taken to make anaglyphs.[71]
13 September 5, 2021 (Sol 193) 191[101] 10
September 16, 2021 (Sol 204) to October 23, 2021 (Sol 240) 9 1 preflight 14 tests
14 October 24, 2021 (Sol 241) 182 —
15 November 6, 2021 (Sol 254) 191 10
November 15, 2021 (Sol 263) — 1 ground color photo[102]
16 November 21, 2021 (Sol 268) 185 9
November 27, 2021 (Sol 274) — 1 ground color photo[102]
17 December 5, 2021 (Sol 282) 192 —
18 December 15, 2021 (Sol 292) 184 —
December 20, 2021 (Sol 297) to February 3, 2022 (Sol 341) 10 1 preflight 19 tests and post-dust storm debris removal operations
19 February 8, 2022 (Sol 346) 92 —
20 February 25, 2022 (Sol 362) 110 10
February 27, 2022 (Sol 364) — 1 preflight 21 tests
21 March 10, 2022 (Sol 375) 191 —

Flight software

File:PIA25662-Ingenuity LHA Ingenuity's Hazard Avoidance Capability.webm

The helicopter uses autonomous control during its flights, which are telerobotically planned and scripted by operators at Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL). It communicates with the Perseverance rover directly before and after each landing.[45]:1:20:38–1:22:20

The flight control and navigation software on the Ingenuity can be updated remotely, which has been used to correct software bugs[103][74] and add new capabilities as the helicopter continues to operate beyond its original mission. Prior to flight 34, the software was updated to avoid hazards during landing and to correct a navigation error when traveling over uneven terrain. This update became necessary as the helicopter traveled away from the relatively flat terrain of the original landing site, and towards more varied and hazardous terrain.[104]

Specifications

Flight characteristics of Ingenuity
Rotor speed 2400–2700 rpm[1][49][105]
Blade tip speed <0.7 Mach[48]
Originally planned operational time 1 to 5 flights within 30 sols[1][2]
Flight time Up to 167 seconds per flight[106]
Maximum range, flight 704 m (2,310 ft)
Maximum range, radio 1,000 m (3,300 ft)[22]
Maximum altitude 12 m (39 ft)
Maximum possible speed
  • Horizontal: 10 m/s (33 ft/s)[9]
  • Vertical: 3 m/s (9.8 ft/s)[9]
Battery capacity 35–40 Wh (130–140 kJ)[43]

Operational history

Primary mission

Ingenuity hanging from the underside of the Perseverance rover during deployment to the Martian surface

Perseverance dropped the debris shield protecting Ingenuity on March 21, 2021, and the helicopter deployed from the underside of the rover to the Martian surface on April 3, 2021.[107] That day both cameras of the helicopter were tested taking their first black-and-white and color photographs of the floor of Jezero Crater in the shadow of the rover.[108][99] After deployment, the rover drove approximately 100 m (330 ft) away from the drone to allow a safe flying zone.[11][12]

Ingenuity's rotor blades were successfully unlocked on April 8, 2021, (mission sol 48), and the helicopter performed a low-speed rotor spin test at 50 rpm.[109][110][111][112][113]

A high-speed spin test was attempted on April 9, but failed due to the expiration of a watchdog timer, a software measure to protect the helicopter from incorrect operation in unforeseen conditions.[114] On April 12, JPL said it identified a software fix to correct the problem.[103] To save time, however, JPL decided to use a workaround procedure, which managers said had an 85% chance of succeeding and would be "the least disruptive" to the helicopter.[57]

File:PIA25970-MarsPerseveranceRover-IngenuityHelicopter-20230803.webm

On April 16, 2021, Ingenuity successfully passed the full-speed 2400 rpm rotor spin test while remaining on the surface.[115][116] Three days later, April 19, JPL flew the helicopter for the first time. The watchdog timer problem occurred again when the fourth flight was attempted. The team rescheduled the flight, which succeeded on April 30. On June 25, JPL said it had uploaded a software update the previous week to permanently fix the watchdog problem, and that a rotor spin test and the eighth flight confirmed that the update worked.[74]

Each flight was planned for altitudes ranging 3–5 m (10–16 ft) above the ground, though Ingenuity soon exceeded that planned height.[1] The first flight was a hover at an altitude of 3 m (9.8 ft), lasting about 40 seconds and including taking a picture of the rover. The first flight succeeded, and subsequent flights were increasingly ambitious as allotted time for operating the helicopter dwindled. JPL said the mission might even stop before the 30-day period ended, in the likely event that the helicopter crashed,[45]:0:49:50–0:51:40 an outcome which did not occur. In up to 90 seconds per flight, Ingenuity could travel as far as 50 m (160 ft) downrange and then back to the starting area, though that goal was also soon exceeded with the fourth flight.[1][59]

After the successful first three flights, the objective was changed from technology demonstration to operational demonstration. Ingenuity flew through a transitional phase of two flights, 4 and 5, before transitioning to its operations demonstration phase.[117] By November 2023, the principal mission priorities were to:[118]

  • Avoid significant interference with, or delay of, rover operations
  • Maintain vehicle health and safety
  • Perform scouting for tactical planning and science assessment
  • Perform experiments to inform mission and vehicle design for future Mars rotorcraft, or collect data for discretionary science

Operations Demo Phase

Just prior to the final demonstration flight, on April 30, 2021, NASA allocated funding to continue the operation of Ingenuity for an "operational demonstration phase" to explore using a helicopter as supplementary reconnaissance for ground assets like Perseverance.[117] Funding for Ingenuity was regularly renewed on a monthly basis.[119]

Starting with the 6th flight, the mission goal shifted towards supporting the rover science mission by mapping and scouting the terrain.[120] While Ingenuity would do more to help Perseverance, the rover would pay less attention to the helicopter and stop taking pictures of it in flight. JPL managers said the photo procedure took an "enormous" amount of time, slowing the project's main mission of looking for signs of ancient life.[121] On 30 April 2021, the fourth flight successfully captured numerous color photos and explored the surface with its black-and-white navigation camera.[59] On May 7, Ingenuity successfully flew to a new landing site.[122]

After 12 flights by September 2021, the mission was extended indefinitely.[123] After 21 flights by March 2022, NASA said it would continue flying Ingenuity until at least the coming September. The area of the helicopter's next goal was more rugged than the relatively flat terrain it flew over in its first year of operation. The ancient fan-shaped river delta has jagged cliffs, angled surfaces and projecting boulders. Ingenuity helped the mission team decide which route Perseverance should take to the top of the delta and aided it in analyzing potential science targets. Software updates eliminated the helicopter's 50-foot altitude limit, allowed it to change speed in flight, and improved its understanding of terrain texture below it. NASA associate administrator Thomas Zurbuchen said less than a year earlier "we didn't even know if powered, controlled flight of an aircraft at Mars was possible." He said the transformation in understanding what the aircraft can do is "one of the most historic in the annals of air and space exploration."[23]

The Ingenuity team planned to fly the helicopter every two to three weeks during its indefinitely extended mission.[123] The helicopter's longer-than-expected flying career lasted into a seasonal change on Mars, when the atmospheric density at its location became even lower. The flight team prepared by commanding Ingenuity to ground test a faster rotor blade rotation, needed for sufficient lift. JPL said the higher planned flight speed of 2700 rpm would pose new risks, including vibration, power consumption and aerodynamic drag if the blade tips approach the speed of sound.[105] The test speed was 2800 rpm, giving a margin for increase if the intended flight speed of 2700 is not enough. Ingenuity faced another challenge to remain functional during the Martian winter and solar conjunction, when Mars moves behind the Sun, blocking communications with Earth and forcing the rover and helicopter to halt operations. The shutdown happened in mid-October 2021, for which preparations started in mid-September.[117][124] The helicopter remained stationary at its location 175 meters (575 feet) away from Perseverance and communicated its status weekly to the rover for health checks.[125] JPL intended to continue flying Ingenuity since it survived solar conjunction.[126][127] NASA leadership stated that extending the mission would increase the project's expenses, but that they believed the cost to be worthwhile for the information learned.[128]

The start time of a flight was chosen depending on temperature management of the batteries, which needed to warm up after the night. During Martian summer lower air density imposed a higher load on the motors, so flights were shifted from noon (LMST 12:30) to morning (LMST 9:30) and limited to 130 seconds to not overheat the motors.[129]

On May 3 and 4, 2022, for the first time in the mission, the helicopter unexpectedly failed to communicate with the rover, following the 28th flight on April 29.[130] JPL determined that Ingenuity's rechargeable batteries suffered a power drop or insufficient battery state-of-charge (SOC) while going into the night, most likely because of a seasonal increase in atmospheric dust reducing sunshine on its solar panel and due to lower temperatures as winter approached. When the battery pack's state of charge dropped below a lower limit, the helicopter's field-programmable gate array (FPGA) powered down, resetting the mission clock, which lost sync with the base station on the rover. Contact was re-established on May 5. Controllers decided to turn off the helicopter's heaters at night to conserve power, accepting the risk of exposing components to nighttime's extreme cold.[131] This daily state-of-charge deficit is likely to persist for the duration of Martian winter (at least until September/October).[130]

In a June 6, 2022, update, JPL reported Ingenuity's inclination sensor had stopped working. Its purpose was to determine the helicopter's orientation at the start of each flight. Mission controllers developed a workaround using the craft's inertial measurement unit (IMU) to provide equivalent data to the onboard navigation computer.[132]

In January 2023, the helicopter began to have enough solar power to avoid overnight brownouts and FPGA resets due to the start of Martian spring.[87] This meant the helicopter was able to fly more frequently and over longer distances.

In March 2023, the helicopter made frequent flights to deal with limited radio range in the rough terrain of the Jezero delta. In the narrow canyons of the river delta, the helicopter needed to stay ahead of the rover, rather than entering a "keep out" zone and passing it, which JPL considered potentially hazardous.[86]

Three times, mission controllers lost contact with Ingenuity after a flight, when the helicopter was not in the line of sight with Perseverance, preventing radio communication with the rover, which relays flight data between the helicopter and Earth. After the 49th flight on April 2, 2023, JPL lost contact with Ingenuity for six days, until Perseverance drove to a spot where communication was re-established.[133] JPL had no contact with the helicopter for 63 days after flight 52 on April 26, 2023. Mission controllers had intentionally flown Ingenuity out of radio range, expecting to regain communication in a few days. Perseverance controllers, however, changed their exploration plans and drove further out of range, and then had difficulty collecting rock samples, adding another delay before finally driving toward the helicopter and re-establishing contact on June 28.[134][118] Communication with Ingenuity was lost again at the end of the ill-fated 72nd flight on January 18, 2024. JPL regained contact on January 20.[135][136]

End of mission

Ingenuity was permanently grounded following damage to its rotor tips, possibly all four, when it landed after flight 72. The damage is believed to result from an autonomous navigation error in a mostly featureless dune area.[28][24][3][27][137] On January 25, 2024, NASA Administrator, Bill Nelson, announced the end of the mission.[138] The Ingenuity team is scheduled to perform tests on the helicopter systems and download the remaining data.[3]

  • Ingenuity's total flight path (in yellow) at the end of mission. Also shown is the track of the rover, Perseverence, up to that point.

  • Detail of final position at the end of mission.[139]

The damaged rotor blades, flight 72
The sand dune area in which the damage occurred, taken by Ingenuity during the previous flight 70 on December 22, 2023.
The shadow of the damaged tip of one of the rotor blades taken by Ingenuity's navigation camera after flight 72, on January 18, 2024.[3][27][25]
Another view of the damaged rotor.[24][140]
Another view of the damaged rotor tips.[24][140]

Follow-on missions and future work and conceptions

There are currently no plans to send Curiosity/Perseverance-class scientific laboratories to Mars, and funding for Martian projects is frozen to the level necessary to complete the Mars sample-return campaign.[141]

Sample Return Helicopter

Sample Return Helicopter, based on Ingenuity

The idea of future Martian helicopters has been proposed. In March 2022, AeroVironment engineers, who previously created Ingenuity, presented the concept of a new helicopter with a payload of 280 g. A 90 g small manipulator arm with a two-fingered gripper and a self-propelled landing gear make it possible to use vehicles of this type instead of a fetch rover[142] to select sample tubes cases with samples collected by Perseverance.[143] At a briefing on September 15, 2022, NASA Planetary Science Division Director Laurie Gleizes confirmed her intention to use two of these helicopters.[144]

The choice of Ingenuity as the prototype for the intended pair of assembler helicopters was based on the impressive safety margin built into it by AeroVironment designers. In principle, even the limit of 100 landings for the high-wear shock absorbers of the chassis is sufficient to transfer all 43 sleeves. Multiple small payloads can be carried by these types of helicopters, deployed and re-deployed to various locations, to perform a variety of distributed and networked operations.[145]

Inertial navigation was one of the main challenges on Mars for the Ingenuity. The helicopter needs to show the ability to accurately follow the track it has already "mapped" on previously collected NAV frame sets and land at the takeoff point. In a future sample return mission, each cartridge case would require a pair of flights ending at the point of departure. Landing accuracy was an assigned task of Ingenuity's 31st flight.[146] The very thin atmosphere of Mars does not allow repeating the maneuvers and landing techniques of terrestrial helicopters.[147][31]

Mars Science Helicopter

Mars Science Helicopter, Ingenuity's proposed successor

Data collected by Ingenuity are intended to support the development of future helicopters capable of carrying larger payloads. The Mars Science Helicopter task is the next evolutionary step for Martian rotorcraft at JPL. The key focus is to develop the technology needed to deploy science payloads (0.5 kg – 2 kg) on rotorcraft platforms at the surface of Mars. MSH will inherit many of the technologies created by the Mars Helicopter Technology Demonstrator (MHTD) baselined for Mars 2020, and extend capabilities in order to enable a new class of mesoscale planetary access across Mars.[148][39][22][149]

Designing and proving how science payloads can be deployed, recovered, integrated, and operated on a dynamically and computationally representative rotorcraft will be critical in expanding a new frontier for Martian scientific exploration.[148][39][22][149]

The focus will include:

  • Rotorcraft configurations capable of carrying and deploying science payloads
  • Forecasting technological advancements in avionics, batteries, power systems, and navigation algorithms.
  • Earthbound demonstration testbed for evaluating avionics and payload integrations along with MHTD inherited FSW, C&DH, and eventual autonomous science mission execution.[148][39][22][149]

MAGGIE

Main page: Astronomy:Mars Aerial and Ground Global Intelligent Explorer

Mars Aerial and Ground Global Intelligent Explorer (MAGGIE) is a compact fixed wing aircraft proposed during 2024 NIAC selections.[150]

Tributes to the Wright brothers

NASA and JPL officials described the first Mars Ingenuity helicopter flight as their "Wright Brothers moment", by analogy to the first successful powered airplane flight on Earth.[151][152] A small piece of the wing cloth from the Wright brothers' 1903 Wright Flyer is attached to a cable underneath Ingenuity's solar panel.[15] In 1969, Apollo 11's Neil Armstrong carried a similar Wright Flyer artifact to the Moon in the Lunar Module Eagle.

NASA named Ingenuity's first take-off and landing airstrip Wright Brothers Field, which the UN agency ICAO gave an airport code of JZRO for Jezero Crater,[153] and the drone itself a type designator of IGY, call-sign INGENUITY.[154][155][153]

Gallery

Audio

File:Sounds-of-Mars -Helicopter Flying on Mars.ogg

Flight videos

File:NASA-MarsIngenuityHelicopter-FirstFlightVideo-20210419.webm
First test flight
(video; 00:57; 19 April 2021)
File:Enhanced Video Shows Dust During Ingenuity's Flight alongside flight time in upper left corner.webm
Dust seen during first flight with timer (enh video; 00:46)
File:NASA-MarsIngenuityHelicopter-SecondTestFlight-20210422.webm
Second test flight
(00:21; 22 April 2021)
File:JPL-20210425 Perseverance Rover's Mastcam-Z Captures Ingenuity's Third Flight.webm
Third test flight
(01:16; 25 April 2021)
File:NASA's Perseverance Captures Video, Audio of Fourth Ingenuity Flight.webm
Fourth test (video+audio)
(02:44; 30 April 2021)
File:PIA24978a - annotated closeup of Flight 13 - sol 193 MCZ sol 193 MCZ L026 N Tracked 02 (1).webm
Thirteenth test (video)
(01:55; 4 September 2021)
File:PIA26078-MarsIngenuityHelicopter-59thFlight-20230916.webm
59th Flight
(02:50; 16 September 2023)

Deployment sequence

March 29, 2021: after Ingenuity was extended vertically into place after being rotated outward from its horizontal position on the belly of the rover, Perseverance takes photos for the panorama, catching in its field of view the debris shield which protected Ingenuity during landing and was dropped on March 21, 2021
Ingenuity helicopter: out from under the Perseverance rover
Before releasing Ingenuity the rover had to get rid of the pan which protected the feasible RIMFAX equipment during the landing stage
Debris shield released and dropped
Ingenuity swings down, with two of its four legs extended
Ingenuity with all legs extended
Pre-flight testing
Before tests
Rotor blades are unlocked for tests and flying
The slow-speed (50 rpm) spin up test on sol 48
The high-speed (2400 rpm) spin up test on sol 55

Maps of flights

The flight zone of the technical demonstration and transitional stage
Wright Brothers Field and the overlook location
View of the field from the rover
Second helipad[lower-alpha 2]
Flights' paths of the operational demonstration stage and HiRise images of Ingenuity
Flight profile for Ingenuity's Flight 15
Topography between Mars helicopter and rover for Flight 17
Positioning before the 2021 solar conjunction
R210 is the rover position on sol 210;
H1631, H1742 and H1933 means 1st, 2nd and 3rd landing sites of Ingenuity on the Field H on sols 163, 174 and 193 respectively
Ingenuity captured by HiRise camera on Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter at Airfield M on February 26, 2022

Images by Ingenuity

First Images[lower-alpha 3]
The first color image (April 4, 2021)[lower-alpha 4]
In-flight image (19 April 2021, altitude 1.2 m (3 ft 11 in))
Landing after the first flight (19 April 2021)
First color aerial photo (22 April 2021, altitude 5.2 m (17 ft), flight 2)
Flights 3–9
Flight 3, rover is seen left-up from the 5.0 m (16.4 ft) height
Heading towards Airfield B (flight 4, 30 April 2021)
Flight 6, view from 10 m (33 ft) towards Séítah
Flight 9, flying over the Séítah (July 5, 2021)
Perseverance rover (left) viewed about 85 m (279 ft) away from 5.0 m (16.4 ft) height (April 25, 2021)
Flights 10–13
Flight 10 over ridges
Flight 12 over Séítah
Flight 13 rover view
After conjunction: preflight tests and flights 14–16
Flight 16 (21 November 2021)
Post-flight 16 rover view
Entry-descent-landing debris
Ingenuity photographed the spacecraft backshell and parachute (April 19) and other apparent EDL debris (April 3).[156]
Crater Ridgeline
Flight 27 − Fortun Ridge
(23 April 2022)

Motion images

Landing after fifth flight at Airfield B (7 May 2021)
Flight 9, animation from the flight images
Flight 11 rover
Flight 11 ten slides

Self-portraits by Perseverance featuring Ingenuity

Mars 2020 in Jezero crater on Mars — Self-portraits of the Perseverance rover showing Ingenuity helicopter
Ingenuity helicopter drop site, Wright Brothers Field
(April 2021)

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ Flights 1, 2 and 14 are not seen because they include little, if any, horizontal movement.
  2. ↑ HiRISE's view of Ingenuity's fourth flight path paving the way for it to move to second airfield on its fifth flight
  3. ↑ All images taken by Ingenuity are from either its black-and-white downward-facing navigation camera[96] or from horizon-facing color camera;[97] landing legs are seen at the side edges of images
  4. ↑ Perseverance Rover wheels are clearly seen in top corners

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: "Ingenuity Mars Helicopter Landing Press Kit". NASA. January 2021. https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/press_kits/mars_2020/download/ingenuity_landing_press_kit.pdf. 
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: "Mars Helicopter". NASA. https://mars.nasa.gov/technology/helicopter/. 
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 "After Three Years on Mars, NASA's Ingenuity Helicopter Mission Ends". https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/after-three-years-on-mars-nasas-ingenuity-helicopter-mission-ends. 
  4. ↑ AFP Staff Writers (Apr 19, 2021). "Ingenuity helicopter successfully flew on Mars: NASA". Mars Daily. ScienceDaily. https://www.marsdaily.com/reports/Ingenuity_helicopter_successfully_flew_on_Mars_NASA_999.html. 
  5. ↑ Hotz, Robert Lee (2021-04-19). "NASA's Mars Helicopter Ingenuity Successfully Makes Historic First Flight" (in en-US). Wall Street Journal. ISSN 0099-9660. https://www.wsj.com/articles/nasas-ingenuity-helicopter-successfully-makes-historic-first-flight-on-mars-11618830461. 
  6. ↑ First Flight of the Ingenuity Mars Helicopter: Live from Mission Control. NASA. 19 April 2021. Archived from the original on 18 April 2021. Retrieved 19 April 2021 – via YouTube.
  7. ↑ Palca, Joe (19 April 2021). "Success! NASA's Ingenuity Makes First Powered Flight On Mars". National Public Radio. https://www.npr.org/2021/04/19/985588253/success-nasas-ingenuity-makes-first-powered-flight-on-mars. 
  8. ↑ Chang, Kenneth (19 April 2021). "NASA's Mars Helicopter Achieves First Flight on Another World – The experimental Ingenuity vehicle completed the short but historic up-and-down flight on Monday morning". The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2021/04/19/science/nasa-mars-helicopter.html. 
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3 This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Generation of Mars Helicopter Rotor Model for Comprehensive Analyses , Witold J. F. Koning, Wayne Johnson, Brian G. Allan; NASA 2018
  10. ↑ "Ingenuity Spots Rover Tracks During Ninth Flight" (in en). NASA. 12 July 2021. https://mars.nasa.gov/resources/26046. 
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 "NASA's Mars Helicopter: Small, Autonomous Rotorcraft To Fly On Red Planet" , Shubham Sharma, International Business Times, 14 May 2018
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: "Mars Helicopter a new challenge for flight". NASA. July 2018. https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/universe/archive/universe1807.pdf. 
  13. ↑ Mars Rover Perseverance Set To Launch Drone. Today (American TV program). 24 March 2021. Archived from the original on 15 April 2021. Retrieved 2021-03-27 – via YouTube.
  14. ↑ hang, Kenneth (23 March 2021). "Get Ready for the First Flight of NASA's Mars Helicopter – The experimental vehicle named Ingenuity traveled to the red planet with the Perseverance rover, which is also preparing for its main science mission.". The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2021/03/23/science/nasa-mars-helicopter.html. 
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 Johnson, Alana; Hautaluoma, Grey; Agle, DC (23 March 2021). "NASA Ingenuity Mars Helicopter Prepares for First Flight". NASA. https://mars.nasa.gov/news/8896. 
  16. ↑ "NASA Science – Mars 2020 Mission Communications". 14 February 2022. https://mars.nasa.gov/mars2020/spacecraft/rover/communications/. 
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 Decision expected soon on adding helicopter to Mars 2020 , Jeff Fout, SpaceNews 4 May 2018
  18. ↑ Chang, Kenneth (30 April 2021). "NASA's Mars Helicopter Flies Again and Gets a New Mission – Ahead of a successful fourth flight, the agency announced that Ingenuity would continue to fly beyond its original month-long mission.". The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2021/04/30/science/mars-helicopter-nasa.html. 
  19. ↑ Strickland, Ashley (30 April 2021). "After fourth successful flight, Mars helicopter gets a new mission". https://www.cnn.com/2021/04/30/world/mars-helicopter-future-flights-rover-scn-trnd/index.html. 
  20. ↑ Chang, Kenneth (23 June 2020). "Mars Is About to Have Its "Wright Brothers Moment" – As part of its next Mars mission, NASA is sending an experimental helicopter to fly through the red planet's thin atmosphere.". The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/06/23/science/mars-helicopter-nasa.html. 
  21. ↑ Leone, Dan (19 November 2015). "Elachi Touts Helicopter Scout for Mars Sample-Caching Rover". SpaceNews. http://spacenews.com/elachi-touts-helicopter-scout-for-mars-sample-caching-rover/. 
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 22.2 22.3 22.4 22.5 22.6 22.7 22.8 22.9 This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Mars Helicopter Technology Demonstrator J. (Bob) Balaram, Timothy Canham, Courtney Duncan, Matt Golombek, Håvard Fjær Grip, Wayne Johnson, Justin Maki, Amelia Quon, Ryan Stern, and David Zhu; American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA) SciTech Forum Conference 8–12 January 2018 Kissimmee, Florida doi:10.2514/6.2018-0023
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 "NASA Extends Ingenuity Helicopter Mission". NASA. March 15, 2022. https://mars.nasa.gov/news/9146/nasa-extends-ingenuity-helicopter-mission/. 
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 24.2 24.3 Wall, Mike (25 January 2024). "'It's sort of been invincible until this moment:' Mars helicopter Ingenuity pilot says 'bland' terrain may have doomed NASA chopper - The sandy landscape offered few points of navigational reference for Ingenuity.". Space.com. https://www.space.com/ingenuity-mars-helicopter-doomed-bland-terrain. 
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 Chang, Kenneth (25 January 2024). "Ingenuity, the NASA Helicopter Flying Over Mars, Ends Its Mission – The robot flew 72 times, serving as a scouting partner to the Perseverance rover, aiding in the search for evidence that there was once life on the red planet.". The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2024/01/25/science/nasa-ingenuity-helicopter-mars.html. 
  26. ↑ "Flight Log". NASA. https://mars.nasa.gov/technology/helicopter/#Flight-Log. 
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 27.2 "Ingenuity spots the shadow of its damaged rotor blade". 2024-01-25. https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/images/pia26243-ingenuity-spots-the-shadow-of-its-damaged-rotor-blade. 
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 (in en) NASA Science Live: Ingenuity Mars Helicopter Tribute & Legacy, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lkZ6jkqPMEc, retrieved 2024-02-01 
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 29.2 Preston Lerner (April 2019). "A Helicopter Dreams of Mars". Air & Space/Smithsonian. https://www.airspacemag.com/space/helicopter-dreams-of-mars-180971739/. 
  30. ↑ J. Balaram and P. T. Tokumaru, "Rotorcrafts for Mars Exploration", in 11th International Planetary Probe Workshop, 2014, Bibcode 2014LPICo1795.8087B Balaram, J.; Tokumaru, P. T. (2014). "Rotorcrafts for Mars Exploration". 11th International Planetary Probe Workshop 1795: 8087. Bibcode: 2014LPICo1795.8087B. https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014LPICo1795.8087B/abstract. Retrieved 29 October 2020. 
  31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 31.2 31.3 Benjamin T. Pipenberg, Matthew Keennon, Jeremy Tyler, Bart Hibbs, Sara Langberg, J. (Bob) Balaram, Håvard F. Grip and Jack Pempejian, "Design and Fabrication of the Mars Helicopter Rotor, Airframe, and Landing Gear Systems ", American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA), SciTech Forum Conference; 7–11 January 2019, San Diego, California
  32. ↑ Berger, Eric (24 May 2016). "Four wild technologies lawmakers want NASA to pursue". ARS Technica. https://arstechnica.com/science/2016/05/four-wild-technologies-lawmakers-want-nasa-to-pursue/. 
  33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 33.2 Clarke, Stephen (14 May 2018). "Helicopter to accompany NASA's next Mars rover to Red Planet". Spaceflight Now. https://spaceflightnow.com/2018/05/14/helicopter-to-accompany-nasas-next-mars-rover-to-red-planet/. 
  34. ↑ Dubois, Chantelle (29 November 2017). "Drones on Mars? NASA Projects May Soon Use Drones for Space Exploration". All About Circuits. https://www.allaboutcircuits.com/news/nasa-projects-may-soon-use-drones-for-space-exploration-mars/. 
  35. ↑ Beutel, Allard (2015-04-15). "NASA Announces Mars 2020 Rover Payload to Explore the Red Planet". http://www.nasa.gov/press/2014/july/nasa-announces-mars-2020-rover-payload-to-explore-the-red-planet-as-never-before. 
  36. ↑ Grush, Loren (2018-05-11). "NASA is sending a helicopter to Mars to get a bird's-eye view of the planet" (in en). https://www.theverge.com/2018/5/11/17346414/nasa-mars-2020-helicopter-atmosphere. 
  37. ↑ NASA Mars exploration efforts turn to operating existing missions and planning sample return , Jeff Foust, SpaceNews, 23 February 2018
  38. ↑ NASA to decide soon whether flying drone will launch with Mars 2020 rover Stephen Clark Spaceflight Now 15 March 2018
  39. ↑ 39.0 39.1 39.2 39.3 39.4 This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: "Mars Helicopter to Fly on NASA's Next Red Planet Rover Mission". NASA. 11 May 2018. https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/mars-helicopter-to-fly-on-nasa-s-next-red-planet-rover-mission. 
  40. ↑ This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Agle, AG; Johnson, Alana (28 March 2019). "NASA's Mars Helicopter Completes Flight Tests". NASA. https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?feature=7361. 
  41. ↑ This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:
  42. ↑ This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: "Mars 2020 Perseverance Launch Press Kit". NASA. 24 June 2020. https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/press_kits/mars_2020/download/mars_2020_launch_press_kit.pdf. 
  43. ↑ 43.0 43.1 43.2 First Flight on Another Planet!. Veritasium. 10 August 2019. Archived from the original on 28 July 2020. Retrieved 3 August 2020 – via YouTube.
  44. ↑ Status 289.
  45. ↑ 45.0 45.1 45.2 Ingenuity Mars Helicopter Preflight Briefing (press conference livestreamed on YouTube). NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory. 9 April 2021. Archived from the original on 16 July 2023. Retrieved 14 April 2021.
  46. ↑ This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Hautaluoma, Grey; Johnson, Alana; Agle, D.C. (29 April 2020). "Alabama High School Student Names NASA's Mars Helicopter". NASA. https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?feature=7650. 
  47. ↑ This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Agle, D.C.; Cook, Jia-Rui; Johnson, Alana (29 April 2020). "Q&A with the Student Who Named Ingenuity, NASA's Mars Helicopter". NASA. https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?feature=7651. 
  48. ↑ 48.0 48.1 This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Mars Helicopter Scout. video presentation at Caltech
  49. ↑ 49.0 49.1 49.2 This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: "Mars Helicopter Fact Sheet". NASA. February 2020. https://mars.nasa.gov/files/mars2020/Mars2020_Helicopter_Fact_Sheet.pdf. 
  50. ↑ This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: "Astronomy Picture of the Day". NASA. 2 March 2021. https://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap210302.html. 
  51. ↑ "NASA begins search for ancient life on Mars after arrival of Perseverance, Ingenuity spacecrafts" (in en-US). 9 May 2021. https://www.cbsnews.com/news/mars-life-ingenuity-helicopter-perseverance-rover-60-minutes-2021-05-09/. 
  52. ↑ Chang, Kenneth (12 May 2018). "A Helicopter on Mars? NASA Wants to Try". The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2018/05/11/science/mars-helicopter-nasa.html. 
  53. ↑ Gush, Loren (11 May 2018). "NASA is sending a helicopter to Mars to get a bird's-eye view of the planet – The Mars Helicopter is happening". The Verge. https://www.theverge.com/2018/5/11/17346414/nasa-mars-2020-helicopter-atmosphere. 
  54. ↑ Review on space robotics: Toward top-level science through space exploration Y. Gao, S. Chien – Science Robotics, 2017
  55. ↑ This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: "NASA's Mars Helicopter Reports In". NASA. 2021-02-19. https://mars.nasa.gov/news/8867. 
  56. ↑ Ianson, Eric; Meyer, Michael (May 3, 2022). Explore Mars, Mars Exploration Program Briefing to MEPAG (Report). NASA. https://www.lpi.usra.edu/mepag/meetings/mepag-39/slides/Ianson_Meyer.pdf. Retrieved January 28, 2023. 
  57. ↑ 57.0 57.1 Status 293.
  58. ↑ Status 294.
  59. ↑ 59.0 59.1 59.2 Status 297.
  60. ↑ Status 287.
  61. ↑ Status 288.
  62. ↑ Status 301.
  63. ↑ 63.0 63.1 Status 313.
  64. ↑ 64.0 64.1 "How NASA Designed a Helicopter That Could Fly Autonomously on Mars". IEEE Spectrum. 17 February 2021. https://spectrum.ieee.org/automaton/aerospace/robotic-exploration/nasa-designed-perseverance-helicopter-rover-fly-autonomously-mars. 
  65. ↑ Metcalfe, Tom (12 February 2021). "First 'space helicopter' set to take to Martian skies" (in en). https://www.nbcnews.com/science/space/first-space-helicopter-set-take-martian-skies-n1257617. 
  66. ↑ Finley, Klint (April 14, 2021). "Open Source on Mars: Community powers NASA's Ingenuity Helicopter" (in en). https://github.com/readme/featured/nasa-ingenuity-helicopter. 
  67. ↑ Status 295.
  68. ↑ Status 298.
  69. ↑ Status 305.
  70. ↑ Status 314.
  71. ↑ 71.0 71.1 71.2 Status 321.
  72. ↑ Status 299.
  73. ↑ Status 318.
  74. ↑ 74.0 74.1 74.2 74.3 74.4 Status 308.
  75. ↑ 75.0 75.1 Status 316.
  76. ↑ 76.0 76.1 Chahat, Nacer; Miller, Joshua; Decrossas, Emmanuel; McNally, Lauren; Chase, Matthew; Jin, Curtis; Duncan, Courtney (December 2020). "The Mars Helicopter Telecommunication Link: Antennas, Propagation, and Link Analysis". IEEE Antennas and Propagation Magazine 62 (6): 12–22. doi:10.1109/MAP.2020.2990088. Bibcode: 2020IAPM...62f..12C. https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/9096535. Retrieved 29 May 2021. 
  77. ↑ Chahat, Nacer; Chase, Matt; Lazaro, Austin; Gupta, Gaurangi; Duncan, Courtney (22 November 2023). "Enhancing Communication Link Predictions for Ingenuity Mars Helicopter Mission with the Parabolic Equation Method". IEEE Transactions on Antennas and Propagation: 1. doi:10.1109/TAP.2023.3333433. 
  78. ↑ "Season 5, Episode 2: Talking to Ingenuity and Other Space Robots - NASA". https://www.nasa.gov/podcasts/gravity-assist/gravity-assist-talking-to-ingenuity-and-other-space-robots-with-nacer-chahat/. 
  79. ↑ "Space Foundation Selects NASA JPL Ingenuity Mars Helicopter Flight Team To Receive 2021 John L. 'Jack' Swigert Jr. Award for Space Exploration" (in en-US). 2021-06-09. https://www.spacefoundation.org/2021/06/09/space-foundation-selects-nasa-jpl-ingenuity-mars-helicopter-flight-team-to-receive-2021-john-l-jack-swigert-jr-award-for-space-exploration/. 
  80. ↑ "The NASA/JPL Ingenuity Mars Helicopter Team Awarded the 2021 Robert J. Collier Trophy". https://naa.aero/wp-content/uploads/2022/04/Collier-Trophy-for-2021.pdf. 
  81. ↑ mars.nasa.gov. "NASA's Mars Helicopter Team Members With Collier Trophy" (in en). https://mars.nasa.gov/resources/26808/nasas-mars-helicopter-team-members-with-collier-trophy. 
  82. ↑ Ackerman, Evan (2021-12-08). "Mars Helicopter Is Much More Than a Tech Demo" (in en). https://spectrum.ieee.org/mars-perseverance. 
  83. ↑ 83.0 83.1 Foust, Jeff (2018-05-04). "Decision expected soon on adding helicopter to Mars 2020" (in en-US). https://spacenews.com/decision-expected-soon-on-adding-helicopter-to-mars-2020/. 
  84. ↑ Status 392.
  85. ↑ 85.0 85.1 "Mars Exploration Program Presentation to PAC". 14 June 2021. https://www.lpi.usra.edu/pac/presentations/0621/03-Meyer-Gramling-MEP-MSR-061421.pdf. 
  86. ↑ 86.0 86.1 Status 450.
  87. ↑ 87.0 87.1 Status 441.
  88. ↑ Tim Sharp (12 September 2017). "Mars' Atmosphere: Composition, Climate & Weather" (in en). https://www.space.com/16903-mars-atmosphere-climate-weather.html. 
  89. ↑ Bachman, Justin (April 19, 2021). "Why flying a helicopter on Mars is a big deal". https://phys.org/news/2021-04-helicopter-mars-big.html. "Indeed, flying close to the surface of Mars is the equivalent of flying at more than 87,000 feet on Earth, essentially three times the height of Mount Everest, NASA engineers said. The altitude record for a helicopter flight on Earth is 41,000 feet." 
  90. ↑ 90.0 90.1 "6 Things to Know About NASA's Mars Helicopter on Its Way to Mars" (in en). 21 Jan 2021. https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/6-things-to-know-about-nasas-mars-helicopter-on-its-way-to-mars. 
  91. ↑ 91.0 91.1 Grip, Håvard Fjær; Lam, Johnny N. (2019). "Flight Control System for NASA's Mars Helicopter" (in en). NASA/JPL. https://rotorcraft.arc.nasa.gov/Publications/files/GripAIAA.6.2019-1289.pdf. 
  92. ↑ NASA's Ingenuity Mars Helicopter's Next Steps. Media briefing. NASA/JPL. 30 April 2021. Archived from the original on 8 May 2021. Retrieved 2021-04-30 – via YouTube.
  93. ↑ Matthies, Bayard; Delaune, Conway (2019). "Vision-Based Navigation for the NASA Mars Helicopter". AIAA Scitech 2019 Forum (1411): 3. doi:10.2514/6.2019-1411. ISBN 978-1-62410-578-4. 
  94. ↑ On Mars, the amazing design of the radio link between Ingenuity and the Perseverance rover (in français). Université de Rennes. April 10, 2021. Event occurs at 00:07:27. Archived from the original on 15 August 2021. Retrieved 16 August 2021 – via YouTube.
  95. ↑ Jet Propulsion Laboratory (26 August 2021). "NASA's Ingenuity Helicopter sees potential Martian "road" ahead". SciTechDaily. https://scitechdaily.com/nasas-ingenuity-helicopter-sees-potential-martian-road-ahead/. 
  96. ↑ 96.0 96.1 96.2 "Raw Images From Ingenuity Helicopter". 30 April 2021. https://mars.nasa.gov/mars2020/multimedia/raw-images/?af=HELI_NAV#raw-images.  (NAV images)
  97. ↑ 97.0 97.1 "Raw Images From Ingenuity Helicopter". 30 April 2021. https://mars.nasa.gov/mars2020/multimedia/raw-images/?af=HELI_RTE#raw-images.  (RTE images)
  98. ↑ "Raw Images. Filtering: Mars Helicopter Tech Demo Cameras: Navigation Camera". NASA. 2021-04-18. https://mars.nasa.gov/mars2020/multimedia/raw-images/?af=HELI_NAV&begin_sol=12&end_sol=57#raw-images. 
  99. ↑ 99.0 99.1 "Ingenuity's First Color Snap". NASA. 5 April 2021. https://mars.nasa.gov/resources/25782. 
  100. ↑ "Raw Images. Filtering: Mars Helicopter Tech Demo Cameras: Navigation Camera". NASA. 2021-08-15. https://mars.nasa.gov/mars2020/multimedia/raw-images/?af=HELI_NAV&begin_sol=174&end_sol=174#raw-images. 
  101. ↑ "Raw Images. Filtering: Mars Helicopter Tech Demo Cameras: Navigation Camera". NASA. 2021-09-04. https://mars.nasa.gov/mars2020/multimedia/raw-images/?af=HELI_NAV&begin_sol=193&end_sol=193#raw-images. 
  102. ↑ 102.0 102.1 "Images from the Mars Perseverance Rover". https://mars.nasa.gov/mars2020/multimedia/raw-images/. 
  103. ↑ 103.0 103.1 Status 290.
  104. ↑ Status 420.
  105. ↑ 105.0 105.1 Status 334.
  106. ↑ @NASAJPL (5 July 2021). "#MarsHelicopter pushes its Red Planet limits. 🚁The rotorcraft completed its 9th and most challenging flight yet, f..." (in en). https://twitter.com/NASAJPL/status/1412092497552019458. 
  107. ↑ "NASA's Mars Helicopter Survives First Cold Martian Night on Its Own". https://mars.nasa.gov/news/8906. 
  108. ↑ This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Agle, D.C.; Hautaluoma, Gray; Johnson, Alana (23 June 2020). "How NASA's Mars Helicopter Will Reach the Red Planet's Surface". NASA. https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/8699. 
  109. ↑ Griffith, Andrew (8 April 2021). "NASA Unlocks Mars Helicopter's Rotor Blades Ahead Of Pioneering Ingenuity Flight". The Independent. https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/gadgets-and-tech/nasa-mars-ingenuity-helicopter-perseverance-rover-b1828663.html. 
  110. ↑ Bartels, Meghan (8 April 2021). "Mars helicopter Ingenuity unlocks its rotor blades to prepare for 1st flight on Red Planet". Space.com. https://www.space.com/mars-helicopter-ingenuity-unlocks-rotor-blades. 
  111. ↑ "Ingenuity Begins to Spin Its Blades". NASA. 9 April 2021. https://mars.nasa.gov/resources/25796/ingenuity-begins-to-spin-its-blades/. 
  112. ↑ @NASAJPL (9 April 2021). "🎶Wiggle, wiggle, wiggle 🎶 With just a little bit of swing, the #MarsHelicopter has moved its blades & spun to 50...". https://twitter.com/NASAJPL/status/1380404668069650437. 
  113. ↑ Latifiyan, Pouya (April 2021). "Space Telecommunications, how?". Take off (Tehran: Civil Aviation Technology College) 1: 15. 
  114. ↑ Status 291.
  115. ↑ Status 292.
  116. ↑ @NASA (17 April 2021). "Encouraging news: #MarsHelicopter completed a full-speed spin test—an important milestone on our path to 1st flight". https://twitter.com/NASA/status/1383221042504638464. 
  117. ↑ 117.0 117.1 117.2 "NASA's Ingenuity Helicopter to Begin New Demonstration Phase". https://mars.nasa.gov/news/8936/nasas-ingenuity-helicopter-to-begin-new-demonstration-phase/. 
  118. ↑ 118.0 118.1 "The Long Wait – NASA" (in en). https://mars.nasa.gov/technology/helicopter/status/495/the-long-wait/. 
  119. ↑ "NASA Helicopter Marks 6 Months on Mars, Is Still Flying High – ExtremeTech". 8 September 2021. https://www.extremetech.com/extreme/326749-nasa-helicopter-marks-6-months-on-mars-is-still-flying-high. 
  120. ↑ "Breaking: Mars Helicopter Is Now A Fully Operational Partner Of Perseverance" (in en). 30 April 2021. https://www.iflscience.com/space/breaking-mars-helicopter-is-now-a-fully-operational-partner-of-perseverance/. 
  121. ↑ Gohd, Chelsea (April 30, 2021). "NASA extends Mars helicopter Ingenuity's high-flying mission on Red Planet". https://www.space.com/nasa-mars-helicopter-ingenuity-mission-extended. 
  122. ↑ mars.nasa.gov. "Location Map for Perseverance Rover – NASA" (in en). https://mars.nasa.gov/mars2020/mission/where-is-the-rover/. 
  123. ↑ 123.0 123.1 "Ingenuity Is So Good, NASA's Mars Helicopter Mission Just Got an Exciting Update" (in en-US). 2021-09-06. https://www.sciencealert.com/remember-nasa-s-little-mars-copter-it-s-still-going-strong/amp. 
  124. ↑ "Solar Conjunction | Mars in our Night Sky" (in en). https://mars.nasa.gov/all-about-mars/night-sky/solar-conjunction. 
  125. ↑ "NASA's Mars Fleet Lies Low As Sun Moves Between Earth and Red Planet". 2021-09-28. https://www.nasa.gov/feature/jpl/nasa-s-mars-fleet-lies-low-as-sun-moves-between-earth-and-red-planet. 
  126. ↑ "The 10 flights of NASA's Ingenuity Mars helicopter in one chart" (in en-AU). 2021-07-29. https://www.businessinsider.com.au/map-chart-nasa-mars-ingenuity-helicopter-flight-path-distance-record-2021-7. 
  127. ↑ "After Six Months On Mars, NASA's Tiny Helicopter Is Still Flying High" (in en-IND). 2021-09-05. https://www.ndtv.com/world-news/after-six-months-on-mars-nasas-tiny-helicopter-is-still-flying-high-2530257?amp=1&akamai-rum=off. 
  128. ↑ "NASA's eventual farewell to tiny Mars helicopter could be emotional". https://www.upi.com/amp/Science_News/2021/12/09/NASA-Mars-helicopter-Ingenuity-tearful-farewell/1401639000891/. 
  129. ↑ Status 373.
  130. ↑ 130.0 130.1 Status 382.
  131. ↑ Status 379.
  132. ↑ Status 385.
  133. ↑ Wu, Daniel (2 June 2023). "NASA's Mars helicopter is somehow still flying — and playing hide-and-seek – Scientists thought Ingenuity would fail years ago. It's still flying, although NASA has to search for it occasionally.". The Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/nation/2023/06/02/mars-helicopter-ingenuity-nasa-disappear/. 
  134. ↑ "NASA's Ingenuity Mars Helicopter Phones Home" (in en-US). June 30, 2023. https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/nasas-ingenuity-mars-helicopter-phones-home. 
  135. ↑ @NASAJPL. "Good news today". https://twitter.com/NASAJPL/status/1748883252604236281.  Missing or empty |date= (help)
  136. ↑ Wall, Mike (2024-01-20). "NASA loses contact with Ingenuity Mars helicopter" (in en). https://www.space.com/nasa-loses-contact-ingenuity-mars-helicopter. 
  137. ↑ Berger, Eric (2024-01-25). "The amazing helicopter on Mars, Ingenuity, will fly no more". https://arstechnica.com/space/2024/01/nasas-mars-helicopter-has-made-its-last-flight-above-the-red-planet/. 
  138. ↑ "After Three Years on Mars, NASA's Ingenuity Helicopter Mission Ends". https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/after-three-years-on-mars-nasas-ingenuity-helicopter-mission-ends. 
  139. ↑ mars.nasa.gov. "Location Map for Perseverance Rover – NASA" (in en). https://mars.nasa.gov/mars2020/mission/where-is-the-rover/. 
  140. ↑ 140.0 140.1 Kaufman, Mark (30 January 2024). "NASA photos reveal serious damage to its Mars helicopter - The result of a "rough" landing.". Mashable. https://mashable.com/article/nasa-ingenuity-mars-images-helicopter-rotor. 
  141. ↑ "Planetary Science and Astrobiology Decadal Survey 2023–2032". https://www.nationalacademies.org/our-work/planetary-science-and-astrobiology-decadal-survey-2023-2032. 
  142. ↑ Foust, Jeff (2022-07-27). "NASA and ESA remove rover from Mars Sample Return plans" (in en-US). https://spacenews.com/nasa-and-esa-remove-rover-from-mars-sample-return-plans/. 
  143. ↑ Pipenberg, Benjamin T.; Langberg, Sara A.; Tyler, Jeremy D.; Keennon, Matthew T. (March 2022). "Conceptual Design of a Mars Rotorcraft for Future Sample Fetch Missions". 2022 IEEE Aerospace Conference (AERO). pp. 01–14. doi:10.1109/AERO53065.2022.9843820. ISBN 978-1-6654-3760-8. https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/9843820. Retrieved 17 October 2022. 
  144. ↑ (in en) News Briefing: NASA's Perseverance Mars Rover Investigates Geologically Rich Area, 15 September 2022, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9vZVcI1gwEU, retrieved 2022-10-17 
  145. ↑ Status 417.
  146. ↑ Status 398.
  147. ↑ "Inside Unmanned Systems: Inside the Ingenuity Helicopter". https://www.avinc.com/images/uploads/news/IUS_Ingenuity.pdf. 
  148. ↑ 148.0 148.1 148.2 "Mars Science Helicopter". Space News. 24 June 2021. https://spacenews.com/nasa-studying-larger-mars-helicopters/. 
  149. ↑ 149.0 149.1 149.2 This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: "Mars Helicopter a new challenge for flight". NASA. July 2018. https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/universe/archive/universe1807.pdf. 
  150. ↑ "Mars Aerial and Ground Global Intelligent Explorer (MAGGIE) – NASA" (in en-US). 2024-01-04. https://www.nasa.gov/general/mars-aerial-and-ground-global-intelligent-explorer/. 
  151. ↑ Gorman, Steve (19 April 2021). "NASA scores Wright Brothers moment with first helicopter flight on Mars". https://www.reuters.com/lifestyle/science/nasas-mars-helicopter-makes-history-with-successful-flight-red-planet-2021-04-19/. 
  152. ↑ Harwood, William (April 19, 2021). "NASA's Ingenuity helicopter makes maiden flight on Mars in a "Wright brothers moment"". https://www.cbsnews.com/news/mars-ingenuity-helicopter-nasa-maiden-flight/. 
  153. ↑ 153.0 153.1 "NASA's Ingenuity Mars Helicopter Succeeds in Historic First Flight". NASA. 2021-04-19. https://mars.nasa.gov/news/8923/nasas-ingenuity-mars-helicopter-succeeds-in-historic-first-flight/. 
  154. ↑ Amos, Jonathan (April 19, 2021). "NASA successfully flies small helicopter on Mars". BBC. https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-56799755. 
  155. ↑ Strickland, Ashley (19 April 2021). "NASA's Mars helicopter Ingenuity successfully completed its historic first flight". https://www.cnn.com/2021/04/19/world/mars-helicopter-ingenuity-first-flight-scn-trnd/index.html. 
  156. ↑ Chang, Kenneth (27 April 2022). "NASA Sees 'Otherworldly' Wreckage on Mars With Ingenuity Helicopter – The debris was part of the equipment that helped the Perseverance mission safely land on the red planet in 2021.". The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2022/04/27/science/nasa-mars-wreckage-photo.html. 
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